Distribution of the histaminergic neuron system in the central nervous system of rats; a fluorescent immunohistochemical analysis with histidine decarboxylase as a marker

Histamine-immunoreactive neurons in the mouse and rat suprachiasmatic nucleus

Among the well-established roles of the neurotransmitter histamine (HA) is that as a regulator of the sleep-wake cycle, which early gained HA a reputation as a 'waking substance'. The tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the posterior hypothalamus, which contains the sole source of neuronal HA in the brain, is reciprocally connected to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which, in turn, is best known as the pacemaker of circadian rhythms in mammals. We report HA-immunoreactive (-ir) neurons in the mouse and rat SCN that neither display immunoreactivity (-iry) for the HA-synthesizing enzyme histidine decarboxylase (HDC) nor contain HDC mRNA. Further, HA-iry was absent in the SCN of HDC knockout mice, but present in appropriate control animals, indicating that the observed HA-iry is HDC dependent. Experiments with hypothalamic slice cultures and i.c.v. injection of HA suggest that HA in the SCN neurons originates in the TMN and is transported from the TMN along histaminergic fibres known to innervate the SCN. These results could indicate the existence of a hitherto unknown uptake mechanism for HA into neurons. Through HA uptake and, putatively, re-release of the captured HA, these neurons could participate in the HA-mediated effects on the circadian system in concert with direct histaminergic inputs from the TMN to the SCN. The innervation of the SCN by several neurotransmitter systems could provide a way for other systems to affect the HA-containing neuronal cell bodies in the SCN.

Intracerebroventricular effects of histaminergic agents on morphine-induced anxiolysis in the elevated plus-maze in rats

Some reports indicate that morphine can induce anxiolytic effects both in animal and in man. It has also been reported that histaminergic system can interfere with some pharmacological effects of morphine. The effects of histaminergic agents on morphine-induced anxiolysis in rats, using elevated plus-maze were investigated in the present study. Intraperitoneal injection of morphine (3, 6 and 9 mg/kg) induced antianxiety effects. Intracerebroventricular administration of histamine at the doses of (5, 10 and 20 microg/rat) also increased anxiety-related behaviours. Intracerebroventricular injection of pyrilamine, a H1 receptor antagonist (25, 50 and 100 microg/rat), increased anxiety whereas injection of ranitidine, a H2 receptor antagonist (5, 10 and 20 microg/rat) at the same site, decreased anxiety. Therefore, it seems that histamine induces anxiogenic response through activation of H2 receptors, while the response of H1 blocker may be due to release of histamine. We also evaluated the interactions between morphine and histaminergic agents. Our data show that histamine (10 microg/rat), pyrilamine (50 microg/rat) and ranitidine (5 microg/rat) did not alter the response induced by different doses of morphine (3, 6 and 9 mg/kg). Similarly, a single dose of morphine did not alter the response induced by different doses of histamine (5, 10 and 20 microg/rat), pyrilamine (25, 50 and 100 microg/rat) or ranitidine (5, 10 and 20 microg/rat). In conclusion, the histaminergic system plays an important role in the modulation of anxiety, although in our experiments, no interaction was found between the effects of histaminergic agents and morphine on anxiety-related indices in the elevated plus-maze. This may imply that morphine-induced anxiolysis probably is independent of the histaminergic system.

The effects of histaminergic agents in the central amygdala of rats in the elevated plus-maze test of anxiety

Reports indicate that histamine and histaminergic agents can change anxiety-related behaviours in both animals and humans. The amygdala is an important brain site in the modulation of fear or anxiety. In the present study, we investigated the effects of intracentral amygdala microinjection of histaminergic agents on anxiety-related behaviours in rats, using the elevated plus-maze test of anxiety. Intracentral amygdala administration of histamine (0.01-0.5 microg/0.5 microl bilateral) decreased %open armtime and % open arm entries, but not locomotor activity, showing an anxiogenic response. Intracentral amygdala microinjection of pyrilamine (H1 receptor antagonist) and ranitidine (H2 receptor antagonist) (both at 1-20 microg/0.5 microl bilateral) did not change anxiety-related parameters in our experiments. In another series of experiments, histamine (0.5 microg/0.5 microl bilateral) was coadministrated with pyrilamine and ranitidine (both at 1-20 mg/0.5 microl bilateral). The results showed that pyrilamine but not ranitidine could significantly reverse the anxiogenic effect of histamine at doses of 10 and 20 microg/0.5 microl bilateral. The results suggest that histamine may modulate anxiety via H1 but not H2 receptors in the rat central amygdala.

Cerebral ischemia and brain histamine

Cerebral ischemia induces excess release of glutamate and an increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in neurons, which provokes enzymatic process leading to irreversible neuronal injury. Histamine plays a role as a neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain, and histamine release from nerve endings is enhanced in ischemia by facilitation of histaminergic activity. Dissimilar to ischemia-induced release of glutamate, histamine release is gradual and long lasting. The enhancement may contribute to neuroprotection against ischemic damage, because suppression of histaminergic activity aggravates the histologic outcome caused by ischemia. Preischemic administration of histamine (i.c.v.) suppresses ischemic release of glutamate and ameliorates neuronal damage, whereas blockade of central histamine H(2) receptors aggravates ischemic injury. These suggest that histamine provides beneficial effects against ischemic damage through histamine H(2) receptors, when administered before induction of ischemia. Postischemic loading with histidine, a precursor of histamine, alleviates both brain infarction and delayed neuronal death. Since the alleviation is abolished by blockade of central histamine H(2) receptors, facilitation of central histamine H(2) action caused by histidine may prevent reperfusion injury after ischemic events. Because the ischemia-induced increase in the glutamate level rapidly resumes after reperfusion of cerebral blood flow, beneficial effects caused by postischemic loading with histidine may be due to other mechanisms besides suppression of excitatory neurotransmitter release. Anti-inflammatory action by histamine H(2) receptor stimulation is a likely mechanism responsible for the improvement.

Blockage of histamine H1 receptor attenuates social isolation-induced disruption of prepulse inhibition: a study in H1 receptor gene knockout mice

RATIONALE

Histaminergic neurotransmission has been implicated in the pathophysiology of stress-related psychiatric diseases. Although several atypical antipsychotics are potent H1 antagonists, the clinical significance of interaction between atypical antipsychotics and H1 receptors is still unknown.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we investigated the effects of H1 receptors blockage on social isolation-induced behavioral changes in H1 receptor gene knockout (H1KO) mice and their wild-type (WT) mice.

METHODS

Both H1KO and their WT mice were subjected to 4-week social isolation rearing after weaning (21 postnatal days). After the 4-week isolation period, mice behavioral changes were evaluated using behavioral tests.

RESULTS

Locomotor activity in home cages was significantly lower in isolation-reared WT mice than in socially reared WT mice. However, no change in locomotor activity was observed between socially and isolation-reared H1KO mice. Social isolation significantly impaired prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle response in WT mice but not in H1KO mice. In addition, social isolation significantly impaired spatial learning and memory in WT mice but not in H1KO mice. Furthermore, H1KO mice treated with methamphetamine (METH) showed no enhancement in isolation-induced disruption of PPI. A neurochemical study revealed that isolation-reared WT mice had significantly lower dopamine (DA) levels and slightly increased DA turnover in the cortex than socially reared WT mice. Conversely, isolation-reared H1KO mice showed significantly higher DA contents as compared with socially reared H1KO mice.

CONCLUSION

The results of our study indicate that blockage of H1 receptor-mediated neurotransmission attenuates social isolation-induced behavioral changes and that the therapeutic effects of atypical antipsychotics are mediated, at least in part, by interaction with H1 receptors in the brain.

Enhanced antinociception by intracerebroventricularly administered orexin A in histamine H1 or H2 receptor gene knockout mice

Orexins are neuropeptides that are mostly expressed in the posterior and lateral hypothalamus, and related to the central control of appetite, arousal, and antinociception. Orexin neurons projected to the tuberomammillary nucleus and orexins may release histamine from the histamine neurons in this nucleus. Histamine is known to cause hypernociception. The roles of histamine H1 and H2 receptors in the orexin A-induced antinociception, however, have not been clarified yet. Here we studied the effects of histamine H1 and H2 receptors on orexin A-produced antinociception using histamine receptor knockout mice in four assays of nociception; the hot-plate, the tail-flick, the tail-pressure and the capsaicin tests. Furthermore we studied effects of histamine H1 and H2 receptor antagonists on orexin A-produced antinociception in C57BL/6 mice. The antinociceptive effects of i.c.v. orexin A were greater in histamine H1 receptor or H2 receptor knockout mice than in the wild-type mice in all four assays of pain. Furthermore, treatment of C57BL/6 mice with a combination of i.c.v. orexin A and d-chlorpheniramine (a histamine H1 receptor antagonist) or cimetidine (a histamine H2 receptor antagonist) showed a greater antinociception than i.c.v. orexin A alone in all four assays. These findings suggest the possibility that orexin A may activate H1 and H2 receptors in the supraspinal levels through the release of histamine from neurons, which might attenuate the antinociceptive effects of orexin A. Thus, the blocking of the histamine H1 or H2 receptor may produce antinociception and enhance the orexin A-induced antinociception.

