201
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Shah B, Püschel AW. Regulation of Rap GTPases in mammalian neurons. Biol Chem 2017; 397:1055-69. [PMID: 27186679 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Small GTPases are central regulators of many cellular processes. The highly conserved Rap GTPases perform essential functions in the mammalian nervous system during development and in mature neurons. During neocortical development, Rap1 is required to regulate cadherin- and integrin-mediated adhesion. In the adult nervous system Rap1 and Rap2 regulate the maturation and plasticity of dendritic spine and synapses. Although genetic studies have revealed important roles of Rap GTPases in neurons, their regulation by guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) that activate them and GTPase activating proteins (GAPs) that inactivate them by stimulating their intrinsic GTPase activity is just beginning to be explored in vivo. Here we review how GEFs and GAPs regulate Rap GTPases in the nervous system with a focus on their in vivo function.
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202
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Chen CA, Yin J, Lewis RA, Schaaf CP. Genetic causes of optic nerve hypoplasia. J Med Genet 2017; 54:441-449. [PMID: 28501829 DOI: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2017-104626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Optic nerve hypoplasia (ONH) is the most common congenital optic nerve anomaly and a leading cause of blindness in the USA. Although most cases of ONH occur as isolated cases within their respective families, the advancement in molecular diagnostic technology has made us realise that a substantial fraction of cases has identifiable genetic causes, typically de novo mutations. An increasing number of genes has been reported, mutations of which can cause ONH. Many of the genes involved serve as transcription factors, participating in an intricate multistep process critical to eye development and neurogenesis in the neural retina. This review will discuss the respective genes and mutations, human phenotypes, and animal models that have been created to gain a deeper understanding of the disorders. The identification of the underlying gene and mutation provides an important step in diagnosis, medical care and counselling for the affected individuals and their families. We envision that future research will lead to further disease gene identification, but will also teach us about gene-gene and gene-environment interactions relevant to optic nerve development. How much of the functional impairment of the various forms of ONH is a reflection of altered morphogenesis versus neuronal homeostasis will determine the prospect of therapeutic intervention, with the ultimate goal of improving the quality of life of the individuals affected with ONH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-An Chen
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.,Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Jiani Yin
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.,Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Richard Alan Lewis
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Christian P Schaaf
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.,Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
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203
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Heng X, Guo Q, Leung AW, Li JY. Analogous mechanism regulating formation of neocortical basal radial glia and cerebellar Bergmann glia. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28489004 PMCID: PMC5457141 DOI: 10.7554/elife.23253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neocortical basal radial glia (bRG) and cerebellar Bergmann glia (BG) are basal progenitors derived from ventricular apical radial glia (aRG) that selectively lose their apical processes. bRG and BG have been implicated in the expansion and folding of the cerebrum and cerebellum, respectively. Here, we analyzed the molecular characteristics and development of bRG and BG. Transcriptomic comparison revealed striking similarity of the molecular features of bRG and BG. We found that heightened ERK signaling activity in aRG is tightly linked to the temporal formation and the relative abundance of bRG in human and mouse cortices. Forced activation of an FGF-ERK-ETV axis that is crucial to BG induction specifically induced bRG with canonical human bRG features in mice. Therefore, our data point to a common mechanism of bRG and BG generation, bearing implications to the role for these basal progenitors in the evolution of cortical folding of the cerebrum and cerebellum. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23253.001 The outer layer of the brain of a mammal, called the cortex, helps support mental abilities such as memory, attention and thought. In rodents, the cortex is smooth whereas in primates it is organized into folds. These folds increase the surface area of the brain and thus the number of neurons it can contain, which may in turn increase its processing power. Folding occurs as the brain develops in the womb. Specialized cells called basal or outer radial glia, which are more abundant in humans than in rodents, are believed to trigger the folding process. Another area of the brain, called the cerebellum, is intricately folded in both rodents and humans. As the brain develops, cells within the cerebellum called Bergmann glia cause the tissue to fold. Bergmann glia and basal radial glia share a number of similarities, but it was not known whether the same molecular pathway might regulate both types of cell. Now, Heng et al. show that Bergmann glia in the cerebellums of mice and basal radial glia in human cortex contain similar sets of active genes. Moreover, the molecular pathway that gives rise to Bergmann glia in mice is also active in the cortex of both mice and humans. However, it is much more active in humans, leading Heng et al. to speculate that high levels of activity in this pathway might give rise to basal radial glia. Consistent with this prediction, artificially activating the pathway at high levels in mouse cortex triggered the formation of basal radial glia in mice too. These results thus suggest that a common mechanism generates both types of glial cells involved in brain folding. The work of Heng et al. lays the foundations for further studies into how these cells fold the brain and thus how they contribute to more complex mental abilities. Remaining questions to address are whether other species with Bergmann glia also have folded cerebellums, and whether incorrect development of basal radial glia in humans leads to disorders in which the cortex folds abnormally. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23253.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Heng
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, United States
| | - Qiuxia Guo
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, United States
| | - Alan W Leung
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, United States
| | - James Yh Li
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, United States.,Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Farmington, United States
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204
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Ulc A, Gottschling C, Schäfer I, Wegrzyn D, van Leeuwen S, Luft V, Reinhard J, Faissner A. Involvement of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav3 in central nervous system development and plasticity. Biol Chem 2017; 398:663-675. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Small GTP-hydrolyzing enzymes (GTPases) of the RhoA family play manifold roles in cell biology and are regulated by upstream guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs). Herein, we focus on the GEFs of the Vav subfamily. Vav1 was originally described as a proto-oncogene of the hematopoietic lineage. The GEFs Vav2 and Vav3 are more broadly expressed in various tissues. In particular, the GEF Vav3 may play important roles in the developing nervous system during the differentiation of neural stem cells into the major lineages, namely neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. We discuss its putative regulatory roles for progenitor differentiation in the developing retina, polarization of neurons and formation of synapses, migration of oligodendrocyte progenitors and establishment of myelin sheaths. We propose that Vav3 mediates the response of various neural cell types to environmental cues.
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205
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Woo HJ, Yu C, Kumar K, Reifman J. Large-scale interaction effects reveal missing heritability in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Transl Psychiatry 2017; 7:e1089. [PMID: 28398343 PMCID: PMC5416702 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2017.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic susceptibility factors behind psychiatric disorders typically contribute small effects individually. A possible explanation for the missing heritability is that the effects of common variants are not only polygenic but also non-additive, appearing only when interactions within large groups are taken into account. Here, we tested this hypothesis for schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BP) disease risks, and identified genetic factors shared with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). When considered independently, few single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) reached genome-wide significance. In contrast, when SNPs were selected in groups (containing up to thousands each) and the collective effects of all interactions were estimated, the association strength for SZ/BP rose dramatically with a combined sample size of 7187 cases and 8309 controls. We identified a large number of genes and pathways whose association was significant only when interaction effects were included. The gene with highest association was CSMD1, which encodes a negative regulator of complement activation. Pathways for glycosaminoglycan (GAG) synthesis exhibited strong association in multiple contexts. Taken together, highly associated pathways suggested a pathogenesis mechanism where maternal immune activation causes disruption of neurogenesis (compounded by impaired cell cycle, DNA repair and neuronal migration) and deficits in cortical interneurons, leading to symptoms triggered by synaptic pruning. Increased risks arise from GAG deficiencies causing complement activation and excessive microglial action. Analysis of PTSD data sets suggested an etiology common to SZ/BP: interneuron deficiency can also lead to impaired control of fear responses triggered by trauma. We additionally found PTSD risk factors affecting synaptic plasticity and fatty acid signaling, consistent with the fear extinction model. Our results suggest that much of the missing heritability of psychiatric disorders resides in non-additive interaction effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Woo
- Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, MD, USA,Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD 21702, USA. E-mail: or
| | - C Yu
- Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, MD, USA
| | - K Kumar
- Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, MD, USA
| | - J Reifman
- Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, MD, USA,Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD 21702, USA. E-mail: or
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206
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Bergstralh DT, Dawney NS, St Johnston D. Spindle orientation: a question of complex positioning. Development 2017; 144:1137-1145. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.140764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The direction in which a cell divides is determined by the orientation of its mitotic spindle at metaphase. Spindle orientation is therefore important for a wide range of developmental processes, ranging from germline stem cell division to epithelial tissue homeostasis and regeneration. In multiple cell types in multiple animals, spindle orientation is controlled by a conserved biological machine that mediates a pulling force on astral microtubules. Restricting the localization of this machine to only specific regions of the cortex can thus determine how the mitotic spindle is oriented. As we review here, recent findings based on studies in tunicate, worm, fly and vertebrate cells have revealed that the mechanisms for mediating this restriction are surprisingly diverse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan T. Bergstralh
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Nicole S. Dawney
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Daniel St Johnston
- The Gurdon Institute and the Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK
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207
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Laporte MH, Chatellard C, Vauchez V, Hemming FJ, Deloulme JC, Vossier F, Blot B, Fraboulet S, Sadoul R. Alix is required during development for normal growth of the mouse brain. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44767. [PMID: 28322231 PMCID: PMC5359572 DOI: 10.1038/srep44767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alix (ALG-2 interacting protein X) drives deformation and fission of endosomal and cell surface membranes and thereby intervenes in diverse biological processes including cell proliferation and apoptosis. Using embryonic fibroblasts of Alix knock-out mice, we recently demonstrated that Alix is required for clathrin-independent endocytosis. Here we show that mice lacking Alix suffer from severe reduction in the volume of the brain which affects equally all regions examined. The cerebral cortex of adult animals shows normal layering but is reduced in both medio-lateral length and thickness. Alix controls brain size by regulating its expansion during two distinct developmental stages. Indeed, embryonic surface expansion of the Alix ko cortex is reduced because of the loss of neural progenitors during a transient phase of apoptosis occurring between E11.5 and E12.5. Subsequent development of the Alix ko cortex occurs normally until birth, when Alix is again required for the post-natal radial expansion of the cortex through its capacity to allow proper neurite outgrowth. The need of Alix for both survival of neural progenitor cells and neurite outgrowth is correlated with its role in clathrin-independent endocytosis in neural progenitors and at growth cones. Thus Alix-dependent, clathrin independent endocytosis is essential for controlling brain size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine H. Laporte
