Moderate exercise is an antioxidant: upregulation of antioxidant genes by training

Age-Dependent Impairment in Endothelial Function and Arterial Stiffness in Former High Class Male Athletes Is No Different to That in Men With No History of Physical Training

Background

Physical activity is generally considered to exert positive effects on the cardiovascular system in humans. However, surprisingly little is known about the delayed effect of professional physical training performed at a young age on endothelial function and arterial stiffness in aging athletes. The present study aimed to assess the impact of long‐lasting professional physical training (endurance and sprint) performed at a young age on the endothelial function and arterial stiffness reported in older age in relation to glycocalyx injury, prostacyclin and nitric oxide production, inflammation, basal blood lipid profile, and glucose homeostasis.

Methods and Results

This study involved 94 male subjects with varied training backgrounds, including young athletes (mean age ∼25 years), older former high class athletes (mean age ∼60 years), and aged‐matched untrained control groups. Aging increased arterial stiffness, as reflected by an enhancement in pulse wave velocity, augmentation index, and stiffness index (P<10⁻⁴), as well as decreased endothelial function, as judged by the attenuation of flow‐mediated vasodilation (FMD) in the brachial artery (P=0.03). Surprisingly, no effect of the training performed at a young age on endothelial function and arterial stiffness was observed in the former athletes. Moreover, no effect of training performed at a young age (P>0.05) on blood lipid profile, markers of inflammation, and glycocalyx shedding were observed in the former athletes.

Conclusions

Our study clearly shows that aging, but not physical training history, represents the main contributing factor responsible for decline in endothelial function and increase in arterial stiffness in former athletes.

Blood flow-restricted training enhances thigh glucose uptake during exercise and muscle antioxidant function in humans

This study examined the effects of blood-flow-restricted (BFR)-training on thigh glucose uptake at rest and during exercise in humans and the muscular mechanisms involved. Ten active men (~25 y; VO_2max ~50 mL/kg/min) completed six weeks of training, where one leg trained with BFR (cuff pressure: ~180 mmHg) and the other leg without BFR. Before and after training, thigh glucose uptake was determined at rest and during exercise at 25% and 90% of leg incremental peak power output by sampling of femoral arterial and venous blood and measurement of femoral arterial blood flow. Furthermore, resting muscle samples were collected. After training, thigh glucose uptake during exercise was higher than before training only in the BFR-trained leg (p < 0.05) due to increased glucose extraction (p < 0.05). Further, BFR-training substantially improved time to exhaustion during exhaustive exercise (11 ± 5% vs. CON-leg; p = 0.001). After but not before training, NAC infusion attenuated (~50-100%) leg net glucose uptake and extraction during exercise only in the BFR-trained leg, which coincided with an increased muscle abundance of Cu/Zn-SOD (39%), GPX-1 (29%), GLUT4 (28%), and nNOS (18%) (p < 0.05). Training did not affect Mn-SOD, catalase, and VEGF abundance in either leg (p > 0.05), although Mn-SOD was higher in BFR-leg vs. CON-leg after training (p < 0.05). The ratios of p-AMPK-Thr¹⁷²/AMPK and p-ACC-Ser⁷⁹/ACC, and p-ACC-Ser⁷⁹, remained unchanged in both legs (p > 0.05), despite a higher p-AMPK-Thr¹⁷² in BFR-leg after training (38%; p < 0.05). In conclusion, BFR-training enhances glucose uptake by exercising muscles in humans probably due to an increase in antioxidant function, GLUT4 abundance, and/or NO availability.

Precompetitional Weight Reduction Modifies Prooxidative-Antioxidative Status in Judokas

Objective

The main aim of the study was an assessment of the influence of rapid weight loss on oxidative stress parameters in judokas differing in weight reduction value.

Materials and Methods

The study included 30 judokas with an age range of 18-30 years (mean age: 22.4 ± 3.40 years). Enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidative markers, lipid peroxidation markers, and total oxidative stress were assessed three times: one week before a competition (the first stage), after gaining the desired weight (the second stage), and one week after the competition (the third stage).

Results

Between the first and the second stage, the concentration of lipid hydroperoxides (LPH) decreased significantly. The superoxide dismutase (SOD), copper- and zinc-containing superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD), ceruloplasmin (CER), malondialdehyde (MDA), LPH, and total oxidative stress (TOS) concentrations were the lowest one week after the competition. Linear regression indicated that the emphases on increased weight reduction increased the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and protein sulfhydryl (PSH) between the first and the second stage of the study. Moderate weight reduction (2-5%) resulted in elevated levels of SOD, Mn-SOD, LPH, MDA, and TOS in comparison to low and high reductions. An opposite relation was observed in PSH. In judokas, the precompetitional weight reduction range was 0.44-6.10% (mean: 2.93% ± 1.76%) of the initial body weight. Concentrations of superoxide dismutase (SOD; p < .01), manganese-dependent superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD; p < .001), and ceruloplasmin (CER; p < .05) decreased between the first and the third stage of the study as well between the second and third one. Before competitions, a decrease in lipid hydroperoxide (LPH; p < .01) concentration was observed. A reduction of malondialdehyde (MDA; p < .05), LPH (p < .01), and total oxidative stress (TOS; p < .05) levels between the first and the final stage occurred. The increase in weight reduction was linearly correlated with the rise of glutathione peroxidase (GPx; p < .05), glutathione reductase (GR; p < .05), glutathione S-transferase (GST; p < .05), and protein sulfhydryl (PSH; p < .05) concentrations between the first and the second stage of the study. Moderate weight reduction (2-5%) resulted in elevated levels of SOD (p < .05), Mn-SOD (p < .05), LPH (p < .05), MDA (p < .05), and TOS (p < .05) in comparison to low and high reductions. An opposite relation was observed in PSH (p < .005).

Conclusions

The effect of weight reduction in judo athletes on prooxidative-antioxidative system diversity depends on the weight reduction value.

[Optical coherence tomography angiography as a future diagnostic tool in sports medicine?]

BACKGROUND

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) proved to be efficient for increasing health-related fitness in general and in patients with life style-induced chronic diseases. This study aimed to evaluate if (I) individual physical fitness and (II) a HIIT intervention affects optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) measurements at the ocular fundus of healthy young adults.

METHODS

A total of 65 healthy participants performed a standardized incremental running test to determine their physical fitness. This was defined as speed at the individual anaerobic threshold and maximum running speed followed by a 4-week HIIT with two exercise sessions/week. The OCTA measurements of the foveal avascular zone (FAZ) and flow densities in various segments of the macula and optic nerve head were performed at rest before and after HIIT.

RESULTS

An inverse correlation between individual fitness and FAZ area was detected. No further correlations between individual physical fitness and other OCTA parameters were found. In response to HIIT the mean FAZ area in the deep retinal plexus and macular flow density of the superficial layer decreased by 14.00 ± 13.02% and 1.26 ± 3.20%, respectively. The flow density of the nerve head layer in the peripapillary area showed an increase of 1.94 ± 2.39%. All other parameters showed no differences between measurements before and after HIIT.

CONCLUSION

Differences were found in the OCTA measurements of the FAZ depending on the individual physical fitness. Performing HIIT can induce significant changes in certain OCTA parameters. Therefore, OCTA imaging appears to be a promising imaging modality in the field of sports medicine.