Intrathecally-administered histamine facilitates nociception through tachykinin NK1 and histamine H1 receptors: A study in histidine decarboxylase gene knockout mice

Intrathecal injection of histamine elicited behavioral responses consisting of scratching, biting and licking in conscious mice. To study the participation of histamine in pain perception, histidine decarboxylase knockout mice were examined for pain threshold by means of three different kinds of noxious stimuli: thermal nociception (hot-plate, tail-flick, and paw-withdrawal), mechanical nociception (tail-pressure), and chemical nociception (formalin test and capsaicin test). Mutant mice lacking histidine decarboxylase showed significantly fewer nociceptive responses to the hot-plate, tail-flick, paw-withdrawal, tail-pressure, formalin and capsaicin tests. Sensitivity to noxious stimuli in the histidine decarboxylase knockout mice was significantly lower when compared to the wild-type mice. The intrathecally-administered histamine (400 pmol) significantly shortened the latency in the histidine decarboxylase knockout mice, but not in the wild-type mice in tail-flick tests. Pyrilamine, a histamine H(1) receptor antagonist, but not ranitidine, a histamine H(2) receptor antagonist, produced inhibition of the induced behavioral responses in the tail-flick test when co-administered with histamine. Sendide, a tachykinin NK(1) receptor antagonist, inhibited histamine-induced nociceptive behavior in the histidine decarboxylase knockout mice. In contrast, the treatment with D-(-)-2 amino-5-phosponovaleric acid (D-APV), an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, did not prevent the induction of the behavioral responses by histamine. These studies substantiate the evidence that nociceptive behavior induced by intrathecal injection of histamine is largely mediated through tachykinin NK(1) and histamine H(1) receptors in the spinal cord.

CNS determinants of sleep-related worsening of airway functions: implications for nocturnal asthma

This review summarizes the recent neuroanatomical and physiological studies that form the neural basis for the state-dependent changes in airway resistance. Here, we review only the interactions between the brain regions generating quiet (non-rapid eye movement, NREM) and active (rapid eye movement, REM) sleep stages and CNS pathways controlling cholinergic outflow to the airways. During NREM and REM sleep, bronchoconstrictive responses are heightened and conductivity of the airways is lower as compared to the waking state. The decrease in conductivity of the lower airways parallels the sleep-induced decline in the discharge of brainstem monoaminergic cell groups and GABAergic neurons of the ventrolateral periaqueductal midbrain region, all of which provide inhibitory inputs to airway-related vagal preganglionic neurons (AVPNs). Withdrawal of central inhibitory influences to AVPNs results in a shift from inhibitory to excitatory transmission that leads to an increase in airway responsiveness, cholinergic outflow to the lower airways and consequently, bronchoconstriction. In healthy subjects, these changes are clinically unnoticed. However, in patients with bronchial asthma, sleep-related alterations in lung functions are troublesome, causing intensified bronchopulmonary symptoms (nocturnal asthma), frequent arousals, decreased quality of life, and increased mortality. Unquestionably, the studies revealing neural mechanisms that underlie sleep-related alterations of airway function will provide new directions in the treatment and prevention of sleep-induced worsening of airway diseases.

Postischemic regulation of central histamine receptors

This study characterizes changes occurring in the central histaminergic system associated with ischemia-reperfusion pathology in the rat. Specifically, after a postocclusion time period of 48 h, we have analyzed histamine H(1) receptor mRNA expression, histamine H(2) receptor protein amount and binding densities, and histamine H(3) receptor mRNA expression and binding densities in brain regions that have been suggested to be selectively vulnerable to transient global ischemia, i.e. hippocampus, thalamus, caudate-putamen, and cerebral cortex. We found an increase in H(1) receptor mRNA expression in the caudate-putamen: given that ischemia reduces glucose uptake and H(1) receptor activation has been shown to decrease this effect, an increase of expression levels may result in mitigating tissue damage due to energy failure observed in ischemia. A decrease in H(2) receptor binding densities in the caudate-putamen was also observed; the ischemia-induced decrease in H(2) receptor protein was also detectable by Western blot analysis. This phenomenon may underlie the previously reported ischemia induced striatal dopamine release. H(3) receptor mRNA expression was increased in the caudate putamen of the postischemic brain but was decreased in the globus pallidus and the thalamus; in association with this, H(3) receptor binding densities were increased in the cortex, caudate-putamen, globus pallidus, and hippocampus. The upregulation of H(3) receptor ligand binding may be involved in the previously reported continuous neuronal histamine release. Our data suggest that central histamine receptor expression and ligand binding are altered in brain ischemia in distinct areas, and may participate in neuroprotection and/or ischemia-associated neuronal damage.

Cross state-dependent retrieval between histamine and lithium

Histamine and lithium state-dependent (StD) retrieval of passive avoidance task and their interactions was examined in mice. The pre-training or pre-test intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of histamine (20 microg/mouse) impaired retrieval when it was tested 24 h later. In the animals, in which retrieval was impaired due to histamine pre-training administration, pre-test administration of histamine, with the same dose, restored retrieval. The H1 blocker, pyrilamine (20 microg/mouse, i.c.v.), but not the H(2) blocker; ranitidine prevented the restoration of retrieval by pre-test histamine. The pre-training (5 and 10 mg/kg) or pre-test (5 mg/kg) injection of lithium also impaired retrieval, when it was tested 24 h later. In the animals that received lithium (5 mg/kg) or histamine (20 microg/mouse) as pre-training treatment, administration of histamine, clobenpropit or lithium, respectively, resulted in restoration of memory retrieval. Neither pyrilamine nor ranitidine prevented the restoration of retrieval by pre-test lithium. In conclusion, histamine or lithium can induce state-dependent retrieval and a cross-StD exists between these drugs, which may be mediated through the inositol pathway.

Influence of Intracerebroventricular Administration of Histaminergic Drugs on Morphine State-Dependent Memory in the Step-Down Passive Avoidance Test

The effects of histaminergic drugs on morphine state-dependent memory of a passive avoidance task were examined in mice. Pre-training administration of morphine (5 mg/kg) led to state-dependent learning with impaired memory recall on the test day which was reversed by pre-test administration of the same dose of the opioid. The pre-test intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of the H(1) blocker (pyrilamine) prevented the restoration of memory by morphine. The H(2) blocker (ranitidine) was ineffective in this regard and the H(3) blocker (clobenpropit) potentiated the effect of morphine on memory recall. The pre-test i.c.v. administration of histamine alone (5, 10, and 20 microg/mouse) not only mimicked the effect of pre-test morphine treatment, but also increased this action of the opioid. The effect of histamine on memory recall was not changed by the pre-test administration of mu-opioid receptor antagonist, naloxone. In conclusion, the improvement of memory recall by morphine treatment, on the test day, seems to be, at least in part, through the release of histamine followed by the stimulation of H(1) receptors. Histamine by itself, when administered on the test day, mimicked morphine-induced memory improvement by a mechanism independent of the mu-opioid receptors.

Drug interaction between methamphetamine and antihistamines: behavioral changes and tissue concentrations of methamphetamine in rats

Methamphetamine is a psychomotor stimulant, whereas first generation antihistamines cause sedation. Several studies have demonstrated that first generation antihistamines potentiate methamphetamine-induced psychomotor activation and two possible mechanisms have been postulated. One is blockage of the central histaminergic neuron system and the other is inhibition of dopamine reuptake. However, the exact mechanism is still controversial. In this study, we examined in behavioral tests the effects of selected antihistamines on methamphetamine-induced psychomotor activation in rats, and measured plasma and brain tissue concentrations of methamphetamine. We found that some antihistamines significantly potentiate methamphetamine-induced psychomotor activation in rats and that plasma and brain tissue concentrations of methamphetamine in rats treated with methamphetamine in combination with D-chlorpheniramine were markedly higher than those in rats treated with methamphetamine alone. These results suggest that the potentiating effects of antihistamines are due to not only central effects but also the alteration of the pharmacokinetics of methamphetamine.