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Christine Chatellard
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Victoria Vauchez
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Fiona J. Hemming
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Deloulme
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Frédérique Vossier
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Béatrice Blot
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Sandrine Fraboulet
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Rémy Sadoul
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1216, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut des Neurosciences, F-38042 Grenoble, France
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208
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Barford K, Yap CC, Dwyer ND, Winckler B. The related neuronal endosomal proteins NEEP21 (Nsg1) and P19 (Nsg2) have divergent expression profiles in vivo. J Comp Neurol 2017; 525:1861-1878. [PMID: 28299779 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Endosomal maturation and transport constitutes a complex trafficking system present in all cell types. Neurons have adapted their endosomal system to meet their unique and complex needs. These adaptations include repurposing existing proteins to diversify endocytosis and trafficking, as well as preferential expression of certain regulators more highly in neurons than other cell types. These neuronal regulators include the family of Neuron-Specific Gene family members (Nsg), NEEP21 (Nsg1), and P19 (Nsg2). NEEP21/Nsg1 plays a role in the trafficking of multiple receptors, including the cell adhesion molecule L1/NgCAM, the neurotransmitter receptor GluA2, and β-APP. Recently, we showed that NEEP2/Nsg1 and P19/Nsg2 are not expressed in all neuronal cell types in vitro. However, it is not known where and when NEEP21/Nsg1 and P19/Nsg2 are expressed in vivo, and whether both proteins are always coexpressed. Here, we show that NEEP21/Nsg1 and P19/Nsg2 are present in both overlapping and distinct cell populations in the hippocampus, neocortex, and cerebellum during development. NEEP21/Nsg1 and P19/Nsg2 levels are highest during embryonic development, and expression persists in the juvenile mouse brain. In particular, a subset of layer V cortical neurons retains relatively high expression of both NEEP21/Nsg1 and P19/Nsg2 at postnatal day 16 as well as in the CA1-3 regions of the hippocampus. In the cerebellum, NEEP21/Nsg1 expression becomes largely restricted to Purkinje neurons in adulthood whereas P19/Nsg2 expression strikingly disappears from the cerebellum with age. This divergent and restricted expression likely reflects differential needs for this class of trafficking regulators in different neurons during different stages of maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Barford
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Chan Choo Yap
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Noelle D Dwyer
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Bettina Winckler
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
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209
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Sartore RC, Cardoso SC, Lages YVM, Paraguassu JM, Stelling MP, Madeiro da Costa RF, Guimaraes MZ, Pérez CA, Rehen SK. Trace elements during primordial plexiform network formation in human cerebral organoids. PeerJ 2017; 5:e2927. [PMID: 28194309 PMCID: PMC5301978 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Systematic studies of micronutrients during brain formation are hindered by restrictions to animal models and adult post-mortem tissues. Recently, advances in stem cell biology have enabled recapitulation of the early stages of human telencephalon development in vitro. In the present work, we analyzed cerebral organoids derived from human pluripotent stem cells by synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence in order to measure biologically valuable micronutrients incorporated and distributed into the exogenously developing brain. Our findings indicate that elemental inclusion in organoids is consistent with human brain tissue and involves P, S, K, Ca, Fe and Zn. Occurrence of different concentration gradients also suggests active regulation of elemental transmembrane transport. Finally, the analysis of pairs of elements shows interesting elemental interaction patterns that change from 30 to 45 days of development, suggesting short- or long-term associations, such as storage in similar compartments or relevance for time-dependent biological processes. These findings shed light on which trace elements are important during human brain development and will support studies aimed to unravel the consequences of disrupted metal homeostasis for neurodevelopmental diseases, including those manifested in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela C Sartore
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Simone C Cardoso
- Physics Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , Brazil
| | - Yury V M Lages
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Julia M Paraguassu
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Mariana P Stelling
- Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro , Brazil
| | | | - Marilia Z Guimaraes
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Carlos A Pérez
- Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Stevens K Rehen
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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210
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Abstract
For many organisms, the number of sensory neurons is largely determined during development, before strong environmental cues are present. This is despite the fact that environments can fluctuate drastically both from generation to generation and within an organism's lifetime. How can organisms get by by hard coding the number of sensory neurons? We approach this question using rate-distortion theory. A combination of simulation and theory suggests that when environments are large, the rate-distortion function-a proxy for material costs, timing delays, and energy requirements-depends only on coarse-grained environmental statistics that are expected to change on evolutionary, rather than ontogenetic, time scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Marzen
- Department of Physics, Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.,Physics of Living Systems, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Simon DeDeo
- Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research, Department of Informatics, Indiana University, 919 East 10th Street, Bloomington, Indiana 47408, USA.,Department of Social and Decision Sciences, 5000 Forbes Avenue, BP 208, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA.,Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Road, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501, USA
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211
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Molina A, Pituello F. Playing with the cell cycle to build the spinal cord. Dev Biol 2016; 432:14-23. [PMID: 28034699 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A fundamental issue in nervous system development and homeostasis is to understand the mechanisms governing the balance between the maintenance of proliferating progenitors versus their differentiation into post-mitotic neurons. Accumulating data suggest that the cell cycle and core regulators of the cell cycle machinery play a major role in regulating this fine balance. Here, we focus on the interplay between the cell cycle and cellular and molecular events governing spinal cord development. We describe the existing links between the cell cycle and interkinetic nuclear migration (INM). We show how the different morphogens patterning the neural tube also regulate the cell cycle machinery to coordinate proliferation and patterning. We give examples of how cell cycle core regulators regulate transcriptionally, or post-transcriptionally, genes involved in controlling the maintenance versus the differentiation of neural progenitors. Finally, we describe the changes in cell cycle kinetics occurring during neural tube patterning and at the time of neuronal differentiation, and we discuss future research directions to better understand the role of the cell cycle in cell fate decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angie Molina
- Centre de Biologie du Développement (CBD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France.
| | - Fabienne Pituello
- Centre de Biologie du Développement (CBD), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France.
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212
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Foerster P, Daclin M, Asm S, Faucourt M, Boletta A, Genovesio A, Spassky N. mTORC1 signaling and primary cilia are required for brain ventricle morphogenesis. Development 2016; 144:201-210. [PMID: 27993979 PMCID: PMC5394754 DOI: 10.1242/dev.138271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Radial glial cells (RCGs) are self-renewing progenitor cells that give rise to neurons and glia during embryonic development. Throughout neurogenesis, these cells contact the cerebral ventricles and bear a primary cilium. Although the role of the primary cilium in embryonic patterning has been studied, its role in brain ventricular morphogenesis is poorly characterized. Using conditional mutants, we show that the primary cilia of radial glia determine the size of the surface of their ventricular apical domain through regulation of the mTORC1 pathway. In cilium-less mutants, the orientation of the mitotic spindle in radial glia is also significantly perturbed and associated with an increased number of basal progenitors. The enlarged apical domain of RGCs leads to dilatation of the brain ventricles during late embryonic stages (ventriculomegaly), which initiates hydrocephalus during postnatal stages. These phenotypes can all be significantly rescued by treatment with the mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin. These results suggest that primary cilia regulate ventricle morphogenesis by acting as a brake on the mTORC1 pathway. This opens new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of hydrocephalus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Foerster
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), INSERM U1024, and CNRS UMR 8197, PSL Research University, 46 rue d'Ulm, Paris 75005, France
| | - Marie Daclin
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), INSERM U1024, and CNRS UMR 8197, PSL Research University, 46 rue d'Ulm, Paris 75005, France
| | - Shihavuddin Asm
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), INSERM U1024, and CNRS UMR 8197, PSL Research University, 46 rue d'Ulm, Paris 75005, France
| | - Marion Faucourt
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), INSERM U1024, and CNRS UMR 8197, PSL Research University, 46 rue d'Ulm, Paris 75005, France
| | - Alessandra Boletta
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan 20132, Italy
| | - Auguste Genovesio
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), INSERM U1024, and CNRS UMR 8197, PSL Research University, 46 rue d'Ulm, Paris 75005, France
| | - Nathalie Spassky
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), INSERM U1024, and CNRS UMR 8197, PSL Research University, 46 rue d'Ulm, Paris 75005, France
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213
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Kelava I, Lancaster MA. Dishing out mini-brains: Current progress and future prospects in brain organoid research. Dev Biol 2016; 420:199-209. [PMID: 27402594 PMCID: PMC5161139 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The ability to model human brain development in vitro represents an important step in our study of developmental processes and neurological disorders. Protocols that utilize human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells can now generate organoids which faithfully recapitulate, on a cell-biological and gene expression level, the early period of human embryonic and fetal brain development. In combination with novel gene editing tools, such as CRISPR, these methods represent an unprecedented model system in the field of mammalian neural development. In this review, we focus on the similarities of current organoid methods to in vivo brain development, discuss their limitations and potential improvements, and explore the future venues of brain organoid research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iva Kelava
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Madeline A Lancaster
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, CB2 0QH Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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214