Supplementation of Adiantum capillus-veneris Modulates Alveolar Apoptosis under Hypoxia Condition in Wistar Rats Exposed to Exercise

Background and Objectives: Several studies have reported that some conditions such as exercise and hypoxia induce DNA damage and dysfunction and apoptosis. Some plant foods contain numerous bioactive compounds and anti-inflammatory properties that can help fight DNA damage. Therefore, the current study evaluated the effect of supplementation of Adiantum capillus-veneris (ACV) extract on Bax/B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) ratio apoptotic index and remodeling of pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells in lung tissue of healthy Wistar rats during stressful conditions (hypoxia). Materials and Methods: Twenty-seven Wistar male rats (four-week old, 72 ± 9 g) were randomly assigned into three groups: normoxic, sedentary, and not-supplemented (NG, n = 9); exercise and hypoxia and not-supplemented (HE, n = 9); and exercise and hypoxia and supplemented group (HS, n = 9). The NG remained sedentary in the normoxia environment for nine weeks. The HE group participated in a high-intensity (IT) program for six weeks, then remained sedentary in the hypoxia environment for three weeks. The low-pressure chamber simulated a ~2800 M altitude 24 h/d. HS participated in IT, then entered and remained sedentary in the hypoxia environment for three weeks, and they consumed 500 mg per kg of body weight ACV extract. Results: The Bax/Bcl-2 ratio of the HE group increased significantly (+50.27%, p ≤ 0.05), the average number of type I pneumocytes was reduced significantly (−18.85%, p ≤ 0.05), and the average number of type II pneumocytes was increased significantly (+14.69%, p ≤ 0.05). Also, after three weeks of consuming the ACV extract, the HS group in comparison with the HE group had their Bax/Bcl-2 ratio reduced significantly (−24.27%, p ≤ 0.05), the average number of type I pneumocytes increased significantly (+10.15%, p ≤ 0.05), and the average number of type II pneumocytes reduced significantly (−7.18%, p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: The findings show that after three weeks of hypoxia following six weeks of high-intensity interval training in Wistar rats, the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and the number of type II pneumocytes were increased and the number of type I pneumocytes was reduced significantly. These results strongly suggest that an apoptosis state was induced in the lung parenchyma, and consuming ACV extract modulated this state.

Tissue-Specific Oxidative Stress Modulation by Exercise: A Comparison between MICT and HIIT in an Obese Rat Model

Background and Aim

Exercise is an effective strategy to reduce obesity-induced oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of two training modalities (moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT)) on the pro/antioxidant status of different tissues in obese Zucker rats.

Methods

Eight-week-old male Zucker rats (fa/fa, n = 36) were subdivided in three groups: MICT, HIIT, and control (no exercise) groups. Trained animals ran on a treadmill (0° slope), 5 days/week for 10 weeks (MICT: 51 min at 12 m·min^-1; HIIT: 6 sets of 3 min at 10 m·min^-1 followed by 4 min at 18 m·min^-1). Epididymal (visceral) and subcutaneous adipose tissue, gastrocnemius muscle, and plasma samples were collected to measure oxidative stress markers (advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)), antioxidant system markers (ferric-reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities), and prooxidant enzymes (NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase (XO) activities, myeloperoxidase content).

Results

Compared with the control, MICT increased GPx and catalase activities and the FRAP level in epididymal adipose tissue. HIIT increased the AOPP level in subcutaneous adipose tissue. In the muscle, HIIT increased both SOD and GPx activities and reduced the AOPP level, whereas MICT increased only SOD activity. Finally, plasma myeloperoxidase content was similarly decreased by both training modalities, whereas oxLDL was reduced only in the MICT group.

Conclusion

Both HIIT and MICT improved the pro/antioxidant status. However, HIIT was more efficient than MICT in the skeletal muscle, whereas MICT was more efficient in epididymal adipose tissue. This suggests that oxidative stress responses to HIIT and MICT are tissue-specific. This could result in ROS generation via different pathways in these tissues. From a practical point of view, the two training modalities should be combined to obtain a global response in people with obesity.

Physical Exercise Inhibits Inflammation and Microglial Activation

Accumulating evidence indicates that exercise can enhance brain function and attenuate neurodegeneration. Besides improving neuroplasticity by altering the synaptic structure and function in various brain regions, exercise also modulates multiple systems that are known to regulate neuroinflammation and glial activation. Activated microglia and several pro-inflammatory cytokines play active roles in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. The purpose of this review is to highlight the impacts of exercise on microglial activation. Possible mechanisms involved in exercise-modulated microglial activation are also discussed. Undoubtedly, more studies are needed in order to disclose the detailed mechanisms, but this approach offers therapeutic potential for improving the brain health of millions of aging people where pharmacological intervention has failed.

Acrylamide-induced alterations in lungs of mice in relation to oxidative stress indicators

The aim of the experiment was to study the influence of acrylamide (ACR) on major antioxidants in the lungs of Swiss mice. The experiment was conducted on male mice that were 8 weeks old. The mice were exposed to ACR at a single dose of 26 µg per animal, which was administered orally. Mice were anesthetized 3, 24, and 48 h after the ACR gavage. Next, histopathological and biochemical analyses of GSH concentration and the activities of SOD, GPx, and CAT were performed in the lungs. Animals exposed to ACR showed demonstrated symptoms of inflammation in lungs, hypertrophy of bronchiolar epithelium, and hyperplasia of alveolar epithelium. GSH concentration was significantly decreased 3 h after ACR gavage, which was followed by a significant increase 48 h after ACR gavage. Similarly, SOD and GPx demonstrated decreased activities 3 h after exposure to ACR, followed by increased activities 48 h after exposure to ACR. CAT activity was significantly increased 24 and 48 h after exposure to ACR. We conclude that oral exposure of mice to ACR results in alterations of lung microstructure, accompanied by the symptoms of redox imbalance.

Effect of Cocoa Products and Its Polyphenolic Constituents on Exercise Performance and Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Inflammation: A Review of Clinical Trials

In recent years, the consumption of chocolate and, in particular, dark chocolate has been "rehabilitated" due to its high content of cocoa antioxidant polyphenols. Although it is recognized that regular exercise improves energy metabolism and muscle performance, excessive or unaccustomed exercise may induce cell damage and impair muscle function by triggering oxidative stress and tissue inflammation. The aim of this review was to revise the available data from literature on the effects of cocoa polyphenols on exercise-associated tissue damage and impairment of exercise performance. To this aim, PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched with the following keywords: "intervention studies", "cocoa polyphenols", "exercise training", "inflammation", "oxidative stress", and "exercise performance". We selected thirteen randomized clinical trials on cocoa ingestion that involved a total of 200 well-trained athletes. The retrieved data indicate that acute, sub-chronic, and chronic cocoa polyphenol intake may reduce exercise-induced oxidative stress but not inflammation, while mixed results are observed in terms of exercise performance and recovery. The interpretation of available results on the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities of cocoa polyphenols remains questionable, likely due to the variety of physiological networks involved. Further experimental studies are mandatory to clarify the role of cocoa polyphenol supplementation in exercise-mediated inflammation.

Mediators of Physical Activity Protection against ROS-Linked Skeletal Muscle Damage

Unaccustomed and/or exhaustive exercise generates excessive free radicals and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species leading to muscle oxidative stress-related damage and impaired contractility. Conversely, a moderate level of free radicals induces the body's adaptive responses. Thus, a low oxidant level in resting muscle is essential for normal force production, and the production of oxidants during each session of physical training increases the body's antioxidant defenses. Mitochondria, NADPH oxidases and xanthine oxidases have been identified as sources of free radicals during muscle contraction, but the exact mechanisms underlying exercise-induced harmful or beneficial effects yet remain elusive. However, it is clear that redox signaling influences numerous transcriptional activators, which regulate the expression of genes involved in changes in muscle phenotype. The mitogen-activated protein kinase family is one of the main links between cellular oxidant levels and skeletal muscle adaptation. The family components phosphorylate and modulate the activities of hundreds of substrates, including transcription factors involved in cell response to oxidative stress elicited by exercise in skeletal muscle. To elucidate the complex role of ROS in exercise, here we reviewed the literature dealing on sources of ROS production and concerning the most important redox signaling pathways, including MAPKs that are involved in the responses to acute and chronic exercise in the muscle, particularly those involved in the induction of antioxidant enzymes.

Nutrition and Supplement Update for the Endurance Athlete: Review and Recommendations

BACKGROUND

Endurance events have experienced a significant increase in growth in the new millennium and are popular activities for participation globally. Sports nutrition recommendations for endurance exercise however remains a complex issue with often opposing views and advice by various health care professionals.

METHODS

A PubMed/Medline search on the topics of endurance, athletes, nutrition, and performance was undertaken and a review performed summarizing the current evidence concerning macronutrients, hydration, and supplements as it pertains to endurance athletes.

RESULTS

Carbohydrate and hydration recommendations have not drastically changed in years, while protein and fat intake have been traditionally underemphasized in endurance athletes. Several supplements are commercially available to athletes, of which, few may be of benefit for endurance activities, including nitrates, antioxidants, caffeine, and probiotics, and are reviewed here. The topic of "train low," training in a low carbohydrate state is also discussed, and the post-exercise nutritional "recovery window" remains an important point to emphasize to endurance competitors.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes the key recommendations for macronutrients, hydration, and supplements for endurance athletes, and helps clinicians treating endurance athletes clear up misconceptions in sports nutrition research when counseling the endurance athlete.