Traumatic brain injury results in mast cell increase and changes in regulation of central histamine receptors

Experimental fluid-percussion models produce brain injury by rapidly injecting saline into the closed cranium of rats. In this study our purpose was to determine how the central histaminergic system, which controls excitability and neurotransmitter release through G-protein coupled receptors, is affected by the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. We found that mast cell infiltration, as a result of the trauma, occurred primarily in the injured cortex and did not proceed beyond the fimbria of the hippocampus. In comparing injured animals with controls we found that H3 receptor binding densities are significantly decreased bilaterally in the cortex but are significantly increased bilaterally in the thalamus. H3 receptor binding densities may well be affected by mast cell secretion of mediators (i.e. histamine, heparin, leukotrienes), evidenced by detection of a cosecreted enzyme (mast cell tryptase) in the extracellular region. Moreover, we detected significant decreases in H1 and H3 receptor mRNA as well as Cu/Zn-dependent superoxide dismutase (SOD) mRNA in the thalamic region closest to the trauma. These significant decreases delineate the extent of cellular damage because of trauma and may underlie sustained cognitive and motor deficits displayed by these animals.

A role for the central histaminergic system in the leptin-mediated increase in cardiovascular dynamics

The central nervous system (CNS) histaminergic neurons have been shown to regulate feeding behavior and are a target of leptin in the brain. The present study aimed to examine the involvement of the histaminergic system in the leptin-mediated regulation of cardiovascular dynamics. We investigated the cardiovascular responses to the CNS administration of histamine, leptin and alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) both in the presence and absence of the histamine H1 antagonist, chlorpheniramine. The intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of histamine resulted in an immediate increase in both mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) and vasoconstricted the iliac, renal and superior mesenteric vessels. The i.c.v. pretreatment with chlorpheniramine attenuated the histamine-induced increase in MAP, HR and decreased vascular conductance. The i.c.v. administration of leptin increased MAP and HR and decreased vascular conductance. The i.c.v. pretreatment with chlorpheniramine decreased the leptin-induced increase in MAP and the leptin-mediated iliac vasoconstriction. The i.c.v. administration of alpha-MSH also increased MAP, HR and decreased vascular conductance. However, pretreatment with chlorpheniramine did not influence the central alpha-MSH-mediated increase in MAP, HR and decreased vascular conductance. These results indicate that the central histaminergic system mediated by H1 receptors have a role in the central signaling pathway and is involved in leptin's regulation of cardiovascular dynamics. It appears that leptin directly or indirectly stimulates histaminergic neurons that lead to increased cardiovascular activity.

Thr105Ile, a Functional Polymorphism of Histamine N-Methyltransferase, Is Associated with Alcoholism in Two Independent Populations

BACKGROUND

Histamine is expressed in cortical and limbic areas that are involved in emotion and cognition and modulates these behaviors. H1 receptor antagonists are sedative. Histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT) catalyzes the Ntau methylation of histamine, the sole pathway for termination of the neurotransmitter action of histamine in mammalian brain. A common and functionally significant polymorphism, a C314T transition in exon 4 of the HNMT gene results in a Thr105Ile substitution of the protein encoded. The Thr105 allele is associated with approximately 2-fold higher enzyme activity, leading to the prediction that it might be associated with diminished histamine levels, resulting in differences in anxiety, cognition, and sedation that play important roles in alcoholism. In two ethnically distinct populations, we tested whether the Thr105Ile polymorphism was associated with alcoholism and with harm avoidance, a dimensional measure of anxious personality.

METHODS

A 5' exonuclease assay (TaqMan) was used to genotype Thr105Ile in psychiatrically interviewed Finnish Caucasian (n = 218) and Plains American Indian (n = 186) alcoholics, along with ethnically matched, psychiatrically interviewed, controls (Finns: n = 313, Plains Indian: n = 140).

RESULTS

Ile105 allele frequencies were significantly lower in alcoholics compared with nonalcoholics in both populations (Finns: 0.12 vs. 0.17, chi(2) = 6, p = 0.015; Plains Indians: 0.03 vs. 0.08, chi(2) = 5, p = 0.023). Genotype distributions also differed significantly. In Finns, Ile105 showed borderline significance for an association with lower harm avoidance (p = 0.070) after correcting for alcoholism diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Decreased levels of brain histamine consequent to the Thr105 allele may result in higher levels of anxiety and, as a consequence, vulnerability to alcoholism.

Effects of activation of central nervous histamine receptors in cardiovascular regulation; studies in H(1) and H(2) receptor gene knockout mice

To elucidate the central roles of histamine receptors in cardiovascular regulatory system, systolic, mean, and diastolic blood pressures (BPs) and heart rate (HR) were examined in conscious H(1) receptor gene knockout (H(1)KO) mice, H(2) receptor gene knockout (H(2)KO) mice, H(1) and H(2) receptor gene double knockout (DKO) mice, and their respective control mice by the tail-cuff system. Histamine, histamine-trifluoromethyl-toluidine derivative (HTMT, an H(1) agonist), dimaprit (an H(2) agonist), and immepip (an H(3) agonist) were intrathecally administered to these KO mice and control mice. Basal BPs and HR were not different among these three KO mice and their control or wild-type mice. Intrathecal administration of histamine significantly increased BPs and decreased HR in control mice. The increases in BPs were produced by histamine in H(1)KO and H(2)KO mice and by HTMT and dimaprit in C57BL mice. The pressor responses by HTMT and dimaprit in C57BL mice were greater than those by histamine in H(1)KO and H(2)KO mice, although the same decreases in HR were induced by histamine in C57BL and H(1)KO mice and by dimaprit in C57BL mice. The selective stimulation of H(3) receptors by immepip produced a consistent decrease in BPs in control mice. These results obtained with the exogenous selective agonists of three histamine receptors suggest that the pressor responses to histamine are mediated through the stimulation of both H(1) and H(2) receptors, whereas the atropine-sensitive decrease in heart rate is mainly due to H(2) receptors which activate the vagal output to the heart.

Dose-dependent effects of l-carnosine on the renal sympathetic nerve and blood pressure in urethane-anesthetized rats

The physiological function of l-carnosine (β-alanyl-l-histidine) synthesized in mammalian muscles has been unclear. Previously, we observed that intravenous (IV) injection of l-carnosine suppressed renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) in urethane-anesthetized rats, and l-carnosine administered via the diet inhibited the elevation of blood pressure (BP) in deoxycorticosterone acetate salt hypertensive rats. To identify the mechanism, we examined effects of IV or intralateral cerebral ventricular (LCV) injection of various doses of l-carnosine on RSNA and BP in urethane-anesthetized rats. Lower doses (1 μg IV; 0.01 μg LCV) of l-carnosine significantly suppressed RSNA and BP, whereas higher doses (100 μg IV; 10 μg LCV) elevated RSNA and BP. Furthermore, we examined effects of antagonists of histaminergic (H1 and H3) receptors on l-carnosine-induced effects. When peripherally and centrally given, thioperamide, an H3 receptor antagonist, blocked RSNA and BP decreases induced by the lower doses of peripheral l-carnosine, whereas diphenhydramine, an H1 receptor antagonist, inhibited increases induced by the higher doses of peripheral l-carnosine. Moreover, bilateral lesions of the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus eliminated both effects on RSNA and BP induced by the lower (1 μg) and higher (100 μg) doses of peripheral l-carnosine. These findings suggest that low-dose l-carnosine suppresses and high-dose l-carnosine stimulates RSNA and BP, that the suprachiasmatic nucleus and histaminergic nerve are involved in the activities, and that l-carnosine acts in the brain and possibly other organs.

Central histamine contributes to the inspiratory off-switch mechanism via H1 receptors in mice

Central histaminergic neurons are distributed in areas of the medulla and pons concerned with respiratory rhythm generation, but their effects on breathing pattern are unknown. We examined breathing pattern during hypercapnic responses in wild type (WT) and H1 receptor knockout (H1RKO) mice at 9-10 weeks of age before and after vagotomy. Minute ventilation increased with PaCO(2) increase equally in both genotypes; respiratory rate response was lower and tidal volume (V(T)) response higher in H1RKO mice than in WT mice. The V(T)-inspiratory time (T(I)) relation during hypercapnia was hyperbolic in both groups, with the curve in H1RKO mice shifted right-upward. After vagotomy, the V(T)-T(I) relation was a vertical line, which shifted right in H1RKO mice. We conclude that alterations of inspiratory off-switch and respiratory rhythm generation change breathing pattern without affecting central chemosensitivity in H1RKO. Histamine might affect breathing pattern centrally via H1 receptors.