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La Rosa P, Bielli P, Compagnucci C, Cesari E, Volpe E, Farioli Vecchioli S, Sette C. Sam68 promotes self-renewal and glycolytic metabolism in mouse neural progenitor cells by modulating Aldh1a3 pre-mRNA 3'-end processing. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27845622 PMCID: PMC5122457 DOI: 10.7554/elife.20750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The balance between self-renewal and differentiation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) dictates neurogenesis and proper brain development. We found that the RNA- binding protein Sam68 (Khdrbs1) is strongly expressed in neurogenic areas of the neocortex and supports the self-renewing potential of mouse NPCs. Knockout of Khdrbs1 constricted the pool of proliferating NPCs by accelerating their cell cycle exit and differentiation into post-mitotic neurons. Sam68 function was linked to regulation of Aldh1a3 pre-mRNA 3'-end processing. Binding of Sam68 to an intronic polyadenylation site prevents its recognition and premature transcript termination, favoring expression of a functional enzyme. The lower ALDH1A3 expression and activity in Khdrbs1-/- NPCs results in reduced glycolysis and clonogenicity, thus depleting the embryonic NPC pool and limiting cortical expansion. Our study identifies Sam68 as a key regulator of NPC self-renewal and establishes a novel link between modulation of ALDH1A3 expression and maintenance of high glycolytic metabolism in the developing cortex. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20750.001 Neurons develop from cells called neural progenitors. These cells can either divide to produce more progenitor cells or develop into specific types of neurons. These two activities – known as self-renewal and differentiation – must be balanced to produce the right number of specialized neurons, without depleting the pool of progenitor cells. The self-renewal and differentiation of progenitor cells is balanced by essentially regulating which genes are active, or expressed, within the cells. In the first step of gene expression, the genetic instructions are copied to form a molecule of pre-messenger RNA (or pre-mRNA for short). Each pre-mRNA molecule is then processed to produce a final product that can be translated into protein. Importantly, two copies of the same pre-mRNA may sometimes be processed in different ways, which allows multiple proteins to be produced from a single gene. RNA-binding proteins control pre-mRNA processing. The expression of one such protein, called Sam68, oscillates during the development of the nervous system, such that its expression peaks when there is intense production of new neurons and then declines. However, it was not known whether Sam68 actually helps neurons to develop. La Rosa et al. have now analysed the role of Sam68 in the developing brain of mice. The experiments confirmed that Sam68 is highly expressed in neural progenitor cells and showed that its levels dictate the cell’s fate: high expression encourages a cell to self-renew, while low expression triggers it to develop into a specialized neuron. Further investigation revealed that Sam68 works by promoting the expression of a metabolic enzyme called Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 1A3 or ALDH1A3. This enzyme promotes the release of energy from molecules of glucose via a process known as anaerobic glycolysis. La Rosa et al. found that cells that lack Sam68 make a truncated version of the pre-mRNA encoding ALDH1A3. This truncated pre-mRNA encodes a shortened version of the enzyme that is inactive. Further experiments confirmed that Sam68 normally prevents this from happening by binding to the pre-mRNA and processing it to produce the full-length, working version of the ALDH1A3 enzyme. Also, La Rosa et al. found that progenitor cells need working ALDH1A3 to keep them dividing, and to stop them from developing into specialized neurons too soon. Finally, because the processing of pre-RNA plays a major role in brain development, problems with this process often lead to intellectual disabilities and neurodegenerative diseases, such as autism spectrum disorder and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The next step following on from these new findings will be to investigate whether defects in Sam68 contribute to such conditions and, if so, to look for ways to counteract these defects. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20750.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Piergiorgio La Rosa
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuroembryology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Pamela Bielli
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuroembryology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudia Compagnucci
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuroembryology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Eleonora Cesari
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuroembryology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Volpe
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Claudio Sette
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuroembryology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
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215
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Apical Polarization of SVCT2 in Apical Radial Glial Cells and Progenitors During Brain Development. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:5449-5467. [PMID: 27596508 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0081-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
During brain development, radial glial (RG) cells and the different progenitor subtypes are characterized by their bipolar morphology that includes an ovoid cell body and one or two radial processes that span across the developing cerebral wall. Different cells transport the reduced form of vitamin C, ascorbic acid (AA), using sodium-dependent ascorbic acid cotransporters (SVCT1 or SVCT2). SVCT2 is mainly expressed in the nervous system (CNS); however, its localization in the central nervous system during embryonic development along with the mechanism by which RG take up vitamin C and its intracellular effects is unknown. Thus, we sought to determine the expression and localization of SVCT2 during CNS development. SVCT2 is preferentially localized in the RG body at the ventricular edge of the cortex during the neurogenic stage (E12 to E17). The localization of SVCT2 overexpressed by in utero electroporation of E14 embryos is consistent with ventricular polarization. A similar distribution pattern was observed in human brain tissue sections at 9 weeks of gestation; however, SVCT2 immunoreaction was also detected in the inner and outer subventricular zone (SVZ). Finally, we used C17.2 neural stem cell line, J1ES cells and primary cell cultures derived from the brain cortex to analyze functional SVCT2 activity, AA effects in progenitor cells bipolar morphology, and SVCT2 expression levels in different culture conditions. Our results indicate that basal RG cells and apical intermediate and subapical progenitors are the main cell types expressing SVCT2 in the lissencephalic brain. SVCT2 was mainly detected in the apical region of the ventricular zone cells, contacting the cerebrospinal fluid. In gyrencephalic brains, SVCT2 was also detected in progenitor cells located in the inner and outer SVZ. Finally, we defined that AA has a strong radializing (bipolar morphology) effect in progenitor cells in culture and the differentiation condition modulates SVCT2 expression.
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216
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Kelava I, Rentzsch F, Technau U. Evolution of eumetazoan nervous systems: insights from cnidarians. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 370:rstb.2015.0065. [PMID: 26554048 PMCID: PMC4650132 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cnidarians, the sister group to bilaterians, have a simple diffuse nervous system. This morphological simplicity and their phylogenetic position make them a crucial group in the study of the evolution of the nervous system. The development of their nervous systems is of particular interest, as by uncovering the genetic programme that underlies it, and comparing it with the bilaterian developmental programme, it is possible to make assumptions about the genes and processes involved in the development of ancestral nervous systems. Recent advances in sequencing methods, genetic interference techniques and transgenic technology have enabled us to get a first glimpse into the molecular network underlying the development of a cnidarian nervous system—in particular the nervous system of the anthozoan Nematostella vectensis. It appears that much of the genetic network of the nervous system development is partly conserved between cnidarians and bilaterians, with Wnt and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling, and Sox genes playing a crucial part in the differentiation of neurons. However, cnidarians possess some specific characteristics, and further studies are necessary to elucidate the full regulatory network. The work on cnidarian neurogenesis further accentuates the need to study non-model organisms in order to gain insights into processes that shaped present-day lineages during the course of evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iva Kelava
- Department of Molecular Evolution and Development, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars Centre, Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, Thormøhlensgt. 55, 5008 Bergen, Norway
| | - Ulrich Technau
- Department of Molecular Evolution and Development, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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217
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Gai M, Bianchi FT, Vagnoni C, Vernì F, Bonaccorsi S, Pasquero S, Berto GE, Sgrò F, Chiotto AM, Annaratone L, Sapino A, Bergo A, Landsberger N, Bond J, Huttner WB, Di Cunto F. ASPM and CITK regulate spindle orientation by affecting the dynamics of astral microtubules. EMBO Rep 2016; 17:1396-1409. [PMID: 27562601 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201541823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Correct orientation of cell division is considered an important factor for the achievement of normal brain size, as mutations in genes that affect this process are among the leading causes of microcephaly. Abnormal spindle orientation is associated with reduction of the neuronal progenitor symmetric divisions, premature cell cycle exit, and reduced neurogenesis. This mechanism has been involved in microcephaly resulting from mutation of ASPM, the most frequently affected gene in autosomal recessive human primary microcephaly (MCPH), but it is presently unknown how ASPM regulates spindle orientation. In this report, we show that ASPM may control spindle positioning by interacting with citron kinase (CITK), a protein whose loss is also responsible for severe microcephaly in mammals. We show that the absence of CITK leads to abnormal spindle orientation in mammals and insects. In mouse cortical development, this phenotype correlates with increased production of basal progenitors. ASPM is required to recruit CITK at the spindle, and CITK overexpression rescues ASPM phenotype. ASPM and CITK affect the organization of astral microtubules (MT), and low doses of MT-stabilizing drug revert the spindle orientation phenotype produced by their knockdown. Finally, CITK regulates both astral-MT nucleation and stability. Our results provide a functional link between two established microcephaly proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Gai
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Federico T Bianchi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Cristiana Vagnoni
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Fiammetta Vernì
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies "C. Darwin", Sapienza, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Bonaccorsi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies "C. Darwin", Sapienza, Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Selina Pasquero
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Gaia E Berto
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesco Sgrò
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandra Ma Chiotto
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Laura Annaratone
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Anna Sapino
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Anna Bergo
- San Raffaele Rett Research Unit, Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Landsberger
- San Raffaele Rett Research Unit, Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Jacqueline Bond
- Leeds Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ferdinando Di Cunto
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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218
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Severe NDE1-mediated microcephaly results from neural progenitor cell cycle arrests at multiple specific stages. Nat Commun 2016; 7:12551. [PMID: 27553190 PMCID: PMC4999518 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcephaly is a cortical malformation disorder characterized by an abnormally small brain. Recent studies have revealed severe cases of microcephaly resulting from human mutations in the NDE1 gene, which is involved in the regulation of cytoplasmic dynein. Here using in utero electroporation of NDE1 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) in embryonic rat brains, we observe cell cycle arrest of proliferating neural progenitors at three distinct stages: during apical interkinetic nuclear migration, at the G2-to-M transition and in regulation of primary cilia at the G1-to-S transition. RNAi against the NDE1 paralogue NDEL1 has no such effects. However, NDEL1 overexpression can functionally compensate for NDE1, except at the G2-to-M transition, revealing a unique NDE1 role. In contrast, NDE1 and NDEL1 RNAi have comparable effects on postmitotic neuronal migration. These results reveal that the severity of NDE1-associated microcephaly results not from defects in mitosis, but rather the inability of neural progenitors to ever reach this stage. Human mutations in the NDE1 gene have been associated with cortical malformations and severe microcephaly. Here, the authors show in embryonic rat brains that NDE1-depleted neural progenitors arrest at three specific cell cycle stages before mitosis, resulting in a severe decrease in neurogenesis.
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219
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Mason JO, Price DJ. Building brains in a dish: Prospects for growing cerebral organoids from stem cells. Neuroscience 2016; 334:105-118. [PMID: 27506142 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The recent development of organoid techniques, in which embryonic brain-like tissue can be grown from human or mouse stem cells in vitro offers the potential to transform the way in which brain development is studied. In this review, we summarize key aspects of the embryonic development of mammalian forebrains, focussing in particular on the cerebral cortex and highlight significant differences between mouse and primates, including human. We discuss recent work using cerebral organoids that has revealed key similarities and differences between their development and that of the brain in vivo. Finally, we outline the ways in which cerebral organoids can be used in combination with CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing to unravel genetic mechanisms that control embryonic development of the cerebral cortex, how this can help us understand the causes of neurodevelopmental disorders and some of the key challenges which will have to be resolved before organoids can become a mainstream tool to study brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- John O Mason
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Hugh Robson Building, George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK.
| | - David J Price
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Hugh Robson Building, George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK.
