Anti-inflammatory evaluation of gardenia extract, geniposide and genipin

Pharmacological effects of active compounds on neurodegenerative disease with gastrodia and uncaria decoction, a commonly used poststroke decoction

Neurodegenerative diseases refer to the selective loss of neuronal systems in patients. The diseases cause high morbidity and mortality to approximately 22 million people worldwide and the number is expected to be tripled by 2050. Up to now, there is no effective prevention and treatment for the neurodegenerative diseases. Although some of the clinical therapies target at slowing down the progression of symptoms of the diseases, the general effectiveness of the drugs has been far from satisfactory. Traditional Chinese medicine becomes popular alternative remedies as it has been practiced clinically for more than thousands of years in China. As neurodegenerative diseases are mediated through different pathways, herbal decoction with multiple herbs is used as an effective therapeutic approach to work on multiple targets. Gastrodia and Uncaria Decoction, a popular TCM decoction, has been used to treat stroke in China. The decoction contains compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, iridoids, carotenoids, and natural phenols, which have been found to possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antiapoptotic effects. In this review, we will summarize the recent publications of the pharmacological effects of these five groups of compounds. Understanding the mechanisms of action of these compounds may provide new treatment opportunities for the patients with neurodegenerative diseases.

(E)-3-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl)-1-(5-hydroxy-2,2-dimethyl-2H-chromen-6-yl)prop-2-en-1-one ameliorates the collagen-arthritis via blocking ERK/JNK and NF-κB signaling pathway

Our previous report has shown a natural pyranochalcones-derived compound, (E)-3-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl)-1-(5-hydroxy-2,2-dimethyl-2H-chromen-6-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (5b), that exerted protection against carrageenan-induced hind paw edema and adjuvant-induced arthritis. In this study, collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model was used to further examine the anti-arthritic effects of 5b in vivo; the underlying molecular mechanisms of action were also investigated using a murine monocytic cell line, RAW264.7 cells. Here we showed that oral administration of 5b (20mg/kg) significantly suppressed the progression of arthritis. Improvement in disease severity was accompanied by inhibition of CD68-positive cells in knee joint and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in serum. In vitro, 5b suppressed expressions of iNOS, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β as well as productions of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages. This compound also significantly suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, including phosphorylation of I-κB, degradation of I-κB, and nuclear translocation of p65 and p50. Treatment with 5b also blocked LPS-induced expression of TLR4 remarkably, suppressed degradation of IRAKs and phosphorylations of JNK and ERK, but had little effect to p38 kinase activation. These findings indicated that 5b might be a therapeutic agent for rheumatoid arthritis, and exerted an anti-inflammatory effect mainly through mediating TLR4, NF-κB and ERK/JNK signaling pathways in monocytes.

Anti-inflammatory activity of iridoids and verbascoside isolated from Castilleja tenuiflora

Castilleja tenuiflora (Orobanchaceae) has been used in Mexican traditional medicine as a treatment for cough, dysentery, anxiety, nausea and vomiting as well as hepatic and gastrointestinal diseases. The ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of Castilleja tenuiflora was separated by silica gel column chromatography. The fractions were evaluated using the induced edema acetate 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol (TPA) anti-inflammatory activity model. The most active fraction was subjected to medium-pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) with UV detection at 206 and 240 nm. The following iridoids were isolated: geniposidic acid, aucubin, bartioside, 8-epi-loganin, mussaenoside, and the phenylpropanoid verbascoside. The most active iridoid was geniposidic acid, which was more active than the control (indomethacin), and the least active iridoid was mussaenoside. 8-epi-Loganin, and mussaenoside have not been previously reported to be anti-inflammatory compounds. The results of these investigations confirm the potential of Mexican plants for the production of bioactive compounds and validate the ethnomedical use of Castilleja tenuiflora-like anti-inflammatory plants.

1H-NMR-based metabonomic studies on the anti-depressant effect of genipin in the chronic unpredictable mild stress rat model

The purpose of this work was to investigate the anti-depressant effect of genipin and its mechanisms using (1)H-NMR spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis on a chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) rat model. Rat serum and urine were analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabonomics after oral administration of either genipin or saline for 2 weeks. Significant differences in the metabolic profile of the CUMS-treated group and the control group were observed, which were consistent with the results of behavioral tests. Metabolic effects of CUMS included decreases in serum trimetlylamine oxide (TMAO) and β-hydroxybutyric acid (β-HB), and increases in lipid, lactate, alanine and N-acetyl-glycoproteins. In urine, decreases in creatinine and betaine were observed, while citrate, trimethylamine (TMA) and dimethylamine were increased. These changes suggest that depression may be associated with gut microbes, energy metabolism and glycometabolism. Genipin showed the best anti-depressive effects at a dose of 100 mg/kg in rats. These results indicate that metabonomic approaches could be powerful tools for the investigation of the biochemical changes in pathological conditions or drug treatment.

Protective Effects of Geniposide and Genipin against Hepatic Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Mice

Geniposide is an active product extracted from the gardenia fruit, and is one of the most widely used herbal preparations for liver disorders. This study examined the cytoprotective properties of geniposide and its metabolite, genipin, against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. C57BL/6 mice were subjected to 60 min of ischemia followed by 6 h of reperfusion. Geniposide (100 mg/kg) and genipin (50 mg/kg) were administered orally 30 min before ischemia. In the I/R mice, the levels of serum alanine aminotransferase and hepatic lipid peroxidation were elevated, whereas hepatic glutathione/glutathione disulfide ratio was decreased. These changes were attenuated by geniposide and genipin administration. On the other hand, increased hepatic heme oxygenase-1 protein expression was potentiated by geniposide and genipin administration. The increased levels of tBid, cytochrome c protein expression and caspase-3 activity were attenuated by geniposide and genipin. Increased apoptotic cells in the I/R mice were also significantly reduced by geniposide and genipin treatment. Our results suggest that geniposide and genipin offer significant hepatoprotection against I/R injury by reducing oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Novel N-phenylcarbamothioylbenzamides with anti-inflammatory activity and prostaglandin E2 inhibitory properties