Histamine innervation and activation of septohippocampal GABAergic neurones: involvement of local ACh release

Recent studies indicate that the histaminergic system, which is critical for wakefulness, also influences learning and memory by interacting with cholinergic systems in the brain. Histamine-containing neurones of the tuberomammillary nucleus densely innervate the cholinergic and GABAergic nucleus of the medial septum/diagonal band of Broca (MSDB) which projects to the hippocampus and sustains hippocampal theta rhythm and associated learning and memory functions. Here we demonstrate that histamine, acting via H(1) and/or H(2) receptor subtypes, utilizes direct and indirect mechanisms to excite septohippocampal GABA-type neurones in a reversible, reproducible and concentration-dependent manner. The indirect mechanism involves local ACh release, is potentiated by acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and blocked by atropine methylbromide and 4-DAMP mustard, an M(3) muscarinic receptor selective antagonist. This indirect effect, presumably, results from a direct histamine-induced activation of septohippocampal cholinergic neurones and a subsequent indirect activation of the septohippocampal GABAergic neurones. In double-immunolabelling studies, histamine fibres were found in the vicinity of both septohippocampal cholinergic and GABAergic cell types. These findings have significance for Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders involving a loss of septohippocampal cholinergic neurones as such a loss would also obtund histamine effects on septohippocampal cholinergic and GABAergic functions and further compromise hippocampal arousal and associated cognitive functions.

Pharmacological effects of carcinine on histaminergic neurons in the brain

1 Carcinine (beta-alanyl histamine) is an imidazole dipeptide. The present study was designed to characterize the pharmacological effects of carcinine on histaminergic activity in the brain and on certain neurobehavior. 2 Carcinine was highly selective for the histamine H3 receptor over H1 or H2 receptor (Ki (microM)=0.2939+/-0.2188 vs 3621.2+/-583.9 or 365.3+/-232.8 microM, respectively). 3 Carcinine at a dose of 20 mg kg(-1) slightly increased histidine decarboxylase (HDC) activity in the cortex (from 0.186+/-0.069 to 0.227+/-0.009 pmol mg protein(-1) min(-1)). In addition, carcinine (10, 20, and 50 mg kg(-1)) significantly decreased histamine levels in mice brain. 4 Like thioperamide, a histamine H3 receptor antagonist, carcinine (20, 50 microM) significantly increased 5-HT release from mice cortex slices, but had no apparent effect on dopamine release. 5 Carcinine (20 mg kg(-1)) significantly inhibited pentylenetetrazole-induced kindling. This inhibition was completely reversed by (R)-alpha-methylhistamine, a representative H3 receptor agonist, and alpha-fluromethylhistidine, a selective HDC inhibitor. 6 Carcinine (20 mg kg(-1)) ameliorated the learning deficit induced by scopolamine. This amelioration was reversed by (R)-alpha-methylhistamine as evaluated by the passive avoidance test in mice. 7 Like thioperamide, carcinine dose-dependently increased mice locomotor activity in the open-field test. 8 The results of this study provide first and direct evidence that carcinine, as a novel histamine H3 receptor antagonist, plays an important role in histaminergic neurons activation and might be useful in the treatment of certain diseases, such as epilepsy, and locomotor or cognitive deficit.

Glutamic acid and histamine-sensitive neurons in the ventral hippocampus and the basolateral amygdala of the rat: functional interaction on memory and learning processes

The possibility of a functional interaction between the amygdala and the ventral hippocampus during learning of a conditioned avoidance response when both brain structures are chemically stimulated with glutamic acid and/or histamine receptor antagonists (pyrilamine, H1-histamine antagonist and ranitidine, H2-histamine receptor antagonist) was studied in rats. Adult male rats were stereotaxically implanted with guide cannulae into the basolateral amygdala (A) and the ventral hippocampus (H). Seventy-two hours after the implant, rats were microinjected with 1 microl of saline solution, 10 nmol glutamic acid or 45 nmol of histamine receptor antagonists in several brain structures combinations. These combinations were: HsalAsal; HmsgAmsg; HmsgAsal; HsalAmsg; HpyrAmsg; HmsgApyr; HranAmsg and HmsgAran. Five minutes after the injection, rats were subjected to a learning task which consisted to avoid an electric shock applied to the animal's feet when an ultrasonic tone of 40 kHz is on for 30 s. Results showed that the simultaneous application of glutamic acid into hippocampus and amygdala interfered with the latency to escape and memory consolidation process. Stimulation with glutamic acid alone into the hippocampus or into the amygdala (HsalAmsg and HmsgAsal groups) interfered slightly with latency but impaired the consolidation process. Blocking the H1-histamine receptors of the amygdala affected slightly latency and efficiency of learning, meanwhile the blocking of H2-histamine receptors interfered with both parameters. Blocking H1- and H2-histamine receptors of the hippocampus significantly impaired latency and efficiency of learning of rats stimulated with glutamic acid into the amygdala. In conclusion, the experimental evidence suggests that hippocampal glutamic acid-neurons functionally interact with histamine-neurons in the basolateral amygdala to modulate memory and learning process.

Plasticity of histamine H3 receptor expression and binding in the vestibular nuclei after labyrinthectomy in rat

Background

In rat, deafferentation of one labyrinth (unilateral labyrinthectomy) results in a characteristic syndrome of ocular and motor postural disorders (e.g., barrel rotation, circling behavior, and spontaneous nystagmus). Behavioral recovery (e.g., diminished symptoms), encompassing 1 week after unilateral labyrinthectomy, has been termed vestibular compensation. Evidence suggesting that the histamine H₃ receptor plays a key role in vestibular compensation comes from studies indicating that betahistine, a histamine-like drug that acts as both a partial histamine H₁ receptor agonist and an H₃ receptor antagonist, can accelerate the process of vestibular compensation.

Results

Expression levels for histamine H₃ receptor (total) as well as three isoforms which display variable lengths of the third intracellular loop of the receptor were analyzed using in situ hybridization on brain sections containing the rat medial vestibular nucleus after unilateral labyrinthectomy. We compared these expression levels to H₃ receptor binding densities.

Total H₃ receptor mRNA levels (detected by oligo probe H_3X) as well as mRNA levels of the three receptor isoforms studied (detected by oligo probes H_3A, H_3B, and H_3C) showed a pattern of increase, which was bilaterally significant at 24 h post-lesion for both H_3X and H_3C, followed by significant bilateral decreases in medial vestibular nuclei occurring 48 h (H_3X and H_3B) and 1 week post-lesion (H_3A, H_3B, and H_3C). Expression levels of H_3B was an exception to the forementioned pattern with significant decreases already detected at 24 h post-lesion. Coinciding with the decreasing trends in H₃ receptor mRNA levels was an observed increase in H₃ receptor binding densities occurring in the ipsilateral medial vestibular nuclei 48 h post-lesion.

Conclusion

Progressive recovery of the resting discharge of the deafferentated medial vestibular nuclei neurons results in functional restoration of the static postural and occulomotor deficits, usually occurring within a time frame of 48 hours in rats. Our data suggests that the H₃ receptor may be an essential part of pre-synaptic mechanisms required for reestablishing resting activities 48 h after unilateral labyrinthectomy.

Decreased histamine H1 receptor binding in the brain of depressed patients

The central histaminergic neuron system modulates the wakefulness, sleep-awake cycle, appetite control, learning and memory, and emotion. Previous studies have reported changes in neuronal histamine release and its metabolism under stress conditions in the mammalian brain. In this study, we examined, using positron emission tomography (PET) and [(11)C]-doxepin, whether the histaminergic neuron system is involved in human depression. Cerebral histamine H1 receptor (H(1)R) binding was measured in 10 patients with major depression and in 10 normal age-matched subjects using PET and [(11)C]-doxepin. Data were calculated by a graphical analysis on voxel-by-voxel and ROI (region of interests) basis. Binding potential (BP) values for [(11)C]-doxepin binding in the frontal and prefrontal cortices, and cingulate gyrus were significantly lower in the depressed patients than those in the normal control subjects. There was no area of the brain where [(11)C]-doxepin binding was significantly higher in the depressed patients than in the controls. ROI-based analysis also revealed that BP values for [(11)C]-doxepin binding in the frontal cortex and cingulate gyrus decreased in proportion to self-rating depressive scales scores. The results of this study demonstrate that depressed patients have decreased brain H(1)R binding and that this decrease correlates with the severity of depression symptoms. It is therefore suggested that the histaminergic neuron system plays an important role in the pathophysiology of depression and that its modulation may prove to be useful in the treatment of depression.