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220
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Harding BN, Moccia A, Drunat S, Soukarieh O, Tubeuf H, Chitty LS, Verloes A, Gressens P, El Ghouzzi V, Joriot S, Di Cunto F, Martins A, Passemard S, Bielas SL. Mutations in Citron Kinase Cause Recessive Microlissencephaly with Multinucleated Neurons. Am J Hum Genet 2016; 99:511-20. [PMID: 27453579 PMCID: PMC4974106 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary microcephaly is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is caused by a reduction in brain size as a result of defects in the proliferation of neural progenitor cells during development. Mutations in genes encoding proteins that localize to the mitotic spindle and centrosomes have been implicated in the pathogenicity of primary microcephaly. In contrast, the contractile ring and midbody required for cytokinesis, the final stage of mitosis, have not previously been implicated by human genetics in the molecular mechanisms of this phenotype. Citron kinase (CIT) is a multi-domain protein that localizes to the cleavage furrow and midbody of mitotic cells, where it is required for the completion of cytokinesis. Rodent models of Cit deficiency highlighted the role of this gene in neurogenesis and microcephaly over a decade ago. Here, we identify recessively inherited pathogenic variants in CIT as the genetic basis of severe microcephaly and neonatal death. We present postmortem data showing that CIT is critical to building a normally sized human brain. Consistent with cytokinesis defects attributed to CIT, multinucleated neurons were observed throughout the cerebral cortex and cerebellum of an affected proband, expanding our understanding of mechanisms attributed to primary microcephaly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian N Harding
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania and Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Amanda Moccia
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Séverine Drunat
- Département de Génétique, Protect, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France; INSERM U1141, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France
| | - Omar Soukarieh
- INSERM U1079, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, University of Rouen, Normandy Centre for Genomic and Personalized Medicine, Rouen 76183, France
| | - Hélène Tubeuf
- INSERM U1079, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, University of Rouen, Normandy Centre for Genomic and Personalized Medicine, Rouen 76183, France; Interactive Biosoftware, Rouen 76000, France
| | - Lyn S Chitty
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health and Great Ormond Street NHS Foundation Trust, London WC1N 1EH, UK
| | - Alain Verloes
- Département de Génétique, Protect, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France; INSERM U1141, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France
| | - Pierre Gressens
- INSERM U1141, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France; Université Paris Diderot, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France; Center for Developing Brain, King's College, St. Thomas' Campus, London WC2R 2LS, UK
| | | | - Sylvie Joriot
- Service de Neuropédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Lille, Lille 59037, France
| | - Ferdinando Di Cunto
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin 10126, Italy
| | | | - Sandrine Passemard
- Département de Génétique, Protect, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France; INSERM U1141, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France; Université Paris Diderot, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris 75019, France
| | - Stephanie L Bielas
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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221
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Wilsch-Bräuninger M, Florio M, Huttner WB. Neocortex expansion in development and evolution — from cell biology to single genes. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2016; 39:122-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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222
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Johnson K, Barragan J, Bashiruddin S, Smith CJ, Tyrrell C, Parsons MJ, Doris R, Kucenas S, Downes GB, Velez CM, Schneider C, Sakai C, Pathak N, Anderson K, Stein R, Devoto SH, Mumm JS, Barresi MJF. Gfap-positive radial glial cells are an essential progenitor population for later-born neurons and glia in the zebrafish spinal cord. Glia 2016; 64:1170-89. [PMID: 27100776 PMCID: PMC4918407 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 03/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Radial glial cells are presumptive neural stem cells (NSCs) in the developing nervous system. The direct requirement of radial glia for the generation of a diverse array of neuronal and glial subtypes, however, has not been tested. We employed two novel transgenic zebrafish lines and endogenous markers of NSCs and radial glia to show for the first time that radial glia are essential for neurogenesis during development. By using the gfap promoter to drive expression of nuclear localized mCherry we discerned two distinct radial glial-derived cell types: a major nestin+/Sox2+ subtype with strong gfap promoter activity and a minor Sox2+ subtype lacking this activity. Fate mapping studies in this line indicate that gfap+ radial glia generate later-born CoSA interneurons, secondary motorneurons, and oligodendroglia. In another transgenic line using the gfap promoter-driven expression of the nitroreductase enzyme, we induced cell autonomous ablation of gfap+ radial glia and observed a reduction in their specific derived lineages, but not Blbp+ and Sox2+/gfap-negative NSCs, which were retained and expanded at later larval stages. Moreover, we provide evidence supporting classical roles of radial glial in axon patterning, blood-brain barrier formation, and locomotion. Our results suggest that gfap+ radial glia represent the major NSC during late neurogenesis for specific lineages, and possess diverse roles to sustain the structure and function of the spinal cord. These new tools will both corroborate the predicted roles of astroglia and reveal novel roles related to development, physiology, and regeneration in the vertebrate nervous system. GLIA 2016;64:1170-1189.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly Johnson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - Jessica Barragan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Sarah Bashiruddin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Cody J Smith
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Chelsea Tyrrell
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - Michael J Parsons
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Rosemarie Doris
- Department of Biology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut
| | - Sarah Kucenas
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Gerald B Downes
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - Carla M Velez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Caitlin Schneider
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Catalina Sakai
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Narendra Pathak
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Katrina Anderson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Rachael Stein
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
| | - Stephen H Devoto
- Department of Biology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut
| | - Jeff S Mumm
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Michael J F Barresi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
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223
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Sánchez-Farías N, Candal E. Identification of Radial Glia Progenitors in the Developing and Adult Retina of Sharks. Front Neuroanat 2016; 10:65. [PMID: 27378863 PMCID: PMC4913098 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2016.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells give rise to transient progenitors termed neuroepithelial cells (NECs) and radial glial cells (RGCs). RGCs represent the major source of neurons, glia and adult stem cells in several regions of the central nervous system (CNS). RGCs are mostly transient in mammals, but they are widely maintained in the adult CNS of fishes, where they continue to be morphologically similar to RGCs in the mammalian brain and fulfill similar roles as progenitors and guide for migrating neurons. The retina of fishes offers an exceptional model to approach the study of adult neurogenesis because of the presence of constitutive proliferation from the ciliary marginal zone (CMZ), containing NECs, and from adult glial cells with radial morphology (the Müller glia). However, the cellular hierarchies and precise contribution of different types of progenitors to adult neurogenesis remain unsolved. We have analyzed the transition from NECs to RGCs and RGC differentiation in the retina of the cartilaginous fish Scyliorhinus canicula, which offers a particularly good spatial and temporal frame to investigate this process. We have characterized progenitor and adult RGCs by immunohistochemical detection of glial markers as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and glutamine synthetase (GS). We have compared the emergence and localization of glial markers with that of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA, a proliferation maker) and Doublecortin (DCX, which increases at early stages of neuronal differentiation). During retinal development, GFAP-immunoreactive NECs located in the most peripheral CMZ (CMZp) codistribute with DCX-immunonegative cells. GFAP-immunoreactive RGCs and Müller cells are located in successive more central parts of the retina and codistribute with DCX- and DCX/GS-immunoreactive cells, respectively. The same types of progenitors are found in juveniles, suggesting that the contribution of the CMZ to adult neurogenesis implies a transition through the radial glia (RG) state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Sánchez-Farías
- Grupo BRAINSHARK, Departamento de Bioloxía Celular e Ecoloxía, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Eva Candal
- Grupo BRAINSHARK, Departamento de Bioloxía Celular e Ecoloxía, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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224
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Torroglosa A, Alves MM, Fernández RM, Antiñolo G, Hofstra RM, Borrego S. Epigenetics in ENS development and Hirschsprung disease. Dev Biol 2016; 417:209-16. [PMID: 27321561 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Hirschsprung disease (HSCR, OMIM 142623) is a neurocristopathy caused by a failure of the enteric nervous system (ENS) progenitors derived from neural crest cells (NCCs), to migrate, proliferate, differentiate or survive to and within the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in aganglionosis in the distal colon. The formation of the ENS is a complex process, which is regulated by a large range of molecules and signalling pathways involving both the NCCs and the intestinal environment. This tightly regulated process needs correct regulation of the expression of ENS specific genes. Alterations in the expression of these genes can have dramatic consequences. Several mechanisms that control the expression of genes have been described, such as DNA modification (epigenetic mechanisms), regulation of transcription (transcription factor, enhancers, repressors and silencers), post-transcriptional regulation (3'UTR and miRNAs) and regulation of translation. In this review, we focus on the epigenetic DNA modifications that have been described so far in the context of the ENS development. Moreover we describe the changes that are found in relation to the onset of HSCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Torroglosa
- Department of Genetics, Reproduction and Fetal Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, Seville, Spain; Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Seville, Spain
| | - M M Alves
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - R M Fernández
- Department of Genetics, Reproduction and Fetal Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, Seville, Spain; Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Seville, Spain
| | - G Antiñolo
- Department of Genetics, Reproduction and Fetal Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, Seville, Spain; Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Seville, Spain
| | - R M Hofstra
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Birth Defects Research Centre UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - S Borrego
- Department of Genetics, Reproduction and Fetal Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, Seville, Spain; Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Seville, Spain.
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225
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Alves RN, Gomes AS, Stueber K, Tine M, Thorne MAS, Smáradóttir H, Reinhard R, Clark MS, Rønnestad I, Power DM. The transcriptome of metamorphosing flatfish. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:413. [PMID: 27233904 PMCID: PMC4884423 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2699-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flatfish metamorphosis denotes the extraordinary transformation of a symmetric pelagic larva into an asymmetric benthic juvenile. Metamorphosis in vertebrates is driven by thyroid hormones (THs), but how they orchestrate the cellular, morphological and functional modifications associated with maturation to juvenile/adult states in flatfish is an enigma. Since THs act via thyroid receptors that are ligand activated transcription factors, we hypothesized that the maturation of tissues during metamorphosis should be preceded by significant modifications in the transcriptome. Targeting the unique metamorphosis of flatfish and taking advantage of the large size of Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) larvae, we determined the molecular basis of TH action using RNA sequencing. RESULTS De novo assembly of sequences for larval head, skin and gastrointestinal tract (GI-tract) yielded 90,676, 65,530 and 38,426 contigs, respectively. More than 57 % of the assembled sequences were successfully annotated using a multi-step Blast approach. A unique set of biological processes and candidate genes were identified specifically associated with changes in morphology and function of the head, skin and GI-tract. Transcriptome dynamics during metamorphosis were mapped with SOLiD sequencing of whole larvae and revealed greater than 8,000 differentially expressed (DE) genes significantly (p < 0.05) up- or down-regulated in comparison with the juvenile stage. Candidate transcripts quantified by SOLiD and qPCR analysis were significantly (r = 0.843; p < 0.05) correlated. The majority (98 %) of DE genes during metamorphosis were not TH-responsive. TH-responsive transcripts clustered into 6 groups based on their expression pattern during metamorphosis and the majority of the 145 DE TH-responsive genes were down-regulated. CONCLUSIONS A transcriptome resource has been generated for metamorphosing Atlantic halibut and over 8,000 DE transcripts per stage were identified. Unique sets of biological processes and candidate genes were associated with changes in the head, skin and GI-tract during metamorphosis. A small proportion of DE transcripts were TH-responsive, suggesting that they trigger gene networks, signalling cascades and transcription factors, leading to the overt changes in tissue occurring during metamorphosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo N Alves
- Comparative Endocrinology and Integrative Biology Group, Centro de Ciências do Mar - CCMAR, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Ana S Gomes
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, 5020, Bergen, Norway
| | - Kurt Stueber
- Max Planck-Genome Centre, Max Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, D-50829, Köln, Germany
| | - Mbaye Tine
- Max Planck-Genome Centre, Max Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, D-50829, Köln, Germany.,Current address: Molecular Zoology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
| | - M A S Thorne
- British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, UK
| | | | - Richard Reinhard
- Max Planck-Genome Centre, Max Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, D-50829, Köln, Germany
| | - M S Clark
- British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, UK
| | - Ivar Rønnestad
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, 5020, Bergen, Norway
| | - Deborah M Power
- Comparative Endocrinology and Integrative Biology Group, Centro de Ciências do Mar - CCMAR, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal.