A number of 2-((4-ethylphenoxy)methyl)-N-(substituted-phenylcarbamothioyl) benzamides (1a–h) were synthesized via reaction of 2-((4-ethylphenoxy)methyl)benzoyl isothiocyanate (2) as a key intermediate with several substituted primary aromatic amines. The new compounds were characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (¹³C-NMR), infrared spectrometry (IR), mass spectrometry (MS), and elemental analysis. The anti-inflammatory activity of 1a–h was investigated by acute carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice using the reference drug indomethacin. The results obtained indicated that, of the derivatives developed, 1a and 1d–h exhibited significantly higher anti-inflammatory activity (26.81%–61.45%) when compared with the reference drug indomethacin (22.43%) (P = 0.0490 for 1a, 0.0015 for 1d, 0.0330 for 1f, and P < 0.001 for 1e and 1h). Moreover, the ulcer incidence of 20% for 1e and 1h was clearly lower when compared with the indomethacin group (in which the ulcer incidence was 80%). Of particular note, the ulcer index of 0.2 for 1e was significantly less than that in the indomethacin group (0.6, P = 0.014). Additionally, prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) inhibitory properties were found to be high with 1e (68.32 pg/mL), significantly different from those of the placebo group (530.13 pg/mL, P < 0.001), and equipotent to the effect observed in the indomethacin-pretreated group (96.13 pg/mL, P > 0.05). Moreover, the PGE₂ level of 54.15 pg/mL with 1h was also significantly different from that of the placebo group (P < 0.001) and of the indomethacin group (P < 0.05). The significant inhibition of PGE₂ observed with 1e (68.32 pg/mL) and 1h (54.15 pg/mL) agree with their observed ulcer incidences. Our overall findings for N-phenylcarbamothioylbenzamides 1a–h clearly suggest that the compounds exhibit an anti-inflammatory effect, potently inhibit PGE₂ synthesis, and markedly demonstrate low ulcer incidence.

Heparin crosslinked chitosan microspheres for the delivery of neural stem cells and growth factors for central nervous system repair

An effective paradigm for transplanting large numbers of neural stem cells after central nervous system (CNS) injury has yet to be established. Biomaterial scaffolds have shown promise in cell transplantation and in regenerative medicine, but improved scaffolds are needed. In this study we designed and optimized multifunctional and biocompatible chitosan-based films and microspheres for the delivery of neural stem cells and growth factors for CNS injuries. The chitosan microspheres were fabricated by coaxial airflow techniques, with the sphere size controlled by varying the syringe needle gauge and the airflow rate. When applying a coaxial airflow at 30 standard cubic feet per hour, ∼300μm diameter spheres were reproducibly generated that were physically stable yet susceptible to enzymatic degradation. Heparin was covalently crosslinked to the chitosan scaffolds using genipin, which bound fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) with high affinity while retaining its biological activity. At 1μgml(-1) approximately 80% of the FGF-2 bound to the scaffold. A neural stem cell line, GFP+RG3.6 derived from embryonic rat cortex, was used to evaluate cytocompatibility, attachment and survival on the crosslinked chitosan-heparin complex surfaces. The MTT assay and microscopic analysis revealed that the scaffold containing tethered FGF-2 was superior in sustaining survival and growth of neural stem cells compared to standard culture conditions. Altogether, our results demonstrate that this multifunctional scaffold possesses good cytocompatibility and can be used as a growth factor delivery vehicle while supporting neural stem cell attachment and survival.

Metabolism of Genipin in Rat and Identification of Metabolites by Using Ultraperformance Liquid Chromatography/Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Tandem Mass Spectrometry

The in vivo and in vitro metabolism of genipin was systematically investigated in the present study. Urine, plasma, feces, and bile were collected from rats after oral administration of genipin at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight. A rapid and sensitive method using ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF MS) was developed for analysis of metabolic profile of genipin in rat biological samples (urine, plasma, feces, and bile). A total of ten metabolites were detected and identified by comparing their fragmentation patterns with that of genipin using MetaboLynx software tools. On the basis of the chromatographic peak area, the sulfated and glucuronidated conjugates of genipin were identified as major metabolites. And the existence of major metabolites G1 and G2 was confirmed by the in vitro enzymatic study further. Then, metabolite G1 was isolated from rat bile by semipreparative HPLC. Its structure was unambiguously identified as genipin-1-o-glucuronic acid by comparison of its UV, IR, ESI-MS, ¹H-NMR, and ¹³C-NMR spectra with conference. In general, genipin was a very active compound that would transform immediately, and the parent form of genipin could not be observed in rats biological samples. The biotransformation pathways of genipin involved demethylated, ring-opened, cysteine-conjugated, hydroformylated, glucuronidated, and sulfated transformations.