L-histidine decarboxylase as a probe in studies on histamine

Because the Falck-Hillarp formaldehyde fluorescence method, which was superbly applied to identify catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons, is not applicable to histamine, the first author (T.W.) developed an antibody to L-histidine decarboxylase (HDC) for identification of the histaminergic neuron system in the brain. The anti-HDC antibody was of great use for mapping the location and distribution of this histaminergic neuron system. (S)-alpha-fluoromethylhistidine, a specific and potent irreversible inhibitor of HDC, was also very useful in studies on functions of the neuron system. The activity of HDC is increased by various agents, treatments, and physiological conditions. We found new compounds that increased HDC activity (i.e., tetradecanoylphobol acetate (TPA), other tumor promoters, and staphylococcal enterotoxin A); and using mast cell-deficient mutant (W/W(v)) mice, we obtained evidence that this increase occurred in macrophages. To further characterize the mechanism of increases in HDC activity, the second author (H.O.) cloned human HDC cDNA and a human HDC gene. In studies on the regulation mechanism of the HDC gene, which is expressed only in limited types of cells such as mast cells, enterochromaffin-like cells in the stomach, cells in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the brain, and macrophages, CpG islands in the promoter region of the HDC gene were found to be demethylated in cells expressing the gene, whereas they are methylated in other cells that do not express the HDC gene. In collaboration with many other researchers, we developed HDC knockout mice. The resulting research is producing a lot of interesting findings in our laboratory as well as in others. In summary, HDC has been and will be useful in studies on functions of histamine.

Brain inhibitory mechanisms involved in basic and higher integrated sleep processes

Brain function is supported by central activating processes that are significant during waking, decrease during slow wave sleep following waking and increase again during paradoxical sleep during which brain activation is as high as, or higher than, during waking in nearly all structures. However, inhibitory mechanisms are crucial for sleep onset. They were first identified by behavioral, neuroanatomical and electrophysiological criteria, then by pharmacological and neurochemical ones. During slow wave sleep, they are supported by GABAergic mechanisms located at midbrain, mesopontine and pontine levels but are induced and sustained by forebrain and hindbrain influences. GABAergic processes are also responsible for paradoxical sleep occurrence, particularly by suppression of noradrenaline and serotonin (5-HT) inhibition of paradoxical sleep-generating structures. Hindbrain and forebrain modulate these structures situated at the mesopontine level. For sleep mentation, the noradrenergic and serotonergic silence is thought, today, to be directly, or indirectly, responsible for dopamine predominance and glutamate decrease in the nucleus accumbens, which could be the background of the well-known psychotic-like mental activity of dreaming.

α2-Adrenergic receptor-mediated presynaptic inhibition of GABAergic IPSPs in rat histaminergic neurons

Nuclei of the brainstem involved in behavioral state control are mutually interconnected. Histaminergic neurons of the posterior hypothalamus receive inputs from brainstem noradrenergic cell groups as well as from the locus coeruleus. The role of adrenergic inputs in histaminergic function is unclear. We examined the actions of adrenergic agonists on histaminergic neurons of the tuberomamillary nucleus (TM) using electrophysiological methods in a brain slice preparation. Evoked GABAergic inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) in histaminergic neurons were reduced in amplitude following the application of norepinephrine (NE) (2-20 microM) or clonidine (10 microM) but were not affected by isoproterenol (10 microM). Norepinephrine application caused no changes in membrane properties of TM neurons. Responses to exogenously applied GABA were unaffected by adrenergic agonists. Clonidine reduced the frequency of spontaneous IPSPs, an action that was blocked by yohimbine. Norepinephrine did not alter the amplitude distribution of bicuculline-sensitive miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs). Thus, GABA release onto TM neurons is modulated presynaptically by adrenergic alpha(2)-receptors. Inputs from noradrenergic neurons of the brainstem will reduce the inhibitory actions of GABAergic inputs resulting in disinhibition of histaminergic neurons.

Cataplexy-active neurons in the hypothalamus: implications for the role of histamine in sleep and waking behavior

Noradrenergic, serotonergic, and histaminergic neurons are continuously active during waking, reduce discharge during NREM sleep, and cease discharge during REM sleep. Cataplexy, a symptom associated with narcolepsy, is a waking state in which muscle tone is lost, as it is in REM sleep, while environmental awareness continues, as in alert waking. In prior work, we reported that, during cataplexy, noradrenergic neurons cease discharge, and serotonergic neurons greatly reduce activity. We now report that, in contrast to these other monoaminergic "REM-off" cell groups, histamine neurons are active in cataplexy at a level similar to or greater than that in quiet waking. We hypothesize that the activity of histamine cells is linked to the maintenance of waking, in contrast to activity in noradrenergic and serotonergic neurons, which is more tightly coupled to the maintenance of muscle tone in waking and its loss in REM sleep and cataplexy.

Circadian rhythms in behavior and clock gene expressions in the brain of mice lacking histidine decarboxylase

To clarify functional roles of histamine in the circadian clock system, circadian rhythms of behavior and clock gene expression in the brain were examined in the mouse lacking histidine decarboxylase (HDC-/- mouse). Wheel-running and spontaneous locomotion were recorded under light-dark cycle (LD) and constant darkness (DD). mPer1, mPer2 and mBMAL1 mRNA expression rhythms under LD and DD were measured in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), cerebral cortex and striatum by in situ hybridization. The activity levels under LD and DD in the HDC-/- mice were lower than that in the wild type regardless of activity types (wheel-running and spontaneous locomotion). The free-running period under DD was significantly longer in the HDC-/- mice than in the wild type. The 24-h profiles of mPer1, mPer2 and mBMAL1 mRNA expressions in the SCN were not different between the two genotypes. By contrast, the mPer1 and mPer2 mRNA rhythms in the other brain areas such as the cortex and striatum were significantly disrupted in the HDC-/- mice. These results suggest that histamine is involved in the circadian system especially in the output pathway or feedback route from behavior to the pacemaker in the SCN, and that mPer genes in the brain areas outside the SCN play an important role in the expression of behavioral rhythm.

Role of H3-receptor-mediated signaling in anxiety and cognition in wild-type and Apoe-/- mice

Increasing evidence supports a role for histamine as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in emotion and cognition. The H(3) receptor was first characterized as an autoreceptor that modulates histamine release and synthesis via negative feedback. Mice deficient in apoE (Apoe(-/-)) have been used to define the role of apoE in brain function. In the present study, we investigated the possible role of histamine H(3)-receptor-mediated signaling in anxiety and cognition in mice Apoe(-/-) and wild-type mice. H(3) antagonists increased measures of anxiety in wild-type, but not Apoe(-/-), mice. In contrast, H(3) antagonists similarly impaired object recognition in wild-type and Apoe(-/-) mice. In Apoe(-/-) mice, reduced negative feedback via H(3) receptors could contribute to increased signaling of H(1) receptors. Apoe(-/-) mice showed higher sensitivity to the anxiety-reducing effects of the H(1) receptor antagonist mepyramine than wild-type mice. These effects were dissociated from effects of mepyramine on the HPA axis. Compared to saline controls, mepyramine reduced plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels in wild-type, but not Apoe(-/-), mice. These data support a role for apoE in H(3) receptor signaling. H(3) antagonists were proposed as a treatment for cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, which is associated with increased anxiety and cognitive impairments. As H(3) antagonists increase measures of anxiety and impair object recognition in wild-type mice, the use of H(3) antagonists in cognitive disorders may be counterproductive and should be carefully evaluated.

Quantitative measurement of histamine H1 receptors in human brains by PET and [11C]doxepin

The aim of this study is to establish a method for quantitative measurement of histamine H(1) receptor (H1R) in human brain by PET and [(11)C]doxepin ([(11)C]DOX). The estimated parameters with a two-compartment model were stable for the initial values for parameter estimation but those with a three-compartment model were not. This finding suggests that the H1R measured by the [(11)C]DOX and PET can be evaluated with a two-compartment model.