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226
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Monzón-Sandoval J, Castillo-Morales A, Urrutia AO, Gutierrez H. Modular reorganization of the global network of gene regulatory interactions during perinatal human brain development. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 16:13. [PMID: 27175727 PMCID: PMC4866393 DOI: 10.1186/s12861-016-0111-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Background During early development of the nervous system, gene expression patterns are known to vary widely depending on the specific developmental trajectories of different structures. Observable changes in gene expression profiles throughout development are determined by an underlying network of precise regulatory interactions between individual genes. Elucidating the organizing principles that shape this gene regulatory network is one of the central goals of developmental biology. Whether the developmental programme is the result of a dynamic driven by a fixed architecture of regulatory interactions, or alternatively, the result of waves of regulatory reorganization is not known. Results Here we contrast these two alternative models by examining existing expression data derived from the developing human brain in prenatal and postnatal stages. We reveal a sharp change in gene expression profiles at birth across brain areas. This sharp division between foetal and postnatal profiles is not the result of pronounced changes in level of expression of existing gene networks. Instead we demonstrate that the perinatal transition is marked by the widespread regulatory rearrangement within and across existing gene clusters, leading to the emergence of new functional groups. This rearrangement is itself organized into discrete blocks of genes, each targeted by a distinct set of transcriptional regulators and associated to specific biological functions. Conclusions Our results provide evidence of an acute modular reorganization of the regulatory architecture of the brain transcriptome occurring at birth, reflecting the reassembly of new functional associations required for the normal transition from prenatal to postnatal brain development. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12861-016-0111-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimena Monzón-Sandoval
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK.,Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Atahualpa Castillo-Morales
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK.,Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Araxi O Urrutia
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK. .,Milner Centre for Evolution, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
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227
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Godin JD, Creppe C, Laguesse S, Nguyen L. Emerging Roles for the Unfolded Protein Response in the Developing Nervous System. Trends Neurosci 2016; 39:394-404. [PMID: 27130659 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a homeostatic signaling pathway triggered by protein misfolding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Beyond its protective role, it plays important functions during normal development in response to elevated demand for protein folding. Several UPR effectors show dynamic temporal and spatial expression patterns that correlate with milestones of the central nervous system (CNS) development. Here, we discuss recent studies suggesting that a dynamic regulation of UPR supports generation, maturation, and maintenance of differentiated neurons in the CNS. We further highlight studies supporting a developmental vulnerability of CNS to UPR dysregulation, which underlies neurodevelopmental disorders. We believe that a better understanding of UPR functions may provide novel opportunities for therapeutic strategies to fight ER/UPR-associated human neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette D Godin
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), INSERM U964, CNRS UMR7104, University of Strasbourg, Illkirch, France.
| | - Catherine Creppe
- GIGA-Neurosciences, University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium; Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Sophie Laguesse
- GIGA-Neurosciences, University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium; Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Laurent Nguyen
- GIGA-Neurosciences, University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium; Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium; Walloon Excellence in Lifesciences and Biotechnology (WELBIO), University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège 4000, Belgium.
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228
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Skalecka A, Liszewska E, Bilinski R, Gkogkas C, Khoutorsky A, Malik AR, Sonenberg N, Jaworski J. mTOR kinase is needed for the development and stabilization of dendritic arbors in newly born olfactory bulb neurons. Dev Neurobiol 2016; 76:1308-1327. [PMID: 27008592 PMCID: PMC5132010 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Neurogenesis is the process of neuron generation, which occurs not only during embryonic development but also in restricted niches postnatally. One such region is called the subventricular zone (SVZ), which gives rise to new neurons in the olfactory bulb (OB). Neurons that are born postnatally migrate through more complex territories and integrate into fully functional circuits. Therefore, differences in the differentiation of embryonic and postnatally born neurons may exist. Dendritogenesis is an important process for the proper formation of future neuronal circuits. Dendritogenesis in embryonic neurons cultured in vitro was shown to depend on the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Still unknown, however, is whether mTOR could regulate the dendritic arbor morphology of SVZ‐derived postnatal OB neurons under physiological conditions in vivo. The present study used in vitro cultured and differentiated SVZ‐derived neural progenitors and found that both mTOR complex 1 and mTOR complex 2 were required for the dendritogenesis of SVZ‐derived neurons. Furthermore, using a combination of in vivo electroporation of neural stem cells in the SVZ and genetic and pharmacological inhibition of mTOR, it was found that mTOR was crucial for the growth of basal and apical dendrites in postnatally born OB neurons under physiological conditions and contributed to the stabilization of their basal dendrites. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 76: 1308–1327, 2016
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Skalecka
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 4 Ks. Trojdena St, Warsaw, 02-109, Poland
| | - Ewa Liszewska
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 4 Ks. Trojdena St, Warsaw, 02-109, Poland
| | - Robert Bilinski
- Département De Mathématiques, Collège Montmorency, 475 Boulevard De L'Avenir, Laval, Quebec, H7N 5H9, Canada
| | - Christos Gkogkas
- Patrick Wild Centre and Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Hugh Robson Building George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9XD, United Kingdom
| | - Arkady Khoutorsky
- Department of Biochemistry, Goodman Cancer Research Centre, McGill University, 1160 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Anna R Malik
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 4 Ks. Trojdena St, Warsaw, 02-109, Poland
| | - Nahum Sonenberg
- Department of Biochemistry, Goodman Cancer Research Centre, McGill University, 1160 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Jacek Jaworski
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 4 Ks. Trojdena St, Warsaw, 02-109, Poland
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229
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Herrgen L, Akerman CJ. Mapping neurogenesis onset in the optic tectum of Xenopus laevis. Dev Neurobiol 2016; 76:1328-1341. [PMID: 27012549 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Neural progenitor cells have a central role in the development and evolution of the vertebrate brain. During early brain development, neural progenitors first expand their numbers through repeated proliferative divisions and then begin to exhibit neurogenic divisions. The transparent and experimentally accessible optic tectum of Xenopus laevis is an excellent model system for the study of the cell biology of neurogenesis, but the precise spatial and temporal relationship between proliferative and neurogenic progenitors has not been explored in this system. Here we construct a spatial map of proliferative and neurogenic divisions through lineage tracing of individual progenitors and their progeny. We find a clear spatial separation of proliferative and neurogenic progenitors along the anterior-posterior axis of the optic tectum, with proliferative progenitors located more posteriorly and neurogenic progenitors located more anteriorly. Since individual progenitors are repositioned toward more anterior locations as they mature, this spatial separation likely reflects an increasing restriction in the proliferative potential of individual progenitors. We then examined whether the transition from proliferative to neurogenic behavior correlates with cellular properties that have previously been implicated in regulating neurogenesis onset. Our data reveal that the transition from proliferation to neurogenesis is associated with a small change in cleavage plane orientation and a more pronounced change in cell cycle kinetics in a manner reminiscent of observations from mammalian systems. Our findings highlight the potential to use the optic tectum of Xenopus laevis as an accessible system for the study of the cell biology of neurogenesis. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 76: 1328-1341, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Herrgen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, United Kingdom.,Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom.,Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - Colin J Akerman
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3QT, United Kingdom
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230
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Kadir R, Harel T, Markus B, Perez Y, Bakhrat A, Cohen I, Volodarsky M, Feintsein-Linial M, Chervinski E, Zlotogora J, Sivan S, Birnbaum RY, Abdu U, Shalev S, Birk OS. ALFY-Controlled DVL3 Autophagy Regulates Wnt Signaling, Determining Human Brain Size. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1005919. [PMID: 27008544 PMCID: PMC4805177 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary microcephaly is a congenital neurodevelopmental disorder of reduced head circumference and brain volume, with fewer neurons in the cortex of the developing brain due to premature transition between symmetrical and asymmetrical cellular division of the neuronal stem cell layer during neurogenesis. We now show through linkage analysis and whole exome sequencing, that a dominant mutation in ALFY, encoding an autophagy scaffold protein, causes human primary microcephaly. We demonstrate the dominant effect of the mutation in drosophila: transgenic flies harboring the human mutant allele display small brain volume, recapitulating the disease phenotype. Moreover, eye-specific expression of human mutant ALFY causes rough eye phenotype. In molecular terms, we demonstrate that normally ALFY attenuates the canonical Wnt signaling pathway via autophagy-dependent removal specifically of aggregates of DVL3 and not of Dvl1 or Dvl2. Thus, autophagic attenuation of Wnt signaling through removal of Dvl3 aggregates by ALFY acts in determining human brain size. One of the major events in human evolution is the significant increase in brain volume in the transition from primates to humans. The molecular pathways determining the larger size of the human brain are not fully understood. Hereditary primary microcephaly, a neurodevelopmental disorder in which infants are born with small head circumference and reduced brain volume with intellectual disability, offers insights to the embryonic molecular pathways determining human brain size. Previous studies have shown that human microcephaly can be caused by mutations in genes affecting cell division processes, such as cell cycle regulation, DNA replication, primary cilia formation and centriole and centrosome duplication. We now show a novel molecular pathway determining human brain size: human primary microcephaly can be caused by a mutation in ALFY, a gene that encodes an autophagy scaffold protein. In fact, transgenic flies over expressing the mutant form of human ALFY recapitulate the human disease phenotype of microcephaly. We show the molecular pathway through which ALFY regulates cell division and differentiation: we demonstrate that ALFY normally controls removal of aggregate of DVL3, and through this regulates Wnt signaling, a major molecular pathway in embryogenesis. Thus, Wnt signaling, controlled by ALFY-mediated aggregate removal of DVL3, determines human brain size and human microcephaly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Kadir
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Tamar Harel
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Barak Markus
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Yonatan Perez
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Anna Bakhrat
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Idan Cohen
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Michael Volodarsky
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Miora Feintsein-Linial
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | | | - Joel Zlotogora
- Department of Community Genetics, Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Sara Sivan
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Ramon Y Birnbaum
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Uri Abdu
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Stavit Shalev
- Genetics Institute, HaEmek Medical Center, Afula, Israel
| | - Ohad S Birk
- The Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics, National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev and Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel.,Genetics Institute, Soroka University Medical Center, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
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231
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Quach TT, Lerch JK, Honnorat J, Khanna R, Duchemin AM. Neuronal networks in mental diseases and neuropathic pain: Beyond brain derived neurotrophic factor and collapsin response mediator proteins. World J Psychiatry 2016; 6:18-30. [PMID: 27014595 PMCID: PMC4804265 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v6.i1.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The brain is a complex network system that has the capacity to support emotion, thought, action, learning and memory, and is characterized by constant activity, constant structural remodeling, and constant attempt to compensate for this remodeling. The basic insight that emerges from complex network organization is that substantively different networks can share common key organizational principles. Moreover, the interdependence of network organization and behavior has been successfully demonstrated for several specific tasks. From this viewpoint, increasing experimental/clinical observations suggest that mental disorders are neural network disorders. On one hand, single psychiatric disorders arise from multiple, multifactorial molecular and cellular structural/functional alterations spreading throughout local/global circuits leading to multifaceted and heterogeneous clinical symptoms. On the other hand, various mental diseases may share functional deficits across the same neural circuit as reflected in the overlap of symptoms throughout clinical diagnoses. An integrated framework including experimental measures and clinical observations will be necessary to formulate a coherent and comprehensive understanding of how neural connectivity mediates and constraints the phenotypic expression of psychiatric disorders.