Naturally derived anti-inflammatory compounds from Chinese medicinal plants

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Though inflammatory response is beneficial to body damage repair, if it is out of control, it can produce adverse effects on the body. Although purely western anti-inflammatory drugs, orthodox medicines, can control inflammation occurrence and development, it is not enough. The clinical efficacy of anti-inflammation therapies is unsatisfactory, thus the search for new anti-inflammation continues. Chinese Material Medica (CMM) remains a promising source of new therapeutic agents. CMM and herbal formulae from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), unorthodox medicines, play an improtant anti-inflammatory role in multi-targets, multi-levels, and multi-ways in treating inflammation diseases in a long history in China, based on their multi-active ingredient characteristics. Due to these reasons, recently, CMM has been commercialized as an anti-inflammation agent which has become increasingly popular in the world health drug markets. Major research contributions in ethnopharmacology have generated vast amount of data associated with CMM in anti-inflammtion aspect. Therefore, a systematic introduction of CMM anti-inflammatory research progress is of great importance and necessity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This paper strives to describe the progress of CMM in the treatment of inflammatory diseases from different aspects, and provide the essential theoretical support and scientific evidence for the further development and utilization of CMM resources as a potential anti-inflammation drug through a variety of databases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Literature survey was performed via electronic search (SciFinder®, Pubmed®, Google Scholar and Web of Science) on papers and patents and by systematic research in ethnopharmacological literature at various university libraries.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduced the current research on the anti-inflammatory active ingredient, anti-inflammatory effects of CMM, their mechanism, anti-inflammatory drug development of CMM, and toxicological information.

CONCLUSION

CMM is used clinically to treat inflammation symptoms in TCM, and its effect is mediated by multiple targets through multiple active ingredients. Although scholars around the world have made studies on the anti-inflammatory studies of CMM from different pathways and aspects and have made substantial progress, further studies are warranted to delineate the inflammation actions in more cogency models, establish the toxicological profiles and quality standards, assess the potentials of CMM in clinical applications, and make more convenient preparations easy to administrate for patients. Development of the clinically anti-inflammatory drugs are also warranted.

Genipin stimulates glucose transport in C2C12 myotubes via an IRS-1 and calcium-dependent mechanism

Genipin, a compound derived from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruits, has been used over the years in traditional Chinese medicine to treat symptoms of type 2 diabetes. However, the molecular basis for its antidiabetic effect has not been fully revealed. In this study, we investigated the effects of genipin on glucose uptake and signaling pathways in C(2)C(12) myotubes. Our study demonstrates that genipin stimulated glucose uptake in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The maximal effect was achieved at 2 h with a concentration of 10 μM. In myotubes, genipin promoted glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation to the cell surface, which was observed by analyzing their distribution in subcellular membrane fraction, and increased the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), AKT, and GSK3β. Meanwhile, genipin increased ATP levels, closed K(ATP) channels, and then increased the concentration of calcium in the cytoplasm in C(2)C(12) myotubes. Genipin-stimulated glucose uptake could be blocked by both the PI3-K inhibitor wortmannin and calcium chelator EGTA. Moreover, genipin increases the level of reactive oxygen species and ATP in C(2)C(12) myotubes. These results suggest that genipin activates IRS-1, PI3-K, and downstream signaling pathway and increases concentrations of calcium, resulting in GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake increase in C(2)C(12) myotubes.

Evaluation on Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, Antitumor, and Antioxidant Potential of Total Saponins from Nigella glandulifera Seeds

Nigella glandulifera seeds are used as a spice or remedy for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases. This study aimed to investigate analgesic (writhing test), anti-inflammatory (ear-induced edema, vascular permeability test), antioxidant, and antitumor activities of total saponins from this plant (TSN). TSN (6, 12, and 24 mg/kg) were exhibited analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05). In D-galactose-induced ageing model, TSN significantly increased the plasma superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities (P < 0.05) and decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) level compared to control group (P < 0.05). DPPH radical scavenging effect of TSN was also found. Moreover, TSN (20 mg/mL) showed 86.75% and 88.26% inhibition of the growth on Bel-7402 and Hela cells, respectively. Five compounds were further isolated and identified from TSN as Nigella A, B, C, D, and nigeglanoside, of which the content of Nigella A was 60.36 ± 1.25 g/100 g TSN by HPLC-ELSD method. Altogether, these results suggest that TSN could be considered as a potential analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antioxidant agent.

Antithrombotic activities of aqueous extract from Gardenia jasminoides and its main constituent

CONTEXT

Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (Rubiaceae) is a shrub tree species distributed all over the world. Now its pharmacological activities such as anti-atherosclerosis have been extensively studied.

OBJECTIVE

To offer pharmacological proof for its further clinical application in cardiovascular diseases, the antithrombotic activities of the aqueous extract of G. jasminoides (GJ-ext) were studied in mouse and rat models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

GJ-ext was administrated orally to detect the effects on the models of carrageenan-induced tail thrombosis and arteriovenous shunt thrombosis. The effects of GJ-ext and geniposide (p.o.) on antiplatelet aggregation were examined. Geniposide and genipin were studied on venous thrombosis by oral administration.

RESULTS

GJ-ext (67, 133 and 266 mg/kg) and aspirin (50 mg/kg), respectively, decreased the length of tail thrombus with average thrombus inhibition rate of 21.9, 55.7, 65.8 and 57.6% at 48 h and 19.0, 54.5, 69.3 and 56.9% at 72 h after carrageenan injection and, meanwhile, improved thrombosis induced by arteriovenous shunt (silk thread) with 36.3, 45.5, 86.4 and 63.7% inhibition rate of thrombus respectively, and the ED(50) of GJ-ext was 160.8 mg/kg. Furthermore, GJ-ext (67 mg/kg) and geniposide (20 mg/kg) significantly inhibited platelet aggregation induced by thrombin/collagen with 45.1%/19.3% and 52.8%/26.2% aggregation rate. Geniposide (10-40 mg/kg) and genipin (5-20 mg/kg) inhibited venous thrombosis induced by tight ligation of the inferior vena cava, their ED(50) values were 18.4 and 8.6 mg/kg, respectively.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study indicated that GJ-ext and geniposide demonstrated remarkable antithrombotic activities and supported their therapeutic uses for thrombotic diseases.