Dissociated histaminergic neuron cultures from the tuberomammillary nucleus of rats: culture methods and ghrelin effects

The tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) in the hypothalamus is the sole source of histamine in the brain. This nucleus, by innervating various brain regions, plays an important role for vital functions such as arousal and appetite. We have developed dissociated primary histaminergic neuron cultures from TMN of postnatal (3 and 10-day-old) rats. More than 50% of our cultured neurons from the TMN were histaminergic as revealed by adenosine deaminase (AD) as well as histamine immunocytochemistry. Among large neurons (diameter, >22 microm), more than 88% were histaminergic. Such large neurons (mean diameter, 26.5 microm) were used for electrophysiology. Using about 2-month-old TMN cultures, we investigated the effects of ghrelin, a recently discovered appetite-stimulating endogenous peptide. In GTPgammaS-loaded neurons, ghrelin (3 microM) suppressed currents that had previously been activated by an inhibitory neuropeptide, nociceptin. The mean current suppression by ghrelin was 471+/-128 pA (S.E.M., n=7). The I-V relationship revealed that the ghrelin-suppressed current was inwardly rectifying with a reversal potential around E(K). These results suggest that ghrelin inhibits G protein-coupled inward rectifier K+ channels (Kir3, GIRK) of TMN neurons and that our TMN cultures are useful for investigating physiological properties of brain histaminergic neurons.

Functional heterogeneity of the responses of histaminergic neuron subpopulations to various stress challenges

In rats, the cell bodies of the histaminergic neuronal system are clustered in five distinct cell groups (E1-E5) within the posterior hypothalamus. On the basis of tract tracing studies, these histaminergic subgroups have been regarded as one functional unit. In addition to its well-characterized role in arousal, locomotor activity, metabolism, feeding, drinking and behaviour, as well as in coordination of autonomic functions, histamine has been implicated in regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis during stress. To address the capacity of different histaminergic subgroups to respond to various challenges, we revealed c-Fos, the immediate early gene marker of activated neurons, in histamine synthesizing neurons by combining c-Fos immunocytochemistry with in situ hybridization of histidine decarboxylase (HDC) mRNA. Compared to the negligible colocalization of these markers in control rats, restraint, insulin-induced hypoglycaemia and foot shock resulted in specific activation of histamine synthesizing neurons of the E4 and E5 subgroup in the tuberomammillary region. Up to 36% of HDC mRNA-expressing cells show c-Fos immunoreactivity in the E5 region. In addition, some neurons of the E1, E2 and E3 histaminergic groups were activated after restraint stress. Many less c-Fos-positive histaminergic neurons were detected after immobilization and dehydration. Ether stress, acute hyperosmotic stimulus or injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide did not activate hypothalamic HDC-positive neurons. These results suggest, for the first time, the functional heterogeneity of histaminergic neuron population, the components of which are recruited in a stressor- and subgroup-specific manner.

Alleviation of ischemic neuronal damage by histamine H2 receptor stimulation in the rat striatum

Transient ischemia was produced for 15 min by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery in halothane-anesthetized rats, and changes in the extracellular concentrations of neurotransmitter monoamines and amino acids were examined in the striatum. The occlusion produced marked increases in the extracellular concentrations of both dopamine and glutamate in the striatum in the saline-injected control group, the peak values being 148 and 5.2 times those before ischemia, respectively. Preischemic administration of histamine (200 nmol, i.c.v.) suppressed the increase in dopamine and glutamate levels during ischemia, the peak values being 38% and 40% of those in the control group, respectively. Neither the dopamine nor glutamate level was affected by 6-[2-(4-imidazolyl)ethylamino]-N-(trifluoromethylphenyl)heptanecarboxamide (HTMT), an H(1) agonist (100 nmol, i.c.v.). However, dimaprit, an H(2) agonist (100 nmol, i.c.v.) suppressed the peak values to 42% and 32%, respectively. Most neurons were degenerated 7 days after ischemia in control animals. Histologic outcome was alleviated by either histamine or dimaprit treatment, whereas HTMT did not affect the outcome. Although postischemic administration of mepyramine, an H(1) antagonist (5 nmol, i.c.v.), did not affect the histologic alleviation caused by preischemic treatment with histamine, ranitidine, an H(2) antagonist (30 nmol, i.c.v.), partly abolished the improvement caused by histamine. These results suggest that suppression of ischemic release of excitatory neurotransmitters by histamine H(2) action is a contributing factor in alleviation of histologic outcome.

Histamine and prostaglandin interaction in regulation of oxytocin and vasopressin secretion

Prostaglandins and histamine in the hypothalamus are involved in the regulation of oxytocin and vasopressin secretion, and appear to be involved in the mediation of pituitary hormone responses to immunochallenges. Therefore, we investigated in conscious male rats: (i) whether blockade of H1 or H2 receptors affected the oxytocin and vasopressin responses to prostaglandins and (ii) whether blockade of prostaglandin synthesis affected the oxytocin and vasopressin responses to histamine or to Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS), in order to determine any interaction between prostaglandins and histamine in the hypothalamus. Oxytocin secretion was dose-dependently stimulated by intracerebroventricular infusion of 1 or 5 microg of PGE1, PGE2 or PGF2alpha, with PGE2 being the most potent of the compounds used. Prior central infusion of the H1 receptor antagonist mepyramine or the H2 receptor antagonist cimetidine significantly inhibited the oxytocin response to all three prostaglandins by approximately 50%. Vasopressin secretion was increased by PGE1 but not by PGE2 or PGF2alpha. The stimulatory effect of PGE1 was almost annihilated by prior administration of mepyramine or cimetidine. Central infusion of histamine or immunochallenge with LPS administered intraperitoneally increased oxytocin and vasopressin secretion four- and two-fold, respectively. Pretreatment with systemic injection of the prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor indomethacin dose-dependently reduced the oxytocin response and prevented the vasopressin response to histamine or LPS. We conclude that histamine and PGE1, PGE2 or PGF2alpha interact in the regulation of oxytocin secretion, whereas histamine and only PGE1 interact in the regulation of vasopressin secretion. Furthermore, histamine as well as LPS may affect oxytocin and vasopressin neurones via activation of prostaglandins, probably in the hypothalamic supraoptic nucleus.

Waking selective neurons in the posterior hypothalamus and their response to histamine H3-receptor ligands: an electrophysiological study in freely moving cats

Neurons which discharge selectively during waking (waking selective) have been found in the tuberomamillary nucleus (TM) and adjacent areas of the posterior hypothalamus. Although they share some electrophysiological properties with aminergic neurons, there is no direct evidence that they are histaminergic. We have recorded from posterior hypothalamic neurons during the sleep-wake cycle in freely moving cats, and investigated the effects on waking selective neurons of specific ligands of histaminergic H3-receptors, which autoregulate the activity of histaminergic neurons. Two types of neurons were seen. Waking selective neurons, termed "waking-on (W-on)," were located exclusively within the TM and adjacent areas, and discharged at a low regular rate during waking (1.71-2.97 Hz), decreased firing during light slow wave sleep (SWS), became silent during deep SWS and paradoxical sleep (PS) and resumed their activity on, or a few seconds before, awakening. "Waking-related" neurons, located in an area dorsal to the TM, displayed a similar, although less regular, low rate of firing (1.74-5.41 Hz) and a similar discharge profile during the sleep-wake cycle; however, unlike "W-on" neurons, they did not completely stop firing during deep SWS and PS. Intramuscular (i.m.) injection of ciproxifan (an H3-receptor antagonist, 1mg/kg), significantly increased the discharge rate of W-on neurons and induced c-fos expression in histamine-immunoreactive neurons, whereas i.m. injection of imetit (an H3-receptor agonist, 1mg/kg) or microinjection of alpha-methylhistamine (another H3-receptor agonist, 0.025-0.1 microg/0.2 microl) in the vicinity of these cells significantly decreased their discharge rate. Moreover, the effect of the antagonist was reversed by the agonists and vice versa. In contrast, "waking-related" neurons were unaffected by these H3-receptor ligands. These data provide evidence for the histaminergic nature of "W-on" neurons and their role in cortical desynchronization during waking, and highlight the heterogeneity of posterior hypothalamic neuronal populations, which might serve different functions during the wakefulness.