Adaptations to high-intensity interval training in skeletal muscle require NADPH oxidase 2

OBJECTIVE

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been proposed as signaling molecules mediating exercise training adaptation, but the ROS source has remained unclear. This study aimed to investigate if increased NADPH oxidase (NOX)2-dependent activity during exercise is required for long-term high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in skeletal muscle using a mouse model lacking functional NOX2 complex due to absent p47phox (Ncf1) subunit expression (ncf1* mutation).

METHODS

HIIT was investigated after an acute bout of exercise and after a chronic intervention (3x/week for 6 weeks) in wild-type (WT) vs. NOX2 activity-deficient (ncf1*) mice. NOX2 activation during HIIT was measured using an electroporated genetically-encoded biosensor. Immunoblotting and single-fiber microscopy was performed to measure classical exercise-training responsive endpoints in skeletal muscle.

RESULTS

A single bout of HIIT increased NOX2 activity measured as p47-roGFP oxidation immediately after exercise but not 1 h or 4 h after exercise. After a 6-week HIIT regimen, improvements in maximal running capacity and some muscle training-markers responded less to HIIT in the ncf1* mice compared to WT, including superoxide dismutase 2, catalase, hexokinase II, pyruvate dehydrogenase and protein markers of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation complexes. Strikingly, HIIT-training increased mitochondrial network area and decreased fragmentation in WT mice only.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that HIIT exercise increases NOX2 activity in skeletal muscle and shows that NOX2 activity is required for specific skeletal muscle adaptations to HIIT relating to antioxidant defense, glucose metabolism, and mitochondria.

Aerobic training and vascular protection: Insight from altered blood flow patterns

NEW FINDING

What is the central question of this study? This study sought to determine whether prior upper limb aerobic training can attenuate the vascular dysfunction resulting from negative alteration of blood flow patterns. What is the main finding and its importance? We demonstrated that the microvasculature of young men with prior upper limb aerobic training (rowing) was equally susceptible to negatively altered blood flow patterns when compared with untrained control subjects. This finding reveals that aerobic training does not provide adequate protection against this type of vascular insult, highlighting the importance of reducing known vascular insults regardless of training status.

ABSTRACT

Acute alteration of blood flow patterns can substantially reduce blood vessel function and, if consistently repeated, may chronically reduce vascular health. Aerobic exercise training is associated with improved vascular health, but it is not well understood whether aerobic training-induced vascular adaptations provide protection against acute vascular insults. This study sought to determine whether prior upper limb aerobic training can attenuate the vascular dysfunction resulting from an acute vascular insult (increased retrograde/oscillatory shear). Ten young arm-trained (AT) men (rowers; 22 ± 1 years of age) and 10 untrained (UT) male control subjects (21 ± 3 years of age) were recruited for this study. Subjects completed two brachial artery (BA) flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) tests separated by an acute bout of subdiastolic cuff inflation (SDCI) of the distal forearm. Brachial artery dilatation (normalized for the shear stimulus) and reactive hyperaemia evaluated during the BA FMD test were used to determine conduit artery and microvascular function, respectively. Data were presented as mean values ± SD. The AT group reported significantly greater whole body (peak oxygen uptake; P = 0.01) and forearm aerobic capacity (P < 0.001). The SDCI intervention significantly increased retrograde (P < 0.001) and oscillatory shear (P < 0.001) in both groups. After the SDCI, microvascular function (post-cuff release hyperaemia), but not conduit artery function (shear-induced BA dilatation), was significantly reduced from pre-SDCI values (P = 0.001) independent of group. This study revealed that young men with prior upper limb aerobic training, when compared with untrained control subjects, were equally susceptible to the microvascular dysfunction associated with an acute increase in retrograde/oscillatory shear.

Interactions between Ambient Air Particles and Greenness on Cause-specific Mortality in Seven Korean Metropolitan Cities, 2008-2016

This study aims to investigate the association of particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10 μm (PM₁₀) and greenness with cause-specific mortality and their interactions in seven Korean metropolitan cities. We obtained the annual standardized cause-specific mortality rates, annual mean concentration of PM₁₀, and annual Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for 73 districts for the period 2008-2016. We used negative binomial regression with city-specific random effects to estimate the association of PM₁₀ and greenness with mortality. The models were adjusted for potential confounders and spatial autocorrelation. We also conducted stratified analyses to investigate whether the association between PM₁₀ and mortality differs by the level of greenness. Our findings suggest an increased risk of all causes examined, except respiratory disease mortality, with high levels of PM₁₀ and decreased risk of cardiovascular-related mortality with a high level of greenness. In the stratified analyses, we found interactions between PM₁₀ and greenness, but these interactions in the opposite direction depend on the cause of death. The effects of PM₁₀ on cardiovascular-related mortality were attenuated in greener areas, whereas the effects of PM₁₀ on non-accidental mortality were attenuated in less green areas. Further studies are needed to explore the underlying mechanisms.

Effect of herbal antioxidant-rich formula on improvement of antioxidant defense system and heat shock protein-70 expression in recreational female athletes: A randomized controlled trial

Background:

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of natural antioxidant formula (blend of herbs: ginger root, cinnamon bark and raw almond fruit powder, rosemary leaf powder, and honey) on oxidative status, antioxidant enzyme activity, and relative heat shock protein (HSP-70) expression in recreational female athletes.

Materials and Methods:

Eighteen female participants trained for 4 weeks and randomly received either antioxidant formula (FormEX) (n = 8) or placebo (PlcEX) (n = 10) in a randomized controlled trial. Blood samples were obtained 1-h before, 1 h and 24 h postexercise to measure malondialdehyde (MDA), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidases (GPx), and HSP70 mRNA expression. Data analysis was performed using 2 (treatment = grouping factor) ×6 (time = within-factor) repeated measurements analysis of variance or generalized estimating equations (GEE) test. We used the independent t-test to evaluate any significant differences for real-time polymerase chain reaction data.

Results:

Antioxidant formula increased the relative HSP-70 mRNA expression more than Plc-EX group in all time points (P = 0.001). The time main effect was significant with regard to TAC and SOD concentrations (P = 0.001 and 0.002, respectively). However, there were no statistically significant differences between groups for TAC, SOD, and MDA (P = 0.25, 0.06, and 0.38, respectively). Neither the time main effect for MDA nor time and intervention interaction was not statistically significant for MDA, TAC, and SOD (P = 0.19, 0.13, and 0.10, respectively). GEE results for GPx showed that there were no significant differences between the groups (P = 0.11).

Conclusion:

The results presented herein revealed that natural antioxidant rich formula had variable effects on oxidative status. However, in contrast to many antioxidant supplements, this formulation increases the HSP-70 mRNA expression which might improve the antioxidant ability of cells in the long-term period and exercise-induced adaptation.

Relationship Between Distance Run Per Week, Omega-3 Index, and Arachidonic Acid (AA)/Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) Ratio: An Observational Retrospective Study in Non-elite Runners

Background: Tissue availability of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) depends on several factors, including dietary intake, physical exercise, genetic variation, and metabolic turnover. However, there is limited evidence whether running training activity per se may influence indices associated with PUFA metabolism such as Omega-3 (ω-3) index and arachidonic acid (AA; 20:4ω-6)/eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5ω-3) ratio.

Objective: To examine the association between kilometers (Km) run per week and changes in ω-3 index and AA/EPA ratio.

Methods: We conducted a retrospective, observational, cohort study of 257 non-elite runners (mean age: 40.85 ± 12.17 years) who consumed no fatty acid supplements and provided a blood sample for analysis. The whole blood samples were collected by finger sticks, stored on absorbent filter paper, and then PUFA were quantified by gas chromatography (GC) and ω-3 index and AA/EPA ratio measured.

Results: In a multivariate linear regression model, a gradual decrease of the ω-3 index was observed with higher weekly running distance (β = −0.033; 95% CI −0.039 to −0.026; R² = 0.447; p < 0.0001). We also found a progressive increase of the AA/EPA ratio in subjects who ran greater weekly distances (β = 0.092; 95% CI 0.038 to 0.146; R² = 0.320; p = 0.001). No other significant associations were observed with other variables, including years of running training and weekly training frequency (hours/week). Finally, as expected, a significant inverse correlation between ω-3 index and AA/EPA ratio (β = −2.614; 95% CI −3.407 to −1.821; R² = 0.336; p < 0.0001) was detected.