Inhibition of enterovirus 71 infections and viral IRES activity by Fructus gardeniae and geniposide

Fructus gardeniae has long been used by traditional Chinese medical practitioners for its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-tumor and anti-hyperlipidemic characteristics. Here we describe our finding that F. gardeniae greatly reduces anti-enterovirus 71 (EV71) activity, resulting in significant decreases in EV71 virus yields, EV71 infections, and internal ribosome entry site activity. We also found that geniposide, a primary F. gardeniae component, inhibited both EV71 replication and viral IRES activity. Our data suggest the presence of a mechanism that blocks viral protein translation. According to our findings, F. gardeniae and geniposide deserve a closer look as potential chemopreventive agents against EV71 infections.

Fructus Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis) phytochemistry, pharmacology of cardiovascular, and safety with the perspective of new drugs development

The phytochemistry, cardiovascular pharmacology, toxicology, side effect, and further development prospects of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (GJE) and its main constituents crocins and iridoid glycosides were studied. Numerous studies have confirmed that crocins and iridoid glycosides had effects of antioxidation, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-ischemic brain injuries, anti-platelet aggregation, anti-hyperglycemia, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-hypertension, and so on. Some of them might be related to several attractive pharmacodynamic actions of GJE such as promoting endothelium growth, protecting neurons, and inducing their differentiation. Both of them make it possible for GJE to prevent and cure thromboembolism and cardiovascular diseases well. From our own basic pharmacological research of GJE extract on several rat models, it has been known that GJE extract markedly prolonged bleeding time and inhibited platelet aggregation and thrombosis. It has significant proliferation effect on both endothelial cells and endothelial progenitor cells as well. As the mechanisms of GJE on those diseases were discussed and summarized, questions about its genetoxicity and hepatotoxicity were also discussed during its safety study to make the foundation for long-term medication and clinical research in the near future.

Silk fibroin/hyaluronic acid 3D matrices for cartilage tissue engineering

In spite of commercially available products, the complete and sustained repair of damaged articular cartilage still presents various challenges. Among biomaterials proposed for cartilage repair, silk fibroin (SF) has been recently proposed as a material template for porous scaffolds cultured with chondrocytes and investigated in static and dynamic conditions. In addition to fibroin-based constructs, literature has reported that the combination of hyaluronic acid (HA) with other scaffold materials can protect the chondral phenotype and the cells in vitro response to the scaffold. In this study, the effect of the addition of HA on the physical properties of SF sponges, with and without cross-linking with genipin, was investigated. Salt-leached scaffolds were characterized in terms of morphology and structural and physical properties, as well as mechanical performance. Un-cross-linked sponges resulted in the physical separation of highly hydrophilic HA from the SF, while cross-linking prevented this phenomenon, resulting in a homogeneous blend. The presence of HA also influenced fibroin crystallinity and tended to decrease the cross-linking degree of the scaffolds when compared to the pure SF material.

Bioavailability and brain-targeting of geniposide in gardenia-borneol co-compound by different administration routes in mice

Both geniposide (Ge) and borneol (Bo) are bioactive substances derived from traditional Chinese medicine. Injections containing co-compound of Gardenia-Borneol are widely used for stroke treatment in China, such as "Xingnaojing" multi-component injection. As more and more adverse reactions (especially drug allergy) were reported, it is urgent to find more effective and safer routes of administration for such kinds of medicines. In this paper, bioavailabilities and brain-target effects of geniposide in Gardenia-Borneol co-compound through different administration routes in mice were investigated. Geniposide concentrations in plasma and in brain of mice were determined by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The pharmacokinetics parameters of intranasal (i.n.) and intragastric (i.g.) administration were compared with intravenous (i.v.) administration. The bioavailabilities of Ge were 85.38% and 28.76% for i.n. and i.g. while T(max) were 1 min and 30 min. C(max) were 21.881 ± 5.398, 1.914 ± 0.327 and 42.410 ± 6.268 μg/mL for i.n., i.g. and i.v., respectively. The AUC of Ge in brain were 32413.6 ± 4573.9, 6440.1 ± 863.7 and 37270.5 ± 4160.6 ng/g ·min for i.n., i.g. and i.v., respectively. The drug target indexes (DTI) were 1.02 and 0.60 for i.n. and i.g. The results demonstrated that geniposide could be absorbed promptly and thoroughly by i.n. administration in mice and basically transported into the brain though blood vessel passways.

Mesenteric phlebosclerosis associated with long-term oral intake of geniposide, an ingredient of herbal medicine

BACKGROUND

Idiopathic mesenteric phlebosclerosis (IMP) is a rare disease, characterised by thickening of the wall of the right hemicolon with calcification of mesenteric veins. However, the aetiology remains unknown.

AIM

To investigate the possible association of herbal medicines with IMP.

METHOD

The clinical data of four of our own patients were collected. Furthermore, we searched for previous reports about similar patients with detailed descriptions of herbal prescriptions that they had taken. We compared herbal ingredients to identify the toxic agent as a possible aetiological factor.

RESULTS

Clinical data on a total of 25 patients were summarised. Mean age was 61.8 years and there was female predominance (6 men and 19 women). The used Kampo prescription, the number of cases, and the mean duration of use were as follows: kamisyoyosan in 12 cases for 12.8 years, inshin-iseihaito in 5 cases for 13.4 years, orengedokuto in 4 cases for 14.3 years, inchinkoto in 1 case for 20 years, kamikihitou in 1 case for 19 years, seijobofuto in 1 case for 10 years and gorinsan in 1 case for an unknown duration. Only one ingredient, sansisi, was common to the herbal medicines of all 25 patients. This crude drug called geniposide in English is a major constituent of the Gardenia fruits.

CONCLUSION

The long-term use of geniposide in herbal medicines appears to be associated with mesenteric phlebosclerosis.