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232
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Wang W, Jossin Y, Chai G, Lien WH, Tissir F, Goffinet AM. Feedback regulation of apical progenitor fate by immature neurons through Wnt7-Celsr3-Fzd3 signalling. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10936. [PMID: 26939553 PMCID: PMC4786577 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequential generation of neurons and glial cells during development is critical for the wiring and function of the cerebral cortex. This process requires accurate coordination of neural progenitor cell (NPC) fate decisions, by NPC-autonomous mechanisms as well as by negative feedback from neurons. Here, we show that neurogenesis is protracted and gliogenesis decreased in mice with mutations of genes Celsr3 and Fzd3. This phenotype is not due to gene inactivation in progenitors, but rather in immature cortical neurons. Mutant neurons are unable to upregulate expression of Jag1 in response to cortical Wnt7, resulting in blunted activation of Notch signalling in NPC. Thus, Celsr3 and Fzd3 enable immature neurons to respond to Wnt7, upregulate Jag1 and thereby facilitate feedback signals that tune the timing of NPC fate decisions via Notch activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Université catholique de Louvain, Institute of Neuroscience, 73 Avenue Mounier, Box B1.7316, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yves Jossin
- Université catholique de Louvain, Institute of Neuroscience, 73 Avenue Mounier, Box B1.7316, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Guoliang Chai
- Université catholique de Louvain, Institute of Neuroscience, 73 Avenue Mounier, Box B1.7316, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wen-Hui Lien
- Université catholique de Louvain, de Duve Institute, Avenue Hippocrate 74, Box B1.74.09, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Fadel Tissir
- Université catholique de Louvain, Institute of Neuroscience, 73 Avenue Mounier, Box B1.7316, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Andre M Goffinet
- Université catholique de Louvain, Institute of Neuroscience, 73 Avenue Mounier, Box B1.7316, 1200 Brussels, Belgium.,WELBIO, 6 Avenue Pasteur, 1300 Wavre, Belgium
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233
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Yang P, Shen WB, Reece EA, Chen X, Yang P. High glucose suppresses embryonic stem cell differentiation into neural lineage cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 472:306-12. [PMID: 26940741 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.02.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Abnormal neurogenesis occurs during embryonic development in human diabetic pregnancies and in animal models of diabetic embryopathy. Our previous studies in a mouse model of diabetic embryopathy have implicated that high glucose of maternal diabetes delays neurogenesis in the developing neuroepithelium leading to neural tube defects. However, the underlying process in high glucose-impaired neurogenesis is uncharacterized. Neurogenesis from embryonic stem (ES) cells provides a valuable model for understanding the abnormal neural lineage development under high glucose conditions. ES cells are commonly generated and maintained in high glucose (approximately 25 mM glucose). Here, the mouse ES cell line, E14, was gradually adapted to and maintained in low glucose (5 mM), and became a glucose responsive E14 (GR-E14) line. High glucose induced the endoplasmic reticulum stress marker, CHOP, in GR-E14 cells. Under low glucose conditions, the GR-E14 cells retained their pluripotency and capability to differentiate into neural lineage cells. GR-E14 cell differentiation into neural stem cells (Sox1 and nestin positive cells) was inhibited by high glucose. Neuron (Tuj1 positive cells) and glia (GFAP positive cells) differentiation from GR-E14 cells was also suppressed by high glucose. In addition, high glucose delayed GR-E14 differentiation into neural crest cells by decreasing neural crest markers, paired box 3 (Pax3) and paired box 7 (Pax7). Thus, high glucose impairs ES cell differentiation into neural lineage cells. The low glucose adapted and high glucose responsive GR-E14 cell line is a useful in vitro model for assessing the adverse effect of high glucose on the development of the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penghua Yang
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Wei-bin Shen
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - E Albert Reece
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Peixin Yang
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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234
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Li M, Lu G, Hu J, Shen X, Ju J, Gao Y, Qu L, Xia Y, Chen Y, Bai Y. EVA1A/TMEM166 Regulates Embryonic Neurogenesis by Autophagy. Stem Cell Reports 2016; 6:396-410. [PMID: 26905199 PMCID: PMC4788774 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2016.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-renewal and differentiation of neural stem cells is essential for embryonic neurogenesis, which is associated with cell autophagy. However, the mechanism by which autophagy regulates neurogenesis remains undefined. Here, we show that Eva1a/Tmem166, an autophagy-related gene, regulates neural stem cell self-renewal and differentiation. Eva1a depletion impaired the generation of newborn neurons, both in vivo and in vitro. Conversely, overexpression of EVA1A enhanced newborn neuron generation and maturation. Moreover, Eva1a depletion activated the PIK3CA-AKT axis, leading to the activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin and the subsequent inhibition of autophagy. Furthermore, addition of methylpyruvate to the culture during neural stem cell differentiation rescued the defective embryonic neurogenesis induced by Eva1a depletion, suggesting that energy availability is a significant factor in embryonic neurogenesis. Collectively, these data demonstrated that EVA1A regulates embryonic neurogenesis by modulating autophagy. Our results have potential implications for understanding the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders caused by autophagy dysregulation. EVA1A is elevated during embryonic neurogenesis with enhanced autophagy activation EVA1A deletion results in defective self-renewal and differentiation of NSCs EVA1A modulates autophagy through the PIK3CA/AKT-mTOR pathway Methylpyruvate, perifosine, and rapamycine restore neurogenesis in Eva1a−/− NSCs
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengtao Li
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Guang Lu
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jia Hu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xue Shen
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jiabao Ju
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yuanxu Gao
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Liujing Qu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yan Xia
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yingyu Chen
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Yun Bai
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China.