Conclusions: These findings suggest that distance running training and its weekly volume may negatively contribute to changes of the ω-3 index and AA/EPA ratio. Further studies with greater sample size will be required to replicate and extend these data.

The Influence of an Eight-Week Cycloergometer-Based Cardiac Rehabilitation on Serum Antioxidant Status in Men with Coronary Heart Disease: A Prospective Study

Background and objectives: A body of evidence confirms the benefits of cardiac rehabilitation (CR) in coronary heart disease (CHD) patients, but it remains unclear whether it enhances the antioxidant potential. The aim of the study was to assess the influence of an eight-week aerobic cycloergometer-based CR program on serum total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and other CHD risk factors. Materials and Methods: The study involved 36 men with CHD (55.2 ± 9.0 years). TAC was assessed with two methods: ferric reducing ability of serum (TAC-FRAS) and 2.2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (TAC-DPPH). Aerobic capacity was evaluated during a submaximal exercise test. TAC and other anthropometric, biochemical and physical activity/fitness measures were performed twice: before the beginning and after termination of CR. Results: Aerobic capacity was higher (7.0 ± 2.6 vs. 8.0 ± 2.5 MET—metabolic equivalents; p < 0.01), but values of resting diastolic blood pressure were lower (81.9 ± 7.6 vs. 77.4 ± 8.9 mmHg; p < 0.01) after termination of CR. Other classic cardiometabolic, anthropometric, and biochemical measures did not change with CR. No difference in TAC-FRAS was found after CR, whereas TAC-DPPH was significantly lower (16.4 ± 4.0 vs. 13.2 ± 3.7% reduction; p < 0.01). Conclusions: Antioxidant potential measured as TAC-DPPH, but not as TAC-FRAS, decreased with the CR program. The recognized health benefits of CR are not related to augmented serum antioxidant status.

The early response of αB-crystallin to a single bout of aerobic exercise in mouse skeletal muscles depends upon fiber oxidative features

Besides its substantial role in eye lens, αB-crystallin (HSPB5) retains fundamental function in striated muscle during physiological or pathological modifications. In this study, we aimed to analyse the cellular and molecular factors driving the functional response of HSPB5 protein in different muscles from mice subjected to an acute bout of non-damaging endurance exercise or in C2C12 myocytes upon exposure to pro-oxidant environment, chosen as “in vivo” and “in vitro” models of a physiological stressing conditions, respectively.

To this end, red (GR) and white gastrocnemius (GW), as sources of slow-oxidative and fast-glycolytic/oxidative fibers, as well as the soleus (SOL), mainly composed of slow-oxidative type fibers, were obtained from BALB/c mice, before (CTRL) and at different times (0′, 15′, 30′ 120′) following 1-h of running. Although the total level of HSPB5 protein was not affected by exercise, we found a significantly increase of phosphorylated HSPB5 (p-HSPB5) only in GR and SOL skeletal muscle with a higher amount of type I and IIA/X myofibers. The fiber-specific activation of HSPB5 was correlated to its interaction with the actin filaments, as well as to an increased level of lipid peroxidation and carbonylated proteins. The role of the pro-oxidant environment in HSPB5 response was investigated in terminally differentiated C2C12 myotubes, where most of HSPB5/pHSPB5 pool was present in the cytosolic compartment in standard culture conditions. As a result of exposure to pro-oxidizing, but not cytotoxic, H₂O₂ concentration, the p-38MAPK-mediated phosphorylation of HSPB5 resulted functional to promote its interaction with the myofibrillar components, such as β-actin, desmin and filamin 1.

This study provides novel information on the molecular pathway underlying the HSPB5 physiological function in skeletal muscle, confirming the contribution of the pro-oxidant environment in HSPB5 activation and interaction with substrate/client myofibrillar proteins, offering new insights for the study of myofibrillar myopathies and cardiomyopathies.

Exercise training remodels human skeletal muscle mitochondrial fission and fusion machinery towards a pro-elongation phenotype

AIMS

Mitochondria exist as a morphologically plastic network driven by cellular bioenergetic demand. Induction of fusion and fission machinery allows the organelle to regulate quality control and substrate flux. Physiological stressors promote fragmentation of the mitochondrial network, a process implicated in the onset of metabolic disease, including type 2 diabetes and obesity. It is well-known that exercise training improves skeletal muscle mitochondrial volume, number, and density. However, the effect of exercise training on muscle mitochondrial dynamics remains unclear.

METHODS

Ten sedentary adults (65.8 ± 4.6 years; 34.3 ± 2.4 kg/m² ) underwent 12 weeks of supervised aerobic exercise training (5 day/wk, 85% of HR_MAX ). Body composition, cardio-metabolic testing, hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamps, and skeletal muscle biopsies were performed before and after training. MFN1, MFN2, OPA1, OMA1, FIS1, Parkin, PGC-1α, and HSC70 protein expression was assessed via Western blot.

RESULTS

Exercise training led to improvements in insulin sensitivity, aerobic capacity, and fat oxidation (all P < 0.01), as well as reductions in body weight, BMI, fat mass and fasting glucose (all P < 0.001). When normalized for changes in mitochondrial content, exercise reduced skeletal muscle FIS1 and Parkin (P < 0.05), while having no significant effect on MFN1, MFN2, OPA1, and OMA1 expression. Exercise also improved the ratio of fusion to fission proteins (P < 0.05), which positively correlated with improvements in glucose disposal (r²  = 0.59, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Exercise training alters the expression of mitochondrial fusion and fission proteins, promoting a more fused, tubular network. These changes may contribute to the improvements in insulin sensitivity and substrate utilization that are observed after exercise training.

Physical Activity Associated Proteomics of Skeletal Muscle: Being Physically Active in Daily Life May Protect Skeletal Muscle From Aging

Muscle strength declines with aging and increasing physical activity is the only intervention known to attenuate this decline. In order to adequately investigate both preventive and therapeutic interventions against sarcopenia, a better understanding of the biological changes that are induced by physical activity in skeletal muscle is required. To determine the effect of physical activity on the skeletal muscle proteome, we utilized liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry to obtain quantitative proteomics data on human skeletal muscle biopsies from 60 well-characterized healthy individuals (20-87 years) who reported heterogeneous levels of physical activity (not active, active, moderately active, and highly active). Over 4,000 proteins were quantified, and higher self-reported physical activity was associated with substantial overrepresentation of proteins associated with mitochondria, TCA cycle, structural and contractile muscle, and genome maintenance. Conversely, proteins related to the spliceosome, transcription regulation, immune function, and apoptosis, DNA damage, and senescence were underrepresented with higher self-reported activity. These differences in observed protein expression were related to different levels of physical activity in daily life and not intense competitive exercise. In most instances, differences in protein levels were directly opposite to those reported in the literature observed with aging. These data suggest that being physically active in daily life has strong and biologically detectable beneficial effects on muscle.

Effects of medium-term green tea extract supplementation combined with CrossFit workout on blood antioxidant status and serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor in young men: a pilot study

Background

Potential health benefits are attributed to the antioxidant properties of green tea polyphenolic compounds. The main aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of a six-week green tea extract (GTE) supplementation combined with CrossFit workout on blood antioxidant status and serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in men.

Methods

Sixteen young males involved in CrossFit training were randomized into two groups supplemented with GTE or placebo for six weeks. Each participant performed an exercise test for the evaluation of maximum oxygen uptake (VO₂max) twice, i.e., before starting (1st trial) and after completing the supplementation combined with CrosFit workout (2nd trial). Venous blood samples were drawn at rest, immediately post-test and after one hour of recovery in order to estimate activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase [SOD], catalase [CAT], glutathione peroxidase [GPx], reduced glutathione [GR]), non-enzymatic antioxidants (reduced glutathione [GSH], uric acid [UA], total phenolics), total antioxidant capacity (FRAP), lipid peroxidation products (TBARS), and BDNF.