Development of simultaneous analysis for marker constituents in Hwangryunhaedok-tang () and its application in commercial herbal formulas

This study was performed to develop methods for the chromatographic determination of biomarkers in Hwangryunhaedok-tang (HHT) and the quantitative evaluation of commercial HHT. To develop an analytical method, an RP-amide column (2.7 μm, 4.6 × 100 mm, Halo: Supelco, Bellefonte, PA) was used with a gradient solvent system of mixed acetonitrile and 0.1 % phosphoric acid/water and an ultra performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector. The method was validated by specificity, linearity, accuracy (recovery) and precision tests (repeatability, intra and inter-day). The correlation coefficients (R (2)) of biomarkers were calculated as 0.9998-1.000 and their ranges were as follows: geniposide (62.5-1,000.0 μg/ml), berberine (31.3-500.0 mg/ml), palmatine (31.3-500.0 μg/ml), baicalin (125.0-1,500.0 μg/ml), baicalein (15.6-250.0 μg/ml) and wogonin (5.2-125.0 μg/ml), respectively. The limit of detection was 0.34-4.01 μg/ml, and the limit of quantification was 1.02-12.16 μg/ml. The intra-day and inter-day precision of six components were revealed as 0.02-2.48 % as a relative standard deviation (RSD). The repeatability value of biomarkers in three different concentrations of HHT was 0.29-2.98 % (RSD value) and recovery was 95.72-104.90 %. Among several extraction methods tested, biomarker content was higher with the 20 times extraction (20TE) and mixture of extract powder (MEP) methods than with any other method, and some differences among diverse pharmaceutical medicines were revealed. The validation data indicated that the method developed is suited to the determination of six marker compounds in HHT. The content of biomarkers by simultaneous analysis was evaluated in 20TE, MEP, USA formula and Taiwan formula.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor plays an essential role in geniposide attenuating lipotoxicity-induced β-cell apoptosis

β-Cell apoptosis is considered to be a major cause of loss of β cells in diabetes. Geniposide could prevent oxidative stress-induced neuron apoptosis, and improved glucose stimulated insulin secretion by activating glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) in INS-1 cells. Here we have investigated whether geniposide can exert a direct effect against pancreatic β-cell lipoapoptosis. The results indicated that pretreatment pancreatic INS-1 cells with geniposide for 7h attenuated palmitate-induced β-cell apoptosis and active caspase-3 expression, but this effect was disappeared at 18 h. Long-term incubation with palmitate decreased GLP-1R expression in INS-1 cells, and exendin (9-39), an antagonist for GLP-1R, inhibited the effect of geniposide on palmitate-induced apoptosis in INS-1 cells. Moreover, geniposide also improved the impairment of GLP-1R signaling through enhancing the phosphorylation of Akt and Foxo1, and increased the expression of PDX-1 in palmitate-treated INS-1 cells. These results suggest that geniposide inhibits early stage of lipotoxicity-induced β-cell apoptosis, and GLP-1R plays a critical role in geniposide counteracting the action of lipotoxicity in INS-1 pancreatic β cells.

Collagen-based fibrillar multilayer films cross-linked by a natural agent

Surface functionalization plays an important role in the design of biomedical implants, especially when layer forming cells, such as endothelial or epithelial cells, are needed. In this study, we define a novel nanoscale surface coating composed of collagen/alginate polyelectrolyte multilayers and cross-linked for stability with genipin. This buildup follows an exponential growth regime versus the number of deposition cycles with a distinct nanofibrillar structure that is not damaged by the cross-linking step. Stability and cell compatibility of the cross-linked coatings were studied with human umbilical vein endothelial cells. The surface coating can be covered by a monolayer of vascular endothelial cells within 5 days. Genipin cross-linking renders the surface more suitable for cell attachment and proliferation compared to glutaraldehyde (more conventional cross-linker) cross-linked surfaces, where cell clumps in dispersed areas were observed. In summary, it is possible with the defined system to build fibrillar structures with a nanoscale control of film thickness, which would be useful for in vivo applications such as inner lining of lumens for vascular and tracheal implants.

Biological Activities of Libidibia (Caesalpinia) ferrea var. parvifolia (Mart. ex Tul.) L. P. Queiroz Pod Preparations

Libidibia ferrea has been used in folk medicine throughout Brazil, and this study evaluated the biological activities of crude extract (CE) as well as a partially purified fraction (F80) obtained from its pods. Results from the MTT assay revealed that only F80 inhibited NCI-H292 cell growth; however, neither CE nor F80 reduced HEp-2 cell growth or sarcoma 180 tumor weight with the in vivo assay. Acute oral toxicity of the extract and fraction was evaluated following the steps of Guideline 423, using female mice; LD₅₀ for both preparations was determined as 2,500 mg/kg body weight. CE and F80 promoted a reduction of the leukocyte number and nitrite level in inflammatory exudates when the anti-inflammatory assay (carrageenan-induced peritonitis) was performed. CE and F80 inhibited writhing regarding antinociceptive activity (acetic acid-induced writhing response in mice). In conclusion, CE and F80 have no significant cytotoxic or antitumor activities in cell lines showing low toxicity and no action against tumors in vivo. Both preparations revealed anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities, corroborating the pharmacological basis of L. ferrea for ethnomedical use.