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235
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Taverna E, Mora-Bermúdez F, Strzyz PJ, Florio M, Icha J, Haffner C, Norden C, Wilsch-Bräuninger M, Huttner WB. Non-canonical features of the Golgi apparatus in bipolar epithelial neural stem cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21206. [PMID: 26879757 PMCID: PMC4754753 DOI: 10.1038/srep21206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Apical radial glia (aRG), the stem cells in developing neocortex, are unique bipolar epithelial cells, extending an apical process to the ventricle and a basal process to the basal lamina. Here, we report novel features of the Golgi apparatus, a central organelle for cell polarity, in mouse aRGs. The Golgi was confined to the apical process but not associated with apical centrosome(s). In contrast, in aRG-derived, delaminating basal progenitors that lose apical polarity, the Golgi became pericentrosomal. The aRG Golgi underwent evolutionarily conserved, accordion-like compression and extension concomitant with cell cycle-dependent nuclear migration. Importantly, in line with endoplasmic reticulum but not Golgi being present in the aRG basal process, its plasma membrane contained glycans lacking Golgi processing, consistent with direct ER-to-cell surface membrane traffic. Our study reveals hitherto unknown complexity of neural stem cell polarity, differential Golgi contribution to their specific architecture, and fundamental Golgi re-organization upon cell fate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Taverna
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Felipe Mora-Bermúdez
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Paulina J Strzyz
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Marta Florio
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jaroslav Icha
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Christiane Haffner
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Caren Norden
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max-Planck Inst. of Mol. Cell Biol. and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstr. 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
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236
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Carabalona A, Hu DJK, Vallee RB. KIF1A inhibition immortalizes brain stem cells but blocks BDNF-mediated neuronal migration. Nat Neurosci 2016; 19:253-62. [PMID: 26752160 PMCID: PMC4731285 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Brain neural stem cells (RGPs) undergo a mysterious form of cell cycle-entrained “interkinetic” nuclear migration (INM), driven apically by cytoplasmic dynein and basally by the kinesin KIF1A, which has recently been implicated in human brain developmental disease. To understand the consequences of altered basal INM and the roles of KIF1A in disease, we performed constitutive and conditional RNAi and expressed mutant KIF1A in E16-P7 rat RGPs and neurons. RGPs inhibited in basal INM still showed normal cell cycle progression, though neurogenic divisions were severely reduced. Postmitotic neuronal migration was independently disrupted at the multipolar stage, accompanied by premature ectopic expression of neuronal differentiation markers. Similar effects were unexpectedly observed throughout the layer of surrounding control cells, mimicked by Bdnf or Dcx RNAi, and rescued by BDNF application. These results identify novel, sequential, and independent roles for KIF1A and provide an important new approach for reversing the effects of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelie Carabalona
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Jun-Kit Hu
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Richard B Vallee
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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237
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Ruijtenberg S, van den Heuvel S. Coordinating cell proliferation and differentiation: Antagonism between cell cycle regulators and cell type-specific gene expression. Cell Cycle 2016; 15:196-212. [PMID: 26825227 PMCID: PMC4825819 DOI: 10.1080/15384101.2015.1120925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 368] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 10/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell proliferation and differentiation show a remarkable inverse relationship. Precursor cells continue division before acquiring a fully differentiated state, while terminal differentiation usually coincides with proliferation arrest and permanent exit from the division cycle. Mechanistic insight in the temporal coordination between cell cycle exit and differentiation has come from studies of cells in culture and genetic animal models. As initially described for skeletal muscle differentiation, temporal coordination involves mutual antagonism between cyclin-dependent kinases that promote cell cycle entry and transcription factors that induce tissue-specific gene expression. Recent insights highlight the contribution of chromatin-regulating complexes that act in conjunction with the transcription factors and determine their activity. In particular SWI/SNF chromatin remodelers contribute to dual regulation of cell cycle and tissue-specific gene expression during terminal differentiation. We review the concerted regulation of the cell cycle and cell type-specific transcription, and discuss common mutations in human cancer that emphasize the clinical importance of proliferation versus differentiation control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzan Ruijtenberg
- Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sander van den Heuvel
- Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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238
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Pham K, Shimoni R, Charnley M, Ludford-Menting MJ, Hawkins ED, Ramsbottom K, Oliaro J, Izon D, Ting SB, Reynolds J, Lythe G, Molina-Paris C, Melichar H, Robey E, Humbert PO, Gu M, Russell SM. Asymmetric cell division during T cell development controls downstream fate. J Cell Biol 2015; 210:933-50. [PMID: 26370500 PMCID: PMC4576854 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201502053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell precursors undergo asymmetric cell division after T cell receptor genomic recombination, with stromal cell cues controlling the differential inheritance of fate determinants Numb and α-Adaptin by the daughters of a dividing DN3a T cell precursor. During mammalian T cell development, the requirement for expansion of many individual T cell clones, rather than merely expansion of the entire T cell population, suggests a possible role for asymmetric cell division (ACD). We show that ACD of developing T cells controls cell fate through differential inheritance of cell fate determinants Numb and α-Adaptin. ACD occurs specifically during the β-selection stage of T cell development, and subsequent divisions are predominantly symmetric. ACD is controlled by interaction with stromal cells and chemokine receptor signaling and uses a conserved network of polarity regulators. The disruption of polarity by deletion of the polarity regulator, Scribble, or the altered inheritance of fate determinants impacts subsequent fate decisions to influence the numbers of DN4 cells arising after the β-selection checkpoint. These findings indicate that ACD enables the thymic microenvironment to orchestrate fate decisions related to differentiation and self-renewal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Pham
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
| | - Raz Shimoni
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
| | - Mirren Charnley
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia Industrial Research Institute Swinburne, Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
| | - Mandy J Ludford-Menting
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
| | - Edwin D Hawkins
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia
| | - Kelly Ramsbottom
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia
| | - Jane Oliaro
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - David Izon
- St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia
| | - Stephen B Ting
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia
| | - Joseph Reynolds
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, England, UK
| | - Grant Lythe
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, England, UK
| | - Carmen Molina-Paris
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, England, UK
| | - Heather Melichar
- Division of Immunology and Pathogenesis, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Ellen Robey
- Division of Immunology and Pathogenesis, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Patrick O Humbert
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Min Gu
- Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
| | - Sarah M Russell
- Immune Signalling Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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Abstract
Age-related cataracts are frequently associated with degenerative changes in the ocular lens including the aggregation of proteins - mainly crystallins, but also other proteins including amyloids (Aβ) leading to the hypothesis that cataracts could be used as "biomarkers" for Alzheimer disease. Even if this hypothesis was rejected by David Beebe's last paper (Bei et al., Exp. Eye Res., 2015), it is a fascinating aspect to look for commonalities between eye diseases and neurological disorders. In this review, I discuss such commonalities between eye and brain mainly from a developmental point of view. The finding of the functional homology of the Drosophila eyeless gene with the mammalian Pax6 gene marks a first highlight in the developmental genetics of the eye - this result destroyed the "dogma" of the different evolutionary routes of eye development in flies and mammals. The second highlight was the finding that Pax6 is also involved in the development of the forebrain supporting the pleiotropic role of many genes. These findings opened a new avenue for research showing that a broad variety of transcription factors, but also structural proteins are involved both, in eye and brain development as well as into the maintenance of the functional integrity of the corresponding tissue(s). In this review recent findings are summarized demonstrating that genes whose mutations have been identified first to be causative for congenital or juvenile eye disorders are also involved in regenerative processes and neurogenesis (Pax6), but also in neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson (e.g. Pitx3) or in neurological disorders like Schizophrenia (e.g. Crybb1, Crybb2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Graw
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstaedter Landstr, 1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany.
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240
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Moore D, Pilz G, Araúzo-Bravo M, Barral Y, Jessberger S. A mechanism for the segregation of age in mammalian neural stem cells. Science 2015; 349:1334-8. [PMID: 26383951 DOI: 10.1126/science.aac9868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Throughout life, neural stem cells (NSCs) generate neurons in the mammalian brain. Using photobleaching experiments, we found that during cell division in vitro and within the developing mouse forebrain, NSCs generate a lateral diffusion barrier in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, thereby promoting asymmetric segregation of cellular components. The diffusion barrier weakens with age and in response to impairment of lamin-associated nuclear envelope constituents. Weakening of the diffusion barrier disrupts asymmetric segregation of damaged proteins, a product of aging. Damaged proteins are asymmetrically inherited by the nonstem daughter cell in embryonic and young adult NSC divisions, whereas in the older adult brain, damaged proteins are more symmetrically distributed between progeny. Thus, these data identify a mechanism of how damage that accumulates with age is asymmetrically distributed during somatic stem cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darcie Moore
- Brain Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Science, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Gregor Pilz
- Brain Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Science, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marcos Araúzo-Bravo
- Biodonostia Health Research Institute, 20014 San Sebastián, Spain. IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Yves Barral
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Biology, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Sebastian Jessberger
- Brain Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Science, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland.
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241
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Wang F, Chen X, Shi W, Yao L, Gao M, Yang Y, Hao A. Zdhhc15b Regulates Differentiation of Diencephalic Dopaminergic Neurons in zebrafish. J Cell Biochem 2015; 116:2980-91. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.25256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fen Wang
- KeyLaboratory of the Ministry of Education; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Department of Histology Embryology; Shandong University School of Medicine; No. 44 Wenhua Xi Road; Jinan Shandong 250012 PR China
| | - Xueran Chen
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology; Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences; No. 350, Shushan Hu Road Hefei AnHui 230031 PR China
| | - Wei Shi
- KeyLaboratory of the Ministry of Education; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Department of Histology Embryology; Shandong University School of Medicine; No. 44 Wenhua Xi Road; Jinan Shandong 250012 PR China
| | - Linli Yao
- KeyLaboratory of the Ministry of Education; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Department of Histology Embryology; Shandong University School of Medicine; No. 44 Wenhua Xi Road; Jinan Shandong 250012 PR China
| | - Ming Gao
- Reproductive medical center of Shandong University; Shandong University School of Medicine; No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road; Jinan Shandong 250012 PR China
| | - Yang Yang
- Infertility Center, Qilu Hospital; Shandong University School of Medicine; No. 44, Wenhua Xi Road; Jinan Shandong 250012 PR China
| | - Aijun Hao
- KeyLaboratory of the Ministry of Education; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Department of Histology Embryology; Shandong University School of Medicine; No. 44 Wenhua Xi Road; Jinan Shandong 250012 PR China
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242
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Shigeno S, Parnaik R, Albertin CB, Ragsdale CW. Evidence for a cordal, not ganglionic, pattern of cephalopod brain neurogenesis. ZOOLOGICAL LETTERS 2015; 1:26. [PMID: 26605071 PMCID: PMC4657373 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-015-0026-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION From the large-brained cephalopods to the acephalic bivalves, molluscs show a vast range of nervous system centralization patterns. Despite this diversity, molluscan nervous systems, broadly considered, are organized either as medullary cords, as seen in chitons, or as ganglia, which are typical of gastropods and bivalves. The cephalopod brain is exceptional not just in terms of its size; its relationship to a molluscan cordal or ganglionic plan has not been resolved from the study of its compacted adult structure. One approach to clarifying this puzzle is to investigate the patterns of early cephalopod brain neurogenesis, where molecular markers for cephalopod neural development may be informative. RESULTS We report here on early brain pattern formation in the California two-spot octopus, Octopus bimaculoides. Employing gene expression analysis with the pan-bilaterian neuronal marker ELAV and the atonal-related neuronal differentiation genes NEUROGENIN and NEUROD, as well as immunostaining using a Distalless-like homeoprotein antibody, we found that the octopus central brain forms from concentric cords rather than bilaterally distributed pairs of ganglia. CONCLUSION We conclude that the cephalopod brain, despite its great size and elaborate specializations, retains in its development the hypothesized ancestral molluscan nervous system plan of medullary cords, as described for chitons and other aculiferan molluscs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi Shigeno