Results

Except for a significantly higher SOD activity and FRAP level recorded at rest and post-exercise in the 2nd trial compared to the corresponding values in the 1st trial, no significant differences were recorded among other assayed measures such as CAT, GPx, GR, GSH and BDNF. Moreover, a percentage increase in FRAP level was twice as high after six weeks’ GTE consumption than after placebo. Regardless of the trial, an increase in plasma UA concentration and a decrease in plasma total phenolics level were observed after exercise test. Plasma TBARS concentrations were significantly higher in PLA group after six weeks’ CrossFit training, while in GTE group they were slightly lower compared to the corresponding values in the 1st trial. Moreover, there was a significant inverse correlation between FRAP and TBARS in the GTE-supplemented group (r = − 0.40, p < 0.05).

Conclusions

A six weeks’ consumption of GTE had marginal effect on aerobic capacity and serum BDNF level in CrossFit-trained men, but it caused a marked increase in the blood antioxidant capacity and a moderate attenuation of the training-induced lipid peroxidation.

Role of Chronic Stress and Exercise on Microvascular Function in Metabolic Syndrome

PURPOSE

The present study examined the effect of unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) on peripheral microvessel function in healthy and metabolic syndrome (MetS) rodents and whether exercise training could prevent the vascular dysfunction associated with UCMS.

METHODS

Lean and obese (model of MetS) Zucker rats (LZR and OZR) were exposed to 8 wk of UCMS, exercise (Ex), UCMS + Ex, or control conditions. At the end of the intervention, gracilis arterioles (GA) were isolated and hung in a pressurized myobath to assess endothelium-dependent (EDD) and endothelium-independent (EID) dilation. Levels of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured through 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein diacetate and dihydroethidium staining, respectively.

RESULTS

Compared with LZR controls, EDD and EID were lower (P = 0.0001) in LZR-UCMS. The OZR-Ex group had a higher EDD (P = 0.0001) and EID (P = 0.003) compared with OZR controls, whereas only a difference in EDD (P = 0.01) was noted between the LZR-control and LZR-Ex groups. Importantly, EDD and EID were higher in the LZR (P = 0.0001; P = 0.02) and OZR (P = 0.0001; P = 0.02) UCMS + Ex groups compared with UCMS alone. Lower NO bioavailability and higher ROS were noted in the LZR-UCMS group (P = 0.0001), but not OZR-UCMS, compared with controls. The Ex and UCMS-Ex groups had higher NO bioavailability (P = 0.0001) compared with the control and UCMS groups, but ROS levels remained high.

CONCLUSIONS

The comorbidity between UCMS and MetS does not exacerbate the effects of one another on GA EDD responses, but does lead to the development of other vasculopathy adaptations, which can be partially explained by alterations in NO and ROS production. Importantly, exercise training alleviates most of the negative effects of UCMS on GA function.

Moderate Exercise Improves Experimental Cancer Cachexia by Modulating the Redox Homeostasis

Cachexia is a debilitating syndrome that complicates the management of cancer patients. Muscle wasting, one of the main features of cachexia, is associated with hyper-activation of protein degradative pathways and altered mitochondrial function that could both result from impaired redox homeostasis. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of oxidative stress to cancer-induced cachexia in the presence or in the absence of moderate exercise training. Mice bearing the colon C26 carcinoma, either sedentary or exercised, were used. The former showed muscle wasting and redox imbalance, with the activation of an antioxidant response and with upregulation of markers of proteasome-dependent protein degradation and autophagy. Moderate exercise was able to relieve muscle wasting and prevented the loss of muscle strength; such a pattern was associated with reduced levels of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), carbonylated proteins and markers of autophagy and with improved antioxidant capacity. The muscle of sedentary tumor hosts also showed increased levels of molecular markers of mitophagy and reduced mitochondrial mass. Conversely, exercise in the C26 hosts led to increased mitochondrial mass. In conclusion, moderate exercise could be an effective non-pharmacological approach to prevent muscle wasting in cancer patients, decreasing muscle protein catabolism and oxidative stress and preserving mitochondria.

Oxidative stress and anti-oxidant responses to regular resistance training in young and older adult women

AIM

The aging process is associated with increased production of free radicals, but regular exercise training might create a balance between oxidative stress and the anti-oxidant system. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of resistance training (RT) on the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, malondialdehyde, total anti-oxidant capacity and nuclear factor-κB in young and older adult women.

METHODS

A total of 44 women were divided into four groups: older-training, older-control, young-training and young-control. The experimental groups carried out 12 weeks of RT with an intensity of 75% one repetition maximum.

RESULTS

After finishing the RT program, total anti-oxidant capacity and nuclear factor-κB in both the young and older adult training groups were significantly increased, whereas malondialdehyde in the young and the older exercising groups decreased. In addition, malondialdehyde in both the older and young groups, and total anti-oxidant capacity in only the young group, were respectively lower and higher compared with their inactive counterparts. No significant changes in tumor necrosis factor-α occurred in training groups after the 12-week intervention, but the older and younger training groups had a significant difference with the young control group in the post-test.

CONCLUSIONS

It seems that the strengthening of the anti-oxidant system resulting from regular RT in older adults is similar to those of young people. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2019; 19: 419-422.

Impact of moderate- and high-intensity exercise on the endothelial ultrastructure and function in mesenteric arteries from hypertensive rats

Oxidative stress (OS) influences vascular function and structure in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). It is also responsible for the decreased nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability that influences endothelial vasodilation. The effects of high-intensity exercise on endothelial function and ultrastructure in hypertension remain unknown. Thus, this study investigated the effects of moderate- and high-intensity exercise on hypertension-associated endothelial dysfunction and ultrastructural remodeling. Moderate-intensity (SHR-M) and high-intensity (SHRH) aerobic exercise training groups were compared in age-matched sedentary SHRs (SHRC) and normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY-C). The results showed that the endothelial ultrastructure was impaired in the SHR-H and SHR-C groups. Glutathione peroxidase levels were significantly increased in the SHR-M group compared to the SHR-C group. MDA content was higher in the SHR-H group than in the SHR-C group, but the levels of antioxidant enzymes did not increase accordingly. Apocynin scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) ameliorated endothelium-dependent vasodilator function in the SHR-H group. However, the SHR-M and WKY-C groups abolished the increased vasodilation induced by apocynin. L-NAME, a NO synthase inhibitor, was applied to isolated mesenteric arteries (MAs) to evaluate NO contribution. Moderate-intensity exercise reversed the decreased NO contribution to MAs in hypertension, and high-intensity exercise aggravated this change. These data suggest that moderate-intensity exercise ameliorated adverse remodeling of the endothelial ultrastructure and function in hypertension by decreasing oxidative stress and increasing NO contribution. However, high-intensity exercise exacerbated all of these changes by increasing OS and ROS contribution, and decreasing NO contribution.

Blood-brain barrier permeability and physical exercise

In this narrative review, a theoretical framework on the crosstalk between physical exercise and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability is presented. We discuss the influence of physical activity on the factors affecting BBB permeability such as systemic inflammation, the brain renin-angiotensin and noradrenergic systems, central autonomic function and the kynurenine pathway. The positive role of exercise in multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer’s disease is described. Finally, the potential role of conditioning as well as the effect of exercise on BBB tight junctions is outlined. There is a body of evidence that regular physical exercise diminishes BBB permeability as it reinforces antioxidative capacity, reduces oxidative stress and has anti-inflammatory effects. It improves endothelial function and might increase the density of brain capillaries. Thus, physical training can be emphasised as a component of prevention programs developed for patients to minimise the risk of the onset of neuroinflammatory diseases as well as an augmentation of existing treatment. Unfortunately, despite a sound theoretical background, it remains unclear as to whether exercise training is effective in modulating BBB permeability in several specific diseases. Further research is needed as the impact of exercise is yet to be fully elucidated.

The Role of Exercise in the Quality of Life in Patients After Pancreatectomy: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Pancreatic resection is still a challenging operation characterised by high morbidity. The quality of life in patients after pancreatectomy is a critical outcome. The aim of our trial is to prove whether or not exercise has any benefit to the life of these patients.

Methods

The study was an open-label, randomized clinical trial. The patients were selected according to the Consolidated Standard of Reporting Trials criteria. The study was registered at the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial registry (ISRCTN) with the study ID ISRCTN1087174. The study was approved by the Bioethics and Deontology Committee, Medical School of Aristotle University, Thessaloniki (ref: 166/29.10.2015).