Genipin attenuates sepsis by inhibiting Toll-like receptor signaling

The pathogenesis of sepsis is characterized by overwhelming inflammatory responses that lead to tissue damage and organ failure. Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is crucial for induction of hyperinflammatory responses and tissue injury during sepsis. Genipin, an aglycon of geniposide, has antiinflammatory and antimicrobial activities. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that genipin reduces multiple organ dysfunction and mortality during sepsis through inhibition of TLR signaling. Male ICR were subjected to sepsis by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) or endotoxemia by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Various doses of genipin (1, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg) or a vehicle were administered intravenously immediately after CLP or intraperitoneally after LPS treatment. In another set of survival tests, mice were treated with 2.5 mg/kg of genipin 0 and 24 h after CLP. Genipin was found to improve survival and to attenuate multiple organ dysfunction. Genipin attenuated production of proinflammatory cytokines and release of high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1). Genipin prevented TLR2 and TLR4, myeloid differentiation factor 88 and the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor protein, inducing interferon-β overexpression. Phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and interferon regulatory factor 3 and translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB were prevented by genipin. Moreover, genipin attenuated increases in serum tumor necrosis factor-α and HMGB1 in LPS-induced endotoxemia. Pam3CSK4- and LPS-mediated production of nitrites and proinflammatory cytokines was suppressed by genipin in RAW264.7 cells. Genipin attenuated mortality and organ injuries during sepsis through interference with TLR signaling. Therefore, genipin might be useful as a potential therapeutic agent for treatment of sepsis.

Reactions between β-lactoglobulin and genipin: kinetics and characterization of the products

In this paper, we present the first detailed study of the reaction kinetics and the characterization of the products from the endothermic reactions between β-lactoglobulin and genipin. The effects of the concentration, temperature, and pH were investigated. In the temperature range studied, the reaction was approximately a pseudo-first-order with respect to genipin and 0.22-order and -0.24-order with respect to β-lactoglobulin for pH 6.75 and 10.5 with corresponding activation energy (E(a)) estimated to be 66.2 ± 3.8 and 9.40 ± 0.36 kJ/mol, respectively. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis studies, validated by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry, showed the presence of oligomeric, i.e., di-, tri-, quadri-, and pentameric, forms of cross-linked β-lactoglobulin by genipin at neutral but not alkaline pH; however, an extensive cross-linked network was not observed, consistent with the atomic force microscopy images. It was demonstrated that the reaction temperature and the concentration of genipin but not that of β-lactoglobulin positively affected the extent of the cross-linking reactions.

Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Property of the Methanol Extract from Ligustrum morrisonense Leaves in Rodents

Ligustrum morrisonense Kaneh and Sasaki (abbreviated as LM), an endemic Ligustrum plant in Taiwan, is similar to Ligustrum lucidum, which is usually used for curing hepatic and inflammatory disorders. The aim of this study was to evaluate the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of LM by chemical-induced algesia and carrageenan-induced inflammation in rodents. Its triterpenoid contents were measured by using high performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detector. LM leaf extracts effectively inhibited writhing responses induced by 1% acetic acid and biphasic-licking responses caused by 1% formalin. LM leaf extract also reduced the edema induced by 1% carrageenan. Furthermore, LM leaf extract reduced the abdominal Evan's blue extravasations caused by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), serotonin, histamine and bradykinin. LM leaf extract has higher contents of amyrin and lupeol among six assayed triterpenoid compounds. In conclusion, LM is a potential analgesic and anti-inflammatory Ligustrum plant, and its anti-inflammatory effects are partially related to decreasing microvascular permeability via inflammatory mediators and inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 activity.

Biochemical characterization of novel bioactive protein from silkworm (Bombyx mori L) fecal matter

In this study, complete purification and biochemical characterization of protein is presented. The protein was purified by using Sephadex G-75 gel filtration column followed by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography in a C18 column. The molecular weight of the protein was determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, mass spectrum matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Protein was fragmented by trypsin based on the m/z values obtained by MALDI-TOF-MS analysis. The peptide fragments sequence showed homology with DEAD-box-ATP-dependent RNA helicase 45, present in a public domain, National Centre for Biotechnology Information. The protein exhibited antibacterial activity against selected Gram +/- bacteria. The analgesic activity was determined by conducting acetic-acid-induced writhing test in mice.

Identification and determination of the major constituents in traditional Chinese medicine Longdan Xiegan Pill by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS

A novel and sensitive HPLC-UV method has been developed for the simultaneous determination of twelve major compounds in Longdan Xiegan Pill. The chemical profile of the twelve compounds, including geniposidic acid (1), geniposide(2), gentiopicroside(3), liquiritin(4), crocin(5), baicalin(6), wogonoside(7), baicalein(8), glycyrrhizic acid (9), wogonin (10), oroxylin A (11) and aristolochic acid A (12), was acquired using high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector coupled with an electrospray tandem mass spectrometer (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS). The analysis was performed on a Dikma Platisil ODS C₁₈ column (250 mm × 4. 6 mm, 5 μm) with a gradient solvent system of acetonitrile-0. 1% aqueous formic acid. The validation was carried out and the linearities (r > 0. 9996), repeatability (RSD<1. 8%), intra- and inter-day precision (RSD< 1. 3%), and recoveries (ranging from 96. 6% to 103. 4%) were acceptable. The limits of detection (LOD) of these compounds ranged from 0.29 to 4. 17 ng. Aristolochic acid A, which is the toxic ingredient, was not detected in all the batches of Longdan Xiegan Pill. Furthermore, hierarchical cluster analysis was used to evaluate the variation of the herbal prescription. The proposed method is simple, effective and suitable for the quality control of this traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).

Anti-inflammatory iridoids of botanical origin

Inflammation is a manifestation of a wide range of disorders which include; arthritis, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, inflammatory bowel syndrome, physical injury and infection amongst many others. Common treatment modalities are usually nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, paracetamol, indomethacin and ibuprofen as well as corticosteroids such as prednisone. These however, may be associated with a host of side effects due to non-selectivity for cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes involved in inflammation and those with selectivity may be highly priced. Thus, there is a continuing search for safe and effective antiinflammatory molecules from natural sources. Research has confirmed that iridoids exhibit promising anti-inflammatory activity which may be beneficial in the treatment of inflammation. Iridoids are secondary metabolites present in various plants, especially in species belonging to the Apocynaceae, Lamiaceae, Loganiaceae, Rubiaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Verbenaceae families. Many of these ethnobotanicals have an illustrious history of traditional use alluding to their use to treat inflammation. Although iridoids exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities such as cardiovascular, hepatoprotection, hypoglycaemic, antimutagenic, antispasmodic, anti-tumour, antiviral, immunomodulation and purgative effects this review will acutely focus on their anti-inflammatory properties. The paper aims to present a summary for the most prominent iridoid-containing plants for which anti-inflammatory activity has been demonstrated in vitro and / or in vivo.