Effects of endogenous histamine on seizure development of pentylenetetrazole-induced kindling in rats

This study was performed to investigate whether or not endogenous histamine can protect seizure development of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced kindling in rats. An intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection with clobenpropit (5 and 10 microg), a representative H(3)-antagonist, significantly prolonged the onset of kindling and inhibited the seizure stages in a dose-dependent manner. Its action was significantly reversed by both immepip (2 microg, i.c.v.), an H(3)-agonist, and alpha-fluoromethylhistidine (alpha-FMH, 10 microg, i.c.v.), a selective histidine decarboxylase inhibitor. alpha-FMH (20 microg, i.c.v.) and pyrilamine (1 and 5 mg/kg i.p.), a classical H(1)-antagonist, markedly augmented the severity of seizure development of PTZ-induced kindling. Therefore, these results indicate that brain endogenous histamine plays a certain protective role on seizure development of PTZ-induced kindling in rats, and that its protective roles are mediated by H(1)-receptors.

The effects of certain H(1)-antagonists on visual evoked potential in rats

The present study was undertaken to clarify the effects of certain H(1)-antagonists on visual evoked potential (VEP) in rats. Pyrilamine (5 and 10 mg/kg), diphenhydramine (5 and 10 mg/kg) and chlorpheniramine (10 and 20 mg/kg) caused a significant reduction in the amplitude of late VEP components (P(3)-N(3), N(3)-P(4)), although these drugs showed no significant changes in early VEP components (P(1)-N(1), N(1)-P(2)). Cyproheptadine caused a slight enhancement of late components of VEP at a dose of 20 mg/kg. On the other hand, epinastine caused no significant effect on late VEP components even at a dose of 20 mg/kg. The reduction in the late VEP components induced by pyrilamine and diphenhydramine was significantly antagonised by pre-treatment of histidine (200 and 500 mg/kg), but not by physostigmine even at a dose of 0.01 mg/kg. The effect induced by cyproheptadine was significantly potentiated by histidine (500 mg/kg), and significantly reduced by DOI (2 mg/kg). These results indicate that an inhibition of the late VEP components induced by H(1)-antagonist pyrilamine, diphenhydramine and chlorpheniramine may be due to an inhibition of specific sensory system relating the histaminergic mechanisms. In addition, slight enhancement of these components induced by cyproheptadine may be attributable to its anti-serotonergic effects.

Signal transduction by histamine in the cerebellum and its modulation by N-methyltransferase

Histamine has been suggested to have roles as a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator. Direct fiber connections between the hypothalamus and the cerebellum have recently been demonstrated and it is suggested that the cerebellum is involved in the control of autonomic and emotional functions. These fibers include histaminergic fibers. The components of histaminergic signal transmission are demonstrated in the cerebellum as follows: (1) the histaminergic fibers are visualized immunohistochemically in the cerebellar cortex of rat, guinea pig and human; (2) histamine H1 receptors are visualized by autoradiographic studies in the molecular layer of mouse and guinea pig. In situ hybridization study also detects the expression of H1 receptors in the Purkinje cells. H2 receptors are expressed in the Purkinje cells and granule cells of guinea pig; and (3) the application of histamine to the slices of guinea pig or rat cerebellar cortex elicits an increase in the turnover of phosphoinositides, so H1 receptors in the cerebellum are functional. Additionally, we have recently shown in the guinea pig that Purkinje cells express one of the histamine inactivating enzymes, and that inhibition of this enzyme enhances phosphoinositide turnover by histamine. Therefore, all the components of histaminergic neurotransmission are demonstrated in the cerebellum. These data suggest that histamine is involved in the signal transmission from the hypothalamus to the cerebellum. Here we review each component of histaminergic neurotransmission in the cerebellum.

Expression of a splice variant of choline acetyltransferase in magnocellular neurons of the tuberomammillary nucleus of rat

A splice variant of choline acetyltransferase mRNA has recently been identified in the pterygopalatine ganglion of rat. An antibody against this variant protein (designated pChAT) was demonstrated to immunolabel peripheral cholinergic neurons. In the present study, we investigated the expression of pChAT in rat brain. Amongst the brain regions examined, magnocellular neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the posterior hypothalamus were immunohistochemically labelled with anti-pChAT antibody, whilst no immunolabelling was detected in cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain or striatum. RT-PCR analysis confirmed the expression of pChAT mRNA in the posterior hypothalamus. The distribution of pChAT-positive neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus was compared with that of neurons positive for adenosine deaminase, which is contained in all neurons of this nucleus. After colchicine treatment to inhibit axonal transport of enzyme, virtually all pChAT-positive cells contained adenosine deaminase. Conversely, about 85% of adenosine deaminase-positive cells contained pChAT in the ventral area, whilst 19% of adenosine deaminase-positive cells were pChAT-positive in the dorsal area. Long axonal projections of pChAT-positive cells in the tuberomammillary nucleus were shown by retrograde labelling of these cells after injection of cholera-toxin B subunit into the cerebral cortex. This study demonstrates that a splice variant of choline acetyltransferase is expressed in the tuberomammillary nucleus of rat. The results raise the possibility that some of the known diverse projection areas of this nucleus may have a cholinergic component.

Modulation of the histaminergic system and behaviour by alpha-fluoromethylhistidine in zebrafish

The functional role of histamine (HA) in zebrafish brains was studied. Zebrafish did not display a clear circadian variation in brain HA levels. Loading of zebrafish with l-histidine increased HA concentration in the brain. A single injection of the histidine decarboxylase (HDC) inhibitor, alpha-fluoromethylhistidine (alpha-FMH), gave rise to a rapid reduction in zebrafish brain HA. Low HDC activity in the brain after injections verified the effect of alpha-FMH. A reduction in the number of histaminergic fibres but not neurones and an increased expression of HDC mRNA was evident after alpha-FMH. Automated behavioural analysis after alpha-FMH injection showed no change in swimming activity, but abnormalities were detected in exploratory behaviour examined in a circular tank. No significant behavioural changes were detected after histidine loading. The time spent for performance in the T-maze was significantly increased in the first trial 4 days after alpha-FMH injections, suggesting that lack of HA may impair long-term memory. The rostrodorsal telencephalon, considered to correspond to the mammalian amygdala and hippocampus in zebrafish, is densely innervated by histaminergic fibres. These results suggest that low HA decreases anxiety and/or affects learning and memory in zebrafish, possibly through mechanisms that involve the dorsal forebrain.

Subcellular distribution of histamine, GABA and galanin in tuberomamillary neurons in vitro

Histamine acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain and regulates e.g. sleep, hibernation, vigilance, and release of several other transmitters. All histaminergic neurons are found in the tuberomamillary nucleus (TM), and send axons to almost all parts of the CNS. Despite the obvious importance of these neurons, their development, transmitter storage, and compartmentalization of cotransmitters are poorly known. Histaminergic neurons from fetal rat hypothalamus were studied in primary explant cultures and analyzed by confocal microscopy. Most histaminergic neurons were oval in shape, but round and triangular ones were also found. The average size of the 212 analyzed neurons was 19.2 microm (length), 12.5 microm (width) and 11.7 microm (thickness). The cells possessed two to five microtubule-associated protein (MAP2) positive processes, putative dendrites, and in general one MAP2-negative thin process, a putative axon. Granular histamine-immunoreactivity was found in the cell bodies, axons, and dendrites. In tuberomamillary neurons, most histamine-containing structures displayed immunoreactivity for vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), indicating that the two markers may coexist in the same structures. Lack of VMAT2 in some histamine-immunoreactive structures indicates that another transporter for histamine may exist. In the same neurons, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-immunoreactivity was found in structures, distinct from those containing histamine, indicating that the two transmitters may be differentially localized, regulated and released. Galanin-immunoreactivity in the cultured tuberomamillary neurons was partially located in the same structures as VMAT2. The results suggest that histamine and GABA, the two principal transmitters of tuberomamillary neurons, are not costored in the same structures in tuberomamillary neurons.

Blockade of central histaminergic H2 receptors facilitates catecholaminergic metabolism and aggravates ischemic brain damage in the rat telencephalon

Blockade of central H(2) receptors aggravates ischemic neuronal damage. Since changes in the activity of the monoaminergic system are contributing factors in the development of ischemic neuronal damage, the authors evaluated the effects of ranitidine on the monoaminergic system and ischemic neuronal damage in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion model of rats. Wistar rats pretreated with saline or ranitidine (3 and 30 nmol, i.c.v.) were subjected to reversible occlusion of MCA for 2 h. The total infarct volume was determined 24 h after reperfusion. The relationship between dopaminergic activity and the histologic outcome was estimated by lesioning the substantia nigra 2 days before MCA occlusion. In a second experiment, the animals were subjected to 15 min of MCA occlusion, and the effects of ranitidine on the histologic outcome was evaluated 7 days after ischemia. In a third experiment, the tissue concentrations of monoamines and their metabolites were determined in the cerebral cortex and striatum 2 h after reperfusion following MCA occlusion for 2 h. The turnover of norepinephrine and dopamine was compared between animals treated with saline and those treated with ranitidine by estimating the alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine-induced depletion of norepinephrine and dopamine, respectively. The turnover of 5-hydroxytryptamine was evaluated by the probenecid-induced accumulation of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Treatments with ranitidine markedly increased the infarct volume 24 h after reperfusion. Ranitidine also aggravated delayed neuronal death 7 days after ischemia. The aggravation was abolished by the lesion of the substantia nigra before MCA occlusion. The MCA occlusion increased the turnover of cortical norepinephrine and striatal dopamine. The turnover was further facilitated by ranitidine. Although ranitidine suppressed the 5-hydroxytryptamine turnover in the cerebral cortex, the extent of this effect was similar in both the ischemic and non-ischemic sides. These results suggest that facilitation of the catecholaminergic systems is involved in the aggravation of ischemic neuronal damage by H(2) blockade.