Results

Once the allocation and the follow-up were completed, 21 patients in the exercise group and 22 in the control group were analyzed. There was no statistical difference between the two groups regarding co-morbidities and disease characteristics; however, the quality of life and the total status of health were superior in the exercise group.

Conclusions

Exercise can improve the quality of life in patients after complex operations like pancreatectomy.

The effect of two exercise modalities on skeletal muscle capillary ultrastructure in individuals with type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is associated with microvascular dysfunction, but little is known about how capillary ultrastructure is affected by exercise training. To investigate the effect of two types of exercise training on skeletal muscle capillary ultrastructure and capillarization in individuals with type 2 diabetes, 21 individuals with type 2 diabetes were allocated (randomized controlled trial) to 11 weeks of aerobic exercise training consisting of either moderate-intensity endurance training (END; n = 10) or low-volume high-intensity interval training (HIIT; n = 11). Skeletal muscle biopsies (m vastus lateralis) were obtained before and after the training intervention. At baseline, there was no difference in capillarization, capillary structure, and exercise hyperemia between the two groups. After the training intervention, capillary-to-fiber ratio increased by 8% ± 3% in the END group (P < 0.05) and was unchanged in the HIIT group with no difference between groups. Endothelium thickness increased (P < 0.05), basement membrane thickness decreased (P < 0.05), and the capillary lumen tended (P = 0.07) to increase in the END group, whereas these structural indicators were unchanged after HIIT. In contrast, skeletal muscle endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) increased after HIIT (P < 0.05), but not END, whereas there was no change in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), superoxide dismutase (SOD)-2, or NADPH oxidase after both training protocols. In contrast to END training, HIIT did not alter capillarization or capillary structure in individuals with type 2 diabetes. In conclusion, HIIT appears to be a less effective strategy to treat capillary rarefaction and reduce basement thickening in type 2 diabetes.

Voluntary running protects against neuromuscular dysfunction following hindlimb ischemia-reperfusion in mice

Ischemia-reperfusion (IR) due to temporary restriction of blood flow causes tissue/organ damages under various disease conditions, including stroke, myocardial infarction, trauma, and orthopedic surgery. In the limbs, IR injury to motor nerves and muscle fibers causes reduced mobility and quality of life. Endurance exercise training has been shown to increase tissue resistance to numerous pathological insults. To elucidate the impact of endurance exercise training on IR injury in skeletal muscle, sedentary and exercise-trained mice (5 wk of voluntary running) were subjected to ischemia by unilateral application of a rubber band tourniquet above the femur for 1 h, followed by reperfusion. IR caused significant muscle injury and denervation at neuromuscular junction (NMJ) as early as 3 h after tourniquet release as well as depressed muscle strength and neuromuscular transmission in sedentary mice. Despite similar degrees of muscle atrophy and oxidative stress, exercise-trained mice had significantly reduced muscle injury and denervation at NMJ with improved regeneration and functional recovery following IR. Together, these data suggest that endurance exercise training preserves motor nerve and myofiber structure and function from IR injury and promote functional regeneration. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This work provides the first evidence that preemptive voluntary wheel running reduces neuromuscular dysfunction following ischemia-reperfusion injury in skeletal muscle. These findings may alter clinical practices in which a tourniquet is used to modulate blood flow.

The effects of exhaustive swimming and probiotic administration in trained rats: Oxidative balance of selected organs, colon morphology, and contractility

The duration and intensity of exercise are significant factors in oxidative, morphological, and functional changes of the gastrointestinal tract. This study aimed to investigate the effects of both exhaustive swimming and probiotic VSL#3 on rats that had been previously trained with moderate swimming. The rats were divided into four groups labeled: control (C), probiotic (P), exercise (E), and probiotic-exercise (PE). Groups P and PE were fed with probiotic mixture VSL#3. Groups E and PE had a 5-week moderate swimming program (1 h/day for 5 days/week), followed by a 1-week exhaustive swimming program (trained like in moderate program but 3 times with 150 min resting sessions, for 5 days/week). At the end of the program, the rats were euthanized. Malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and reduced glutathione levels were measured in tissue samples from the gastrocnemius muscle, heart, liver, kidney, and colon. In vitro contractile activity and histomorphology of the colon were also determined. Exercise and/or probiotic decreased the oxidative stress and also increased the level of one or more of the antioxidant enzymes in some of the organs. Probiotics had more pronounced effects on colon morphology than exercise but unexpectedly this effect was non-trophic. In the colon, the thickness of the tunica muscularis and the number of goblet cells were not affected; however, probiotic administration decreased the crypt depth and tunica mucosa thickness. Exercise increased the E_max value of acetylcholine (ACh), while decreased its sensitivity. These findings suggest that exhaustive swimming does not cause oxidative stress and that probiotic consumption improves oxidative balance in trained rats. The probiotic intake does not alter the effect of exercise on the contractile activity of the colon. Colon mucosal changes induced by probiotics are independent of exercise.

How does physical activity and different models of exercise training affect oxidative parameters and memory?

The present study investigated the chronic effects of different physical exercise and physical activity models on cognitive function, cholinergic activity, and oxidative stress markers in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Eighty 60-day old C57BL/6 mice were divided into the following five groups: Sedentary (SED), moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), high-intensity interval training (HIIT), resistance training (RT), and physical activity (RW, for "running wheel"). Cognitive function (recognition and spatial memory), oxidative stress parameters, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus were evaluated. MICT mice exhibited enhanced recognition memory compared to SED mice (p = .046) and other exercised groups (HIIT: p < .001; RW: p = .003; RT: p < .001). The RT group showed better spatial memory compared to the SED (p = .004), MICT (p = .019), and RW (p = .003) groups. RW, MICT, HIIT, and RT training models reduced nitrites in the hippocampus compared to the SED group. RT led to a significant increase in both lipid peroxidation (p = .01) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) (p < .001) levels compared to the SED group in the hippocampus. MICT promoted an increase in catalase (CAT) activity (p = .002), while superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was diminished by RT compared to MICT and HIIT (p = .008). In the cerebral cortex, RT increased ROS levels, but exhibited the lowest lipid peroxidation level among the groups (p < .001). The RW group showed an activity-induced increase in lipid peroxidation level compared to the SED group, and the highest level of CAT activity among all groups (p < .001). AChE activity was higher in the RT group compared to the SED, MICT, and RW groups (p = .039) in the cerebral cortex. In summary, nitrite levels in the hippocampus were decreased in all intervention groups regardless of activity or exercise model. Likewise, MICT improved recognition memory besides increasing CAT activity. We conclude that the MICT and RT protocols seem to act as oxidative stress regulators and non-pharmacological strategies to improve cognitive function.

Irreversible plasma and muscle protein oxidation and physical exercise

The imbalance between the reactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen (RNS) species production and their handling by the antioxidant machinery (low molecular weight antioxidant molecules and antioxidant enzymes), also known as oxidative stress, is a condition caused by physiological and pathological processes. Moreover, oxidative stress may be due to an overproduction of free radicals during physical exercise. Excess of radical species leads to the modification of molecules, such as proteins - the most susceptible to oxidative modification - lipids and DNA. With regard to the oxidation of proteins, carbonylation is an oxidative modification that has been widely described. Several studies have detected changes in the total amount of protein carbonyls following different types of physical exercise, but only few of these identified the specific amino acidic residues targets of such oxidation. In this respect, proteomic approaches allow to identify the proteins susceptible to carbonylation and in many cases, it is also possible to identify the specific protein carbonylation sites. This review focuses on the role of protein oxidation, and specifically carbonyl formation, for plasma and skeletal muscle proteins, following different types of physical exercise performed at different intensities. Furthermore, we focused on the proteomic strategies used to identify the specific protein targets of carbonylation. Overall, our analysis suggests that regular physical activity promotes a protection against protein carbonylation, due to the activation of the antioxidant defence or of the turnover of protein carbonyls. However, we can conclude that from the comprehensive bibliography analysed, there is no clearly defined specific physiological role about this post-translational modification of proteins.

The role of artichoke leaf tincture (Cynara scolymus) in the suppression of DNA damage and atherosclerosis in rats fed an atherogenic diet

CONTEXT

Polyphenols and flavonoids in artichoke leaf tincture (ALT) protect cells against oxidative damage.