HPLC-MS/MS method to determine genipin in rat plasma after hydrolysis with sulfatase and its application to a pharmacokinetic study

A sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed for the quantification of genipin in rat plasma after hydrolysis with sulfatase. Genipin could not be detected directly as it could be transformed into other forms such as conjugated-genipin immediately after administration. The conjugated genipin could be hydrolyzed by sulfatase to genipin. The conditions of hydrolysis were investigated. Genipin and the internal standard, peoniflorin (IS), were separated on a reversed-phase column by gradient elution and detected using an electrospray ion source on a 4000 QTrap triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer. The quantification was performed using multiple reaction monitoring with selected precursor-product ion pairs of the transitions m/z 225.0 → 122.7 and m/z 479.1 → 449.1 for genipin and peoniflorin. The assay was linear over the concentration range of 1.368-1368 ng/mL, with correlation coefficients of 0.9989. Intra- and inter-day precisions and accuracy were all within 15%. The lower limit of quantification was 1.368 ng/mL. The recoveries of genipin and peoniflorin were more than 53.3 and 51.2%. The highly sensitive method was successfully applied to estimated pharmacokinetic parameters of genipin following oral and intravenous administration to rats. The absolute bioavailability of genipin was 80.2% in rat, which is the first report.

Enhancing effect of hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin on the intestinal absorption process of genipin

The purpose of this work is to investigate the effect of the genipin/hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) inclusion complex on the intestinal absorption of genipin and identify its mechanism of action. The phase solubility profile was classified as A(L) type, indicating the formulation of a 1:1 stoichiometry inclusion complex. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray powder diffractometry, and (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and two-dimensional (2D) (1)H rotating-frame Overhauser enhancement (ROESY) NMR spectroscopies further confirmed the formulation of the inclusion complex with superior dissolution properties than the drug alone. The results of single-pass intestinal perfusion showed that the intestinal absorption of genipin was affected by P-glycoprotein (Pgp). The absorption rate and permeability value of the inclusion complex were significantly higher than the free drug, suggesting that its enhancing effect was involved in its solubilizing effect and Pgp inhibitory effect. The mechanisms of HP-β-CD on Pgp inhibition were demonstrated by restraining the Pgp ATPase activity rather than changing the fluidity of the cell membrane.

Biomechanical and angiogenic properties of tissue-engineered rat trachea using genipin cross-linked decellularized tissue

In this study, the obtainment and characterization of decellularized rat tracheal grafts are described. The detergent-enzymatic method, already used to develop bioengineered pig and human trachea scaffolds, has been applied to rat tracheae in order to obtain airway grafts suitable to be used to improve our knowledge on the process of tissue-engineered airway transplantation and regeneration. The results demonstrated that, after 9 detergent-enzymatic cycles, almost complete decellularized tracheae, retaining the hierarchical and mechanical properties of the native tissues with strong in vivo angiogenic characteristics, could be obtained. Moreover, to improve the mechanical properties of decellularized tracheae, genipin is here considered as a naturally derived cross-linking agent. The results demonstrated that the treatment increased mechanical properties, in term of secant modulus, without neither altering the pro-angiogenic properties of decellularized airway matrices or eliciting an in vivo inflammatory response.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway mediates genipin-induced apoptosis in U266 multiple myeloma cells

It has drawn a lot of attention to target signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) as a potential strategy for cancer therapeutics. Using several myelogenous cell lines, the effect of genipin (an active compound of Gardenia fruit) on the STAT3 pathway and apoptosis was investigated. Genipin suppressed the constitutive STAT3 activation in U266 and U937 cells and stimulated Src homology 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1 (SHP-1), which dephosphorylates and inactivates STAT3. Specifically, genipin blocked STAT3 activation via repressing the activation of c-Src, but not Janus kinase 1 (JAK1). Genipin also downregulated the expression of STAT3 target genes including Bcl-2, Bcl-x(L) , Survivin, Cyclin D1, and VEGF. Conversely, protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor pervanadate blocked genipin induced STAT3 inactivation. Using DNA fragmentation or TUNEL assays, we demonstrated the apoptotic effect of genipin on U266, MM.1S, and U937 cells. Furthermore, genipin effectively potentiated the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapeutic agents, such as bortezomib, thalidomide, and paclitaxel in U266 cells. Our data suggest that through regulation of Src and SHP-1, genipin antagonizes STAT3 for the induction of apoptosis in myeloma cells.

Systematic review of herbals as potential anti-inflammatory agents: Recent advances, current clinical status and future perspectives

Many synthetic drugs reported to be used for the treatment of inflammatory disorders are of least interest now a days due to their potential side effects and serious adverse effects and as they are found to be highly unsafe for human assistance. Since the last few decades, herbal drugs have regained their popularity in treatment against several human ailments. Herbals containing anti-inflammatory activity (AIA) are topics of immense interest due to the absence of several problems in them, which are associated with synthetic preparations. The primary objective of this review is to provide a deep overview of the recently explored anti-inflammatory agents belonging to various classes of phytoconstituents like alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, steroids, polyphenolic compounds, and also the compounds isolated from plants of marine origin, algae and fungi. Also, it enlists a distended view on potential interactions between herbals and synthetic preparations, related adverse effects and clinical trials done on herbals for exploring their AIA. The basic aim of this review is to give updated knowledge regarding plants which will be valuable for the scientists working in the field of anti-inflammatory natural chemistry.