Chemical kindling induced by pentylenetetrazol in histamine H(1) receptor gene knockout mice (H(1)KO), histidine decarboxylase-deficient mice (HDC(-/-)) and mast cell-deficient W/W(v) mice

The role of brain histamine on seizure development of pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced kindling was examined in H(1)-receptor gene knockout (H(1)KO), histidine decarboxylase-deficient (HDC(-/-)) and mast cell-deficient (W/W(v)) mice. All H(1)KO, HDC(-/-) and W/W(v) mice had accelerated seizure development of PTZ-induced kindling when compared to their respective wild-type mice. The daily PTZ-kindling increased histamine content in the cortex and diencephalon of H(1)KO mice, whereas the histamine content in the diencephalon of W/W(v) mice was decreased. The present study indicates that histamine plays a suppressive role in seizure development through H(1)-receptors.

Blockade of histamine H2 receptors of the periaqueductal gray and inferior colliculus induces fear-like behaviors

Electrical and chemical stimulation of the dorsal periaqueductal gray matter (dPAG) and the inferior colliculus (IC) induces escape behavior, usually accompanied by autonomic responses and antinociception. Recently, we presented evidence for a tonic inhibitory control exerted by H(2) histamine receptors on defensive behaviors generated in these midbrain tectum sites. Since treatments of these areas that elicit the defensive behavior repertoire frequently also have anxiogenic effects, we here used the elevated plus-maze (EPM) test for assessing the effects of microinjections of histamine (5-40 nmol), dimaprit (5-10 nmol) and ranitidine (10-30 nmol) into either dPAG or IC, which have a relative abundance of histamine-containing cells and histaminergic receptors. Dimaprit is an agonist and ranitidine is an antagonist of H(2) histamine receptors. Immediately after the injections, the animals were submitted to the EPM test. Whereas dPAG injections of dimaprit had no behavioral effects, histamine (40 nmol) caused a significant reduction in exploratory activity. On the other hand, ranitidine alone or following saline had aversive-like effects in both structures, i.e. reduced open arm, but not closed arm, entries. This pattern is usually interpreted as representing an anxiogenic effect. These effects were more pronounced after injection into dPAG than into IC. Freezing, the most prominent effect produced by ranitidine, was significantly inhibited by histamine as well as dimaprit. Thus, H(2) receptor blockade has fear-like action in the midbrain tectum with predominance in the dPAG. Such an action can be understood as a concomitant of defensive behavior, which has been shown to be a consequence of H(2) receptor antagonism in both dPAG and IC. The functional significance of the different effects of H(2) receptor blockade in dPAG and IC is discussed in the light of the probable distinct roles of these structures in the organization of defensive behavior.

Effects of histamine and cholinergic systems on memory retention of passive avoidance learning in rats

In the present study, the effects of the histamine and cholinergic systems on memory retention in adult male rats were investigated. Post-training intracerebroventricular injections were carried out in all the experiments. Cholinoceptor agonist, acetylcholine (1-10 microg/rat) or nicotine (1-10 microg/rat), increased, while a cholinoceptor antagonist, scopolamine (5-20 microg/rat), decreased memory retention. The response to acetylcholine was attenuated by scopolamine. Administration of histamine (5-20 microg/rat) reduced, but the histamine H(1) receptor antagonist, pyrilamine (10-50 microg/rat), and the histamine H(2) receptor antagonist, cimetidine (1-50 microg/rat), increased memory retention in rats. The histamine receptor antagonists attenuated the response to histamine. Histamine reduced the acetylcholine- or nicotine-induced enhancement. The histamine receptor antagonists enhanced the nicotine- or acetylcholine-induced response. Histamine potentiated the inhibitory effect induced by scopolamine. It is concluded that histaminergic and cholinergic systems have opposing effects on memory retention. Also, the histaminergic system elicits an interaction with the cholinergic system in memory retention.

Expression and function of P2X purinoceptors in rat histaminergic neurons

(1) The pharmacology of ATP responses and the expression pattern of seven known subunits of the P2X receptor were investigated in individual histaminergic neurons of the tuberomamillary nucleus (TM). (2) ATP (3-1000 micro M) evoked fast non-desensitizing inward currents in TM neurons. 2-methylthioATP (2MeSATP) displayed the same efficacy but a lower potency, EC(50)s 84 micro M versus 48 micro M, when compared with ATP. Adenosine-diphosphate (ADP), uridine-triphosphate (UTP) and alpha beta methylene-ATP (alphabeta-meATP) were inactive. (3) ATP-mediated whole cell currents were potentiated by acidification of the recording solution (pH 7.5 and 6.6 were compared). (4) Single-cell RT-PCR (scRT-PCR) analysis revealed that the P2X(2) receptor is expressed in all PCR-positive neurons. Each of the P2X(1), P2X(3), P2X(4), P2X(5) and P2X(6) mRNAs were detected in less than 35% of the cells. (5) Suramin antagonized ATP responses with an IC(50) of 4.2 micro M and pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulphonic acid (PPADS, 1 micro M) reduced ATP responses to 43% of control, when antagonists were pre-applied 90s before the agonist. Cibacron blue (3 micro M) given together with ATP potentiated control responses by 67%, but inhibited it to 10% after pre-application. (6) 2',3'-O-(2,4,6-Trinitrophenyl) adenosine 5'-triphosphate (TNP-ATP) antagonized ATP responses with an IC(50) of 7 micro M. (7) Pharmacological properties of ATP responses together with scRT-PCR data suggest that P2X(2) is the major purinoceptor on the soma of TM neurons, however the presence of heteromeric P2X(2/5) receptors in some neurons cannot be excluded.

The effect of taste stimuli on histamine release in the anterior hypothalamus of rats

We studied the effect of gustatory stimulation on hypothalamic histamine release. Administering a four-basic taste mixture significantly increased histamine release, but not in the chorda tympani-transected rats. 0.1 M NaCl significantly increased histamine release, whereas 0.5 M sucrose, 0.02 M quinine HCl and 0.01 M HCl had no effect. However, when the concentration of HCl was increased to 0.03 M, a significant increase in histamine release was seen. These results suggest that taste information via the chorda tympani activates the histaminergic system.

Roles of histamine receptors in pain perception: A study using receptors gene knockout mice

To study the participation of histamine H1- and H2-receptors in pain perception, H1 and H2 receptor knockout (KO) mice were examined for pain threshold by means of three kinds of nociceptive tasks. These included assays for thermal, mechanical, and chemical nociception. H1KO mice showed significantly fewer nociceptive responses to the hot-plate, tail-flick, tail-pressure, paw-withdrawal, formalin, capsaicin, and abdominal constriction tests. Sensitivity to noxious stimuli in H1KO mice was significantly decreased when compared to wild-type mice. The antinociceptive phenotypes of H2KO were relatively less prominent when compared to H1KO mice. We also examined the antinociceptive effects of intrathecally-, intracerebroventricularly-, and subcutaneously-administered morphine in H1KO and H2KO mice. In these nociceptive assays, the antinociceptive effects produced by morphine were more enhanced in both H1KO and H2KO mice. The effects of histamine H1- and H2-receptor antagonists on morphine-induced antinociception were studied in ICR mice. The intrathecal, intracerebroventricular and subcutaneous co-administrations of d-chlorpheniramine enhanced the effects of morphine in all nociceptive assays examined. In addition, intrathecal co-administrations of cimetidine enhanced the antinociception of morphine in the hot plate tests. These results suggest that existing H1 and H2 receptors play an inhibitory role in morphine-induced antinociception in the spinal and supra-spinal levels.