OBJECTIVES

We examined ALT effects on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage and lipid profiles in rat plasma and gene expression in rat aorta [haemeoxygenase-1 (HO1), haemeoxygenase-2 (HO2), NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX-4), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2)].

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighteen male Wistar albino rats were divided into three groups (n = 6/group): The control group (CG) was fed with standard pellet chow for 11 weeks; the AD group was fed for a similar period of time with pellet chow supplemented with 2% cholesterol, 3% sunflower oil and 1% sodium cholate. The ADA group was fed with pellet chow (for 1 week), the atherogenic diet (see above) for the following 4 weeks and then with ALT (0.1 mL/kg body weight) and atherogenic diet for 6 weeks. According to HPLC analysis, the isolated main compounds in ALT were chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, isoquercitrin and rutin.

RESULTS

Normalized HO-1 [0.11 (0.04-0.24)] and MCP-1 [0.29 (0.21-0.47)] mRNA levels and DNA scores [12.50 (4.50-36.50)] were significantly lower in the ADA group than in the AD group [0.84 (0.35-2.51)], p = 0.021 for HO-1 [0.85 (0.61-3.45)], p = 0.047 for MCP-1 and [176.5 (66.50-221.25)], p = 0.020 for DNA scores. HO-1 mRNA was lower in the ADA group than in the CG group [0.30 (0.21-0.71), p = 0.049].

CONCLUSIONS

Supplementation with ALT limited the effects of the atherogenic diet through reduced MCP-1 expression, thereby preventing oxidative damage.

Are There Limitations to Exercise Benefits in Peripheral Arterial Disease?

Substantial evidence exists indicating that inactivity contributes to the progression of chronic disease, and conversely, that regular physical activity can both prevent the onset of disease as well as delay the progression of existing disease. To that end "exercise as medicine" has been advocated in the broad context as general medical care, but also in the specific context as a therapeutic, to be considered in much the same way as other drugs. As there are non-responders to many medications, there also are non-responders to exercise; individual who participate but do not demonstrate appreciable improvement/benefit. In some settings, the stress induced by exercise may aggravate an underlying condition, rather than attenuate chronic disease. As personalized medicine evolves with ready access to genetic information, so too will the incorporation of exercise in the context of those individual genetics. The focus of this brief review is to distinguish between the inherent capacity to perform, as compared to adaptive response to active exercise training in relation to cardiovascular health and peripheral arterial disease.

Regular Practice of Moderate Physical Activity by Older Adults Ameliorates Their Anti-Inflammatory Status

A chronic inflammatory state is a major characteristic of the aging process, and physical activity is proposed as a key component for healthy aging. Our aim was to evaluate the body composition, hypertension, lipid profile, and inflammatory status of older adults, and these factors’ association with physical activity. A total of 116 elderly volunteers were categorized into terciles of quantitative metabolic equivalents of task (MET). Subjects in the first and third terciles were defined as sedentary and active subjects, respectively. Anthropometric and biochemical parameters, hemograms, and inflammatory markers were measured in plasma or peripheral mononuclear blood cells (PBMCs). The active groups exercised more than their sedentary counterparts. The practice of physical activity was accompanied by lower weight, fat mass, body mass index, and diastolic blood pressure when compared to a more sedentary life-style. Physical activity also lowered the haematocrit and total leukocyte, neutrophil, and lymphocyte counts. The practice of exercise induced a decrease in the IL-6 circulating levels and the TLR2 protein levels in PBMCs, while the expression of the anti-inflammatory IL-10 was activated in active subjects. The regular practice of physical activity exerts beneficial effects on body composition and the anti-inflammatory status of old people.

Physical Activity, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Incident Glaucoma

PURPOSE

This study aimed to examine the associations of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness (hereafter fitness) with incident glaucoma in a prospective observational study.

METHODS

Physical activity was measured by self-reported leisure-time activities, and fitness was measured by maximal treadmill test. Incident glaucoma was defined based on physician diagnosis. Participants were 9519 men and women between the ages of 40 and 81 yr old (mean age 50 yr) who were enrolled in the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study. Hazard ratios (HR) were estimated using Cox proportional hazard regression after adjusting for age, sex, race, examination year, smoking status, heavy alcohol drinking, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, abnormal ECG, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.

RESULTS

A total of 128 cases of incident glaucoma were reported during a mean follow-up of 5.7 yr. A significantly lower risk of incident glaucoma (HR = 0.53, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 0.35-0.79) was found in individuals who met the physical activity guidelines of ≥500 MET·min·wk compared with inactive individuals (0 MET·min·wk). Compared with low fitness (lower third), individuals with high fitness (upper third) also had a significantly lower risk of incident glaucoma (HR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.38-0.95). A joint analysis of physical activity and fitness showed that meeting physical activity guidelines and being in the high fitness category was associated with the lowest risk for developing glaucoma (HR = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.31-0.79).

CONCLUSION

These data provide epidemiological evidence that meeting physical activity guidelines or being fit reduces the risk of developing glaucoma.

Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Antioxidant Adaptations to Regular Physical Activity in Elderly People

Regular physical activity prescription is a key point for healthy aging and chronic disease management and prevention. Our aim was to evaluate the antioxidant defense system and the mitochondrial status in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and the level of oxidative damage in plasma in active, intermediate and inactive elderly. In total, 127 healthy men and women >55 years old participated in the study and were classified according on their level of declared physical activity. A more active lifestyle was accompanied by lower weight, fat mass and body mass index when compared to a more sedentary life-style. Active participants exhibited lower circulating PBMCs than inactive peers. Participants who reported higher levels of exercise had increased antioxidant protein levels when compared to more sedentary partakers. Carbonylated protein levels exhibited similar behavior, accompanied by a significant raise in expression of cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV in PBMCs. No significant changes were found in the activities of antioxidant enzymes and in the expression of structural (MitND5) and mitochondrial dynamic-related (PGC1α and Mitofusins1/2.) proteins. Active lifestyle and daily activities exert beneficial effects on body composition and it enhances the antioxidant defenses and oxidative metabolism capabilities in PBMCs from healthy elderly.

Effect of ubiquinol supplementation on biochemical and oxidative stress indexes after intense exercise in young athletes

Objectives: Physical exercise significantly impacts the biochemistry of the organism. Ubiquinone is a key component of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and ubiquinol, its reduced and active form, is an emerging molecule in sport nutrition. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of ubiquinol supplementation on biochemical and oxidative stress indexes after an intense bout of exercise.

Methods: 21 male young athletes (26 + 5 years of age) were randomized in two groups according to a double blind cross-over study, either supplemented with ubiquinol (200 mg/day) or placebo for 1 month. Blood was withdrawn before and after a single bout of intense exercise (40 min run at 85% maxHR). Physical performance, hematochemical parameters, ubiquinone/ubiquinol plasma content, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, paraoxonase activity and oxidative DNA damage were analyzed.

Results: A single bout of intense exercise produced a significant increase in most hematochemical indexes, in particular CK and Mb while, on the contrary, normalized coenzyme Q₁₀ plasma content decreased significantly in all subjects. Ubiquinol supplementation prevented exercise-induced CoQ deprivation and decrease in paraoxonase activity. Moreover at a cellular level, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, ubiquinol supplementation was associated with a significant decrease in cytosolic ROS while mitochondrial membrane potential and oxidative DNA damage remained unchanged.

Discussion: Data highlights a very rapid dynamic of CoQ depletion following intense exercise underlying an increased demand by the organism. Ubiquinol supplementation minimized exercise-induced depletion and enhanced plasma and cellular antioxidant levels but it was not able to improve physical performance indexes or markers of muscular damage.

Endurance training on rodent brain antioxidant capacity: A meta-analysis

The influence of physical exercise on brain antioxidant defense mechanisms has been studied. Nevertheless, the effect of training volume on the brain`s redox balance remains unclear. In this meta-analysis, we compared the effect of training volume on antioxidant enzymatic resource and lipid peroxidation on various brain regions. The activities of the enzymes glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and the levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were also evaluated. The effects of training periods (weeks) and exercise duration were compared. Meta-analysis revealed that protocols over 8 weeks were associated with an increase in SOD (p =  0.0008) and CAT activities (p =  0.0001). Exercise durations for 30 and 60 min were associated with higher CAT activity (p =  0.04). Joint analysis revealed that moderate physical exercise over 4 and 8 weeks promoted a healthy enzymatic balance. However, high volumes of exercise over 8 weeks were associated with the increased antioxidant enzymatic activity, indicating higher reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. The data also indicated that there is still limited research and inaccurate information, on the safety conditions of training periods that simulate tests of ultra resistance in humans.

