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Barzen-Hanson KA, Roberts SC, Choyke S, Oetjen K, McAlees A, Riddell N, McCrindle R, Ferguson PL, Higgins CP, Field JA. Discovery of 40 Classes of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Historical Aqueous Film-Forming Foams (AFFFs) and AFFF-Impacted Groundwater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:2047-2057. [PMID: 28098989 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 421] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs), containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), are released into the environment during response to fire-related emergencies. Repeated historical applications of AFFF at military sites were a result of fire-fighter training exercises and equipment testing. Recent data on AFFF-impacted groundwater indicates that ∼25% of the PFASs remain unidentified. In an attempt to close the mass balance, a systematic evaluation of 3M and fluorotelomer-based AFFFs, commercial products, and AFFF-impacted groundwaters from 15 U.S. military bases was conducted to identify the remaining PFASs. Liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used for compound discovery. Nontarget analysis utilized Kendrick mass defect plots and a "nontarget" R script. Suspect screening compared masses with those of previously reported PFASs. Forty classes of novel anionic, zwitterionic, and cationic PFASs were discovered, and an additional 17 previously reported classes were observed for the first time in AFFF and/or AFFF-impacted groundwater. All 57 classes received an acronym and IUPAC-like name derived from collective author knowledge. Thirty-four of the 40 newly identified PFAS classes derive from electrochemical fluorination (ECF) processes, most of which have the same base structure. Of the newly discovered PFASs found only in AFFF-impacted groundwater, 11 of the 13 classes are ECF-derived, and the remaining two classes are fluorotelomer-derived, which suggests that both ECF- and fluorotelomer-based PFASs are persistent in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista A Barzen-Hanson
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University , 153 Gilbert Hall, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Simon C Roberts
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois St., Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Sarah Choyke
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University , Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Karl Oetjen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois St., Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Alan McAlees
- Wellington Laboratories Inc., 345 Southgate Drive, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 3M5
| | - Nicole Riddell
- Wellington Laboratories Inc., 345 Southgate Drive, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 3M5
| | - Robert McCrindle
- Department of Chemistry, University of Guelph , Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
| | - P Lee Ferguson
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University , Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Christopher P Higgins
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois St., Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Jennifer A Field
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University , 1007 ALS Building, 2750 SW Campus Way, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
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202
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Stratton GR, Dai F, Bellona CL, Holsen TM, Dickenson ERV, Mededovic Thagard S. Plasma-Based Water Treatment: Efficient Transformation of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Prepared Solutions and Contaminated Groundwater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:1643-1648. [PMID: 28080043 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A process based on electrical discharge plasma was tested for the transformation of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). The plasma-based process was adapted for two cases, high removal rate and high removal efficiency. During a 30 min treatment, the PFOA concentration in 1.4 L of aqueous solutions was reduced by 90% with the high rate process (76.5 W input power) and 25% with the high efficiency process (4.1 W input power). Both achieved remarkably high PFOA removal and defluorination efficiencies compared to leading alternative technologies. The high efficiency process was also used to treat groundwater containing PFOA and several cocontaminants including perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), demonstrating that the process was not significantly affected by cocontaminants and that the process was capable of rapidly degrading PFOS. Preliminary investigation into the byproducts showed that only about 10% of PFOA and PFOS is converted into shorter-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs). Investigation into the types of reactive species involved in primary reactions with PFOA showed that hydroxyl and superoxide radicals, which are typically the primary plasma-derived reactive species, play no significant role. Instead, scavenger experiments indicated that aqueous electrons account for a sizable fraction of the transformation, with free electrons and/or argon ions proposed to account for the remainder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christopher L Bellona
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines , Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | | | - Eric R V Dickenson
- Southern Nevada Water Authority, Water Quality Research and Development Division, Henderson, Nevada 89015, United States
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203
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Wimsatt J, Villers M, Thomas L, Kamarec S, Montgomery C, Yeung LWY, Hu Y, Innes K. Oral perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) lessens tumor development in the APC min mouse model of spontaneous familial adenomatous polyposis. BMC Cancer 2016; 16:942. [PMID: 27927180 PMCID: PMC5143440 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-016-2861-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Colorectal cancer is the second most common cause of cancer deaths for both men and women, and the third most common cause of cancer in the U.S. Toxicity of current chemotherapeutic agents for colorectal cancer, and emergence of drug resistance underscore the need to develop new, potentially less toxic alternatives. Our recent cross-sectional study in a large Appalachian population, showed a strong, inverse, dose–response association of serum perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) levels to prevalent colorectal cancer, suggesting PFOS may have therapeutic potential in the prevention and/or treatment of colorectal cancer. In these preliminary studies using a mouse model of familial colorectal cancer, the APCmin mouse, and exposures comparable to those reported in human populations, we assess the efficacy of PFOS for reducing tumor burden, and evaluate potential dose–response effects. Methods At 5–6 weeks of age, APCmin mice were randomized to receive 0, 20, 250 mg PFOS/kg (females) or 0, 10, 50 and 200 mg PFOS/kg (males) via their drinking water. At 15 weeks of age, gastrointestinal tumors were counted and scored and blood PFOS levels measured. Results PFOS exposure was associated with a significant, dose–response reduction in total tumor number in both male and female mice. This inverse dose–response effect of PFOS exposure was particularly pronounced for larger tumors (r2 for linear trend = 0.44 for males, p’s <0.001). Conclusions The current study in a mouse model of familial adenomatous polyposis offers the first experimental evidence that chronic exposure to PFOS in drinking water can reduce formation of gastrointestinal tumors, and that these reductions are both significant and dose-dependent. If confirmed in further studies, these promising findings could lead to new therapeutic strategies for familial colorectal cancer, and suggest that PFOS testing in both preventive and therapeutic models for human colorectal cancer is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Wimsatt
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA. .,Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA. .,West Virginia University, 186 HSCN, 1 Medical Center Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26508, USA.