Geniposide induces the expression of heme oxygenase-1 via PI3K/Nrf2-signaling to enhance the antioxidant capacity in primary hippocampal neurons

Oxidative stress in brain is emerging as a potential causal factor in aging and age-related neurodegenerative disorders. A large body of evidence shows that induction of endogenous antioxidative proteins seems to be a reasonable strategy for delaying the progression of cell injury. In this study, geniposide upregulates the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) to attenuate the cell apoptosis induced by 3-morpholinosydnonimine hydrochloride (SIN-1) in primary cultured hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, geniposide induces the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and activation of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K) in the presence of oxidative stress, and both LY294002 (a specific inhibitor of PI3K) and Zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP, an inhibitor of HO-1) decrease the cytoprotective action of geniposide in hippocampal neurons. Taken together, the novel cytoprotective mechanism of geniposide to antagonize oxidative stress may be involved in PI3K- and Nrf2-mediated upregulation of the antioxidative enzyme HO-1.

The inhibitory activities of the components of Huang-Lian-Jie-Du-Tang (HLJDT) on eicosanoid generation via lipoxygenase pathway

AIM OF THE STUDY

Huang-Lian-Jie-Du-Tang (HLJDT) is a traditional Chinese medicine with anti-inflammatory use. In the present study, the effects of its component herbs and pure components were observed on eicosanoid generation to find out the contributory components and their precise targets on arachidonic acid (AA) cascade.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

By monitoring leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)), 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE), and 12-hydroxy-5,8,10-heptadecatrienoic acid (12-HHT), we compared the effects of HLJDT, HLJDT free of one or two component herbs, and water extract of four single component herbs of HLJDT (Rhizoma coptidis, Radix scutellariae, Cortex phellodendri and Fructus gardeniae) on eicosanoid generation in rat elicited peritoneal macrophages. In addition, thirteen pure compounds from HLJDT (baicalin, baicalein, wogonoside, wogonin, berberine, magnoflorine, phellodendrine, coptisine, palmatine, jateorrhizine, crocin, chlorogenic acid, and geniposide) were tested in the macrophages. Furthermore, the efficacies of these thirteen compounds were evaluated on cell-free purified enzymes: leukotriene A(4) hydrolase (LTA(4)H), 5-, 15-lipoxygenase (5-, 15-LO), and cyclo-oxygenase-1/2 (COX-1/2). Moreover, the possible synergetic effect on LO pathway derived LTB(4) generation between the active components was also tested in rat peritoneal macrophages.

RESULTS

Our experiments showed that Rhizoma coptidis and Radix scutellariae were responsible for the suppressive effect of HLJDT on eicosanoid generation. Some of the pure components including baicalein, baicalin, wogonoside, wogonin, coptisine, and magnoflorine inhibited eicosanoid generation in rat macrophages via LO pathway of AA cascade. Further experiments on cell-free purified enzymes confirmed that Radix scutellariae derived baicalein and baicalin showed significant inhibition on 5-LO and 15-LO, while Rhizoma coptidis derived coptisine showed medium inhibition on LTA(4)H. On the other hand, no significant inhibition of thirteen components on COX-1/2 was observed. Moreover, the slight synergetic inhibition on LTB(4) between baicalein and coptisine was proved in the rat peritoneal macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

Baicalein and coptisine, the active components of HLJDT, for the first time are found to interfere with arachidonic acid cascade via inhibition on different points of LO pathway. This finding makes the mechanism of HLJDT clearer and achieves its safer therapeutic application.

Enhancing effect of natural borneol on the absorption of geniposide in rat via intranasal administration

Both geniposide (Ge) and natural borneol (NB) are bioactive substances derived from traditional Chinese herbs. The effect of NB on the pharmacokinetics of Ge in rat via intranasal administration was investigated. The concentrations of Ge in plasma were determined by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after intranasal administration of Ge (4 mg/kg) alone and combined with different doses (0.08, 0.8, and 8 mg/kg) of NB. The intravenous administration was given as a reference (4 mg/kg of Ge and 8 mg/kg of NB). Compared with the intravenous administration, the absolute bioavailability of Ge was 76.14% through intranasal administration combined with NB. Compared with the intranasal administration of Ge alone, Ge could be absorbed rapidly in the nasal cavity combined with NB; the peak time of Ge in the plasma became shorter (3-5 min vs. 40 min); the peak concentration became higher (1.32-4.25 μg/ml vs. 0.67 μg/ml); and, the relative bioavailability of Ge combined with NB was 90.3%-237.8%. The enhancing effect was attenuated as the dose of NB decreased. The results indicated that NB can accelerate the absorption of Ge dose-dependently in the nasal cavity.

Surface modification of poly(ε-caprolactone) porous scaffolds using gelatin hydrogel as the tracheal replacement

This study evaluates the feasibility of poly(ε-caprolactone) as a tracheal replacement. To improve biocompatibility, the lumen was modified by gelatin hydrogel crosslinked with two different reagents, EDC and genipin. It was found that the choice of crosslinking agents could significantly affect human lung carcinoma cell proliferation. Genipin-crosslinked gelatin hydrogel had significantly better cell proliferation than EDC-crosslinked hydrogel. The study further investigated the performance of the PCL tube modified by genipin-crosslinked gelatin, using a rabbit tracheal implantation model with implants harvested and histologically examined. In vivo results showed that the PCL tube possessed suitable mechanical properties for resisting collapse during implantation. Additionally, PCL modified by genipin-crosslinked gelatin was found to suppress granulation tissue growth and prolong animal survival time in comparison with the original PCL tube. Genipin could be an effective treatment to reduce granulation tissue formation at the tracheal anastomoses.