Role of hydrotherapy in the amelioration of oxidant-antioxidant status in rheumatoid arthritis patients

AIM

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory autoimmune disease. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in the pathophysiology of RA. Moderate intensity exercises have been reported to have anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of hydrotherapy on oxidant-antioxidant status in RA patients.

METHODS

Forty RA patients and 30 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were included in this study. RA patients were subdivided into two groups: the first group (n = 20) received treatment with conventional RA drugs, while the second group (n = 20) received hydrotherapy along with the conventional drugs for a period of 12 weeks. Disease Activity Score of 28 joints (DAS-28), ROS level, protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation, DNA damage and the activities of antioxidant enzymes were evaluated before and after 12 weeks of treatment.

RESULTS

RA patients showed a significant change in the oxidative stress biomarkers (ROS, P < 0.01; ferric reducing antioxidant potential, P < 0.001; malondialdehyde, P < 0.01; protein carbonyl, P < 0.001; tail length, P < 0.05) and decrease in the activities of anti-oxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase [SOD], P < 0.01; glutathione peroxidase [GPx], P < 0.001). Conventional drug treatment has not produced any significant change in these parameters. However, cotreatment of drugs with hydrotherapy has decreased protein, lipid and DNA oxidation by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD and GPx).

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that hydrotherapy along with drugs has reduced the severity of disease (DAS-28) by ameliorating the oxidant-antioxidant status in RA patients. Thus, in addition to conventional drugs, RA patients should be advised to have hydrotherapy (moderate intensity exercise) in their treatment regimen.

The effects of coenzyme Q10 on oxidative stress and heat shock proteins in rats subjected to acute and chronic exercise

[Purpose]

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of dietary CoQ10 on serum biochemical parameters, lipid peroxidation, and HSP expression in the liver and slow-twitch muscles (soleus and gastronemius deep portion) of exercise-trained rats.

[Methods]

A total of 42 Wistar albino rats were divided into six groups: 1) Control, 2) Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), 3) Chronic Exercise (CE), 4) CE + CoQ10, 5) Acute Exercise (AE), and 6) AE + CoQ10. The rats were subjected to the running test 5 days a week for 6 weeks after which CoQ10 was administered via the diet. AE (running on the treadmill until the rats were exhausted) was done on the last day

[Results]

The results showed no significant difference in serum glucose and liver functions in any of the groups. However, CoQ10 and exercise treatment were found to lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Serum and muscle malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were found to be lower in the CE and CE + CoQ10 groups compared to the control group. The highest levels of HSP60, HSP70, and HSP90 in liver and muscle were found in the AE group, and the lowest levels were found in CE + CoQ10 group. CoQ10 supplementation reduced HSP expression in both CE-and AE-trained rats (P < 0.05).

[Conclusion]

The results showed that CoQ10 supplementation could reduce MDA levels, protect against oxidative damage, and regulate HSP expression in CE-and AE-trained rats. CE and CoQ10 were shown to reduce oxidative stress synergistically.

Aerobic training status does not attenuate prolonged sitting-induced lower limb vascular dysfunction

This study examined if the degree of aerobic training protects against the lower limb vascular dysfunction associated with a prolonged sitting bout. Ten young, aerobically trained (AT) and 10 young, untrained (UT) individuals completed a prolonged (3 h) sitting bout. Leg vascular function was measured prior to and at 1.5 and 3 h into the prolonged sitting bout using the passive leg movement (PLM) technique. PLM-induced hyperemia was significantly reduced from baseline at 1.5 and 3 h into the prolonged sitting bout in both groups when evaluated as peak change in leg blood flow from baseline (Δ LBF) (UT: 956 ± 140, 586 ± 80, and 599 ± 96 mL·min^-1 at baseline, 1.5 h, and 3 h, respectively; AT: 955 ± 183, 789 ± 193, and 712 ± 131 mL·min^-1 at baseline, 1.5 h, and 3 h, respectively) and LBF area under the curve (UT: 283 ± 73, 134 ± 31, and 164 ± 42 mL·min^-1 at baseline, 1.5 h, and 3 h, respectively; AT: 336 ± 86, 242 ± 86, and 245 ± 73 mL·min^-1 at baseline, 1.5 h, and 3 h, respectively), but no significant differences between groups were revealed. No significant correlations were observed when examining the relationship between maximal oxygen uptake (relative and absolute) and reductions in leg vascular function at 1.5 and 3 h into the prolonged sitting bout. This study revealed that aerobic training did not provide a protective effect against prolonged sitting-induced lower limb vascular dysfunction and further highlights the importance of reducing excessive sitting in all populations.

Effects of a 36-h Survival Training with Sleep Deprivation on Oxidative Stress and Muscle Damage Biomarkers in Young Healthy Men

The aim of this study was to analyze changes in oxidative stress and muscle damage markers during a 36-h survival training combined with sleep deprivation. The study included 23 male students of physical education (specialty: Physical Education for Uniformed Services), randomly divided into the survival or control group. The students in the survival group completed a 36-h survival training with moderate to low physical activity, without the possibility to sleep. The students in the control group performed only physical activity included in daily routines and had a normal sleep pattern. No significant changes in measured parameters were seen in the control group throughout the study period. In the survival group, plasma lipid hydroperoxides (LHs) and creatine kinase (CK) activity increased at 24 h and remained elevated up to 36 h (main effects for LHs: time, p = 0.006 and group × time, p = 0.00008; main effects for CK: time, p = 0.000001, group, p = 0.005, and group × time, p = 0.000001). A 12-h recovery was sufficient to normalize both LHs and CK to the pre-training level; in fact, the post-recovery LHs and CK levels were even lower than at baseline. Residual total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of plasma (without the major constituents: uric acid and albumin) was elevated at both 24 h and 36 h of survival training, but not following a 12-h recovery (main effects: group, p = 0.001 and group × time, p = 0.04). In turn, the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in whole blood and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in erythrocytes decreased between 24 h and 36 h of survival training (main group effect for GPx, p = 0.038 and SOD, p = 0.045). In conclusion, these findings imply that a 36-h survival training with sleep deprivation impairs enzymatic antioxidant defense, increases lipid peroxidation, and induces muscle damage. Our findings also indicate that at least in the case of young physically active men, a 12-h recovery after the 36-h period of physical activity with sleep deprivation may be sufficient for the normalization of oxidative and muscle damage markers and restoration of blood prooxidant-antioxidant homeostasis.

Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress and the Effects of Antioxidant Intake from a Physiological Viewpoint

It is well established that the increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals production during exercise has both positive and negative physiological effects. Among them, the present review focuses on oxidative stress caused by acute exercise, mainly on evidence in healthy individuals. This review also summarizes findings on the determinants of exercise-induced oxidative stress and sources of free radical production. Moreover, we outline the effects of antioxidant supplementation on exercise-induced oxidative stress, which have been studied extensively. Finally, the following review briefly summarizes future tasks in the field of redox biology of exercise. In principle, this review covers findings for the whole body, and describes human trials and animal experiments separately.

Mitochondria-Targeted Antioxidants and Skeletal Muscle Function

One of the main sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in skeletal muscle is the mitochondria. Prolonged or very high ROS exposure causes oxidative damage, which can be deleterious to muscle function, and as such, there is growing interest in targeting antioxidants to the mitochondria in an effort to prevent or treat muscle dysfunction and damage associated with disease and injury. Paradoxically, however, ROS also act as important signalling molecules in controlling cellular homeostasis, and therefore caution must be taken when supplementing with antioxidants. It is possible that mitochondria-targeted antioxidants may limit oxidative stress without suppressing ROS from non-mitochondrial sources that might be important for cell signalling. Therefore, in this review, we summarise literature relating to the effect of mitochondria-targeted antioxidants on skeletal muscle function. Overall, mitochondria-targeted antioxidants appear to exert beneficial effects on mitochondrial capacity and function, insulin sensitivity and age-related declines in muscle function. However, it seems that this is dependent on the type of mitochondrial-trageted antioxidant employed, and its specific mechanism of action, rather than simply targeting to the mitochondria.