- />Department of Marine Biodiversity Research, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Yokosuka, 237-0061 Japan
| | - Rahul Parnaik
- />Department of Neurobiology, The University of Chicago, 947 E 58th Street, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
| | - Caroline B. Albertin
- />Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, 1027 E 57th Street, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
| | - Clifton W. Ragsdale
- />Department of Neurobiology, The University of Chicago, 947 E 58th Street, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
- />Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, 1027 E 57th Street, Chicago, IL 60637 USA
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243
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Baffet AD, Carabalona A, Dantas TJ, Doobin DD, Hu DJ, Vallee RB. Cellular and subcellular imaging of motor protein-based behavior in embryonic rat brain. Methods Cell Biol 2015; 131:349-63. [PMID: 26794523 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2015.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Development of the cerebral cortex is a very dynamic process, involving a series of complex morphogenetic events. Following division of progenitor cells in the ventricular zone, neurons undergo a series of morphological changes and migrate outward toward the cortical plate, where they differentiate and integrate into functional circuits. Errors at several of stages during neurogenesis and migration cause a variety of severe cortical malformations. A number of disease genes encode factors associated with the cytoskeleton, which plays a crucial role throughout cortical development. Methods for regulating gene expression coupled with imaging of subcellular structures have provided important insight into the mechanisms governing normal and abnormal brain development. We describe here a series of protocols for imaging motor protein-dependent processes in real time in the developing rat brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre D Baffet
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Aurélie Carabalona
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tiago J Dantas
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - David D Doobin
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Daniel J Hu
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard B Vallee
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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244
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Rivera-Valentin RK, Zhu L, Hughes DPM. Bone Sarcomas in Pediatrics: Progress in Our Understanding of Tumor Biology and Implications for Therapy. Paediatr Drugs 2015; 17:257-71. [PMID: 26002157 PMCID: PMC4516866 DOI: 10.1007/s40272-015-0134-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The pediatric bone sarcomas osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma represent a tremendous challenge for the clinician. Though less common than acute lymphoblastic leukemia or brain tumors, these aggressive cancers account for a disproportionate amount of the cancer morbidity and mortality in children, and have seen few advances in survival in the past decade, despite many large, complicated, and expensive trials of various chemotherapy combinations. To improve the outcomes of children with bone sarcomas, a better understanding of the biology of these cancers is needed, together with informed use of targeted therapies that exploit the unique biology of each disease. Here we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the contribution of receptor tyrosine kinases, intracellular signaling pathways, bone biology and physiology, the immune system, and the tumor microenvironment in promoting and maintaining the malignant phenotype. These observations are coupled with a review of the therapies that target each of these mechanisms, focusing on recent or ongoing clinical trials if such information is available. It is our hope that, by better understanding the biology of osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma, rational combination therapies can be designed and systematically tested, leading to improved outcomes for a group of children who desperately need them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio K. Rivera-Valentin
- Department of Pediatrics-Research, The Children’s Cancer Hospital at MD Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 853, MOD 1.021d, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030 USA
| | - Limin Zhu
- Department of Pediatrics-Research, The Children’s Cancer Hospital at MD Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 853, MOD 1.021d, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030 USA
| | - Dennis P. M. Hughes
- Department of Pediatrics-Research, The Children’s Cancer Hospital at MD Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 853, MOD 1.021d, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030 USA
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245
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De Juan Romero C, Borrell V. Coevolution of radial glial cells and the cerebral cortex. Glia 2015; 63:1303-19. [PMID: 25808466 PMCID: PMC5008138 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Radial glia cells play fundamental roles in the development of the cerebral cortex, acting both as the primary stem and progenitor cells, as well as the guides for neuronal migration and lamination. These critical functions of radial glia cells in cortical development have been discovered mostly during the last 15 years and, more recently, seminal studies have demonstrated the existence of a remarkable diversity of additional cortical progenitor cell types, including a variety of basal radial glia cells with key roles in cortical expansion and folding, both in ontogeny and phylogeny. In this review, we summarize the main cellular and molecular mechanisms known to be involved in cerebral cortex development in mouse, as the currently preferred animal model, and then compare these with known mechanisms in other vertebrates, both mammal and nonmammal, including human. This allows us to present a global picture of how radial glia cells and the cerebral cortex seem to have coevolved, from reptiles to primates, leading to the remarkable diversity of vertebrate cortical phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camino De Juan Romero
- Instituto De Neurociencias, Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Científicas & Universidad Miguel Hernández, Sant Joan D'alacant, Spain
| | - Víctor Borrell
- Instituto De Neurociencias, Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Científicas & Universidad Miguel Hernández, Sant Joan D'alacant, Spain
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246
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Baffet AD, Hu DJ, Vallee RB. Cdk1 Activates Pre-mitotic Nuclear Envelope Dynein Recruitment and Apical Nuclear Migration in Neural Stem Cells. Dev Cell 2015; 33:703-16. [PMID: 26051540 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2015.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Dynein recruitment to the nuclear envelope is required for pre-mitotic nucleus-centrosome interactions in nonneuronal cells and for apical nuclear migration in neural stem cells. In each case, dynein is recruited to the nuclear envelope (NE) specifically during G2 via two nuclear pore-mediated mechanisms involving RanBP2-BicD2 and Nup133-CENP-F. The mechanisms responsible for cell-cycle control of this behavior are unknown. We now find that Cdk1 serves as a direct master controller for NE dynein recruitment in neural stem cells and HeLa cells. Cdk1 phosphorylates conserved sites within RanBP2 and activates BicD2 binding and early dynein recruitment. Late recruitment is triggered by a Cdk1-induced export of CENP-F from the nucleus. Forced NE targeting of BicD2 overrides Cdk1 inhibition, fully rescuing dynein recruitment and nuclear migration in neural stem cells. These results reveal how NE dynein recruitment is cell-cycle regulated and identify the trigger mechanism for apical nuclear migration in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre D Baffet
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Daniel J Hu
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Richard B Vallee
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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247
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Nakashima K, Umeshima H, Kengaku M. Cerebellar granule cells are predominantly generated by terminal symmetric divisions of granule cell precursors. Dev Dyn 2015; 244:748-58. [PMID: 25820187 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) are generated by symmetric and asymmetric cell division of neural stem cells and their derivative progenitor cells. Cerebellar granule cells are the most abundant neurons in the CNS, and are generated by intensive cell division of granule cell precursors (GCPs) during postnatal development. Dysregulation of GCP cell cycle is causal for some subtypes of medulloblastoma. However, the details and mechanisms underlying neurogenesis from GCPs are not well understood. RESULTS Using long-term live-cell imaging of proliferating GCPs transfected with a fluorescent newborn-granule cell marker, we found that GCPs underwent predominantly symmetric divisions, generating two GCPs or two neurons, while asymmetric divisions generating a GCP and a neuron were only occasionally observed, in both dissociated culture and within tissues of isolated cerebellar lobules. We found no significant difference in cell cycle length between proliferative and neurogenic divisions, or any consistent changes in cell cycle length during repeated proliferative division. CONCLUSIONS Unlike neural stem cells in the cerebral cortex and spinal cord, which generate many neurons by repeated asymmetric division, cerebellar GCPs produce neurons predominantly by terminal symmetric division. These results indicate diverse mechanisms of neurogenesis in the mammalian brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kie Nakashima
- Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Honmachi, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hiroki Umeshima
- Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (WPI-iCeMS), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Mineko Kengaku
- Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Honmachi, Kyoto, Japan.,Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (WPI-iCeMS), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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248
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Faissner A, Reinhard J. The extracellular matrix compartment of neural stem and glial progenitor cells. Glia 2015; 63:1330-49. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Faissner
- Department of Cell Morphology and Molecular Neurobiology; Ruhr-University Bochum; Germany
| | - Jacqueline Reinhard
- Department of Cell Morphology and Molecular Neurobiology; Ruhr-University Bochum; Germany
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249
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Miyamoto Y, Sakane F, Hashimoto K. N-cadherin-based adherens junction regulates the maintenance, proliferation, and differentiation of neural progenitor cells during development. Cell Adh Migr 2015; 9:183-92. [PMID: 25869655 DOI: 10.1080/19336918.2015.1005466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This review addresses our current understanding of the regulatory mechanism by which N-cadherin, a classical cadherin, affects neural progenitor cells (NPCs) during development. N-cadherin is responsible for the integrity of adherens junctions (AJs), which develop in the sub-apical region of NPCs in the neural tube and brain cortex. The apical domain, which contains the sub-apical region, is involved in the switching from symmetric proliferative division to asymmetric neurogenic division of NPCs. In addition, N-cadherin-based AJ is deeply involved in the apico-basal polarity of NPCs and the regulation of Wnt-β-catenin, hedgehog (Hh), and Notch signaling. In this review, we discuss the roles of N-cadherin in the maintenance, proliferation, and differentiation of NPCs through components of AJ, β-catenin and αE-catenin.
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Key Words
- AJ, adherens junction
- EC, extracellular
- Fox, forkhead box
- Frz, frizzled
- GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein
- GSK3β, glycogen synthase kinase 3β
- Hes, hairly/enhancer of split
- Hh, hedgehog
- IP, intermediate progenitor
- KO, knockout
- LEF, lymphocyte enhancer factor
- N-cadherin
- NPC, neural progenitor cell
- Par, partition defective complex protein
- Ptc, Pached
- Smo, smoothened
- Sox2, sry (sex determining region Y)-box containing gene 2
- TA cell, transient amplifying cell; ZO-1, Zonula Occludens-1.
- TCF, T-cell factor
- aPKC, atypical protein kinase C
- adherens junction
- apico-basal polarity
- iPSC, induced pluripotent stem cell
- neural progenitor cells
- ngn2, neurogenin 2
- shRNA, short hairpin RNA
- β-catenin
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasunori Miyamoto
- a The Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences; Ochanomizu University ; Tokyo , Japan
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Pulvers JN, Journiac N, Arai Y, Nardelli J. MCPH1: a window into brain development and evolution. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:92. [PMID: 25870538 PMCID: PMC4376118 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of the mammalian cerebral cortex involves a series of mechanisms: from patterning, progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation, to neuronal migration. Many factors influence the development of the cerebral cortex to its normal size and neuronal composition. Of these, the mechanisms that influence the proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitor cells are of particular interest, as they may have the greatest consequence on brain size, not only during development but also in evolution. In this context, causative genes of human autosomal recessive primary microcephaly, such as ASPM and MCPH1, are attractive candidates, as many of them show positive selection during primate evolution. MCPH1 causes microcephaly in mice and humans and is involved in a diverse array of molecular functions beyond brain development, including DNA repair and chromosome condensation. Positive selection of MCPH1 in the primate lineage has led to much insight and discussion of its role in brain size evolution. In this review, we will present an overview of MCPH1 from these multiple angles, and whilst its specific role in brain size regulation during development and evolution remain elusive, the pieces of the puzzle will be discussed with the aim of putting together the full picture of this fascinating gene.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathalie Journiac
- U1141 Inserm Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141 Paris, France
| | - Yoko Arai
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS UMR 7592, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité Paris, France
| | - Jeannette Nardelli
- U1141 Inserm Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141 Paris, France
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