| | - Meghan Villers
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Laurel Thomas
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Stacey Kamarec
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Caitlin Montgomery
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Leo W Y Yeung
- Man-Technology-Environment (MTM) Research Centre, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Fakultetsgatan 1, Örebro, SE-70182, Sweden
| | - Yanqing Hu
- Department of Statistics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Kim Innes
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
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204
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Houtz EF, Sutton R, Park JS, Sedlak M. Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater: Significance of unknown precursors, manufacturing shifts, and likely AFFF impacts. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 95:142-9. [PMID: 26990839 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In late 2014, wastewater effluent samples were collected from eight treatment plants that discharge to San Francisco (SF) Bay in order to assess poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) currently released from municipal and industrial sources. In addition to direct measurement of twenty specific PFAS analytes, the total concentration of perfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA) precursors was also indirectly measured by adapting a previously developed oxidation assay. Effluent from six municipal treatment plants contained similar amounts of total PFASs, with highest median concentrations of PFHxA (24 ng/L), followed by PFOA (23 ng/L), PFBA (19 ng/L), and PFOS (15 ng/L). Compared to SF Bay municipal wastewater samples collected in 2009, the short chain perfluorinated carboxylates PFBA and PFHxA rose significantly in concentration. Effluent samples from two treatment plants contained much higher levels of PFASs: over two samplings, wastewater from one municipal plant contained an average of 420 ng/L PFOS and wastewater from an airport industrial treatment plant contained 560 ng/L PFOS, 390 ng/L 6:2 FtS, 570 ng/L PFPeA, and 500 ng/L PFHxA. The elevated levels observed in effluent samples from these two plants are likely related to aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) sources impacting their influent; PFASs attributable to both current use and discontinued AFFF formulations were observed. Indirectly measured PFAA precursor compounds accounted for 33%-63% of the total molar concentration of PFASs across all effluent samples and the PFAA precursors indicated by the oxidation assay were predominately short-chained. PFAS levels in SF Bay effluent samples reflect the manufacturing shifts towards shorter chained PFASs while also demonstrating significant impacts from localized usage of AFFF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika F Houtz
- Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA; Sequoia Foundation, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
| | - June-Soo Park
- Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA
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205
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Campo J, Lorenzo M, Pérez F, Picó Y, Farré ML, Barceló D. Analysis of the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances in water, sediment and biota of the Jucar River (E Spain). Sources, partitioning and relationships with water physical characteristics. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2016; 147:503-512. [PMID: 26974364 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The presence, sources and partitioning of 21 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs: C4-C14, C16, C18 carboxylate, C4, C6-C10 sulfonates and C8 sulfonamide) were assessed in water, sediment, and biota of the Jucar River basin (E Spain). Considering the three matrices, perfluoropentanoate (PFPeA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were the most frequent compounds, being remarkable the high occurrence of short-chain PFASs (C≤8), which are intended to replace the long-chain ones in several industrial and commercial applications. In general, all samples were contaminated with at least one PFAS, with the exception of three fish samples. Mean concentrations detected in sediments (0.22-11.5ng g(-1)) and biota (0.63-274µgkg(-1)) samples were higher than those measured in water (0.04-83.1ngL(-1)), which might suggest (bio) accumulation. The occurrence of PFAS is related to urban and industrial discharges (Cuenca city in the upper part of basin, and car's factory, and effluents of the sewage treatment plant (STP) of Alzira, in the lower part). Increasing pollution gradients were found. On the other hand, higher contamination levels were observed after regulation dams of the catchment pointing out their importance in the re-distribution of these contaminants. None of the hazard quotients (HQ) calculated indicate potential risk for the different tropic levels considered (algae, Daphnia sp. and fish). PFAS concentrations found in this study can be considered in acceptable levels if compared to existing Regulatory Legislation and, consequently, they do not pose an immediate human health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Campo
- Environmental Forensic and Landscape Chemistry Research Group. Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish Council for Scientific Research, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana), Carretera Moncada - Náquera km 4.5 (Campus IVIA), Moncada, 46113 Valencia, Spain; Earth Surface Science, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystems Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - María Lorenzo
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificación (CIDE, UV-CSIC-GV) and Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de València, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain
| | - Francisca Pérez
- Department of Environmental Chemistry (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificación (CIDE, UV-CSIC-GV) and Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de València, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain
| | - Marinel la Farré
- Department of Environmental Chemistry (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Damià Barceló
- Department of Environmental Chemistry (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Emili Grahit, 101, Edifici H2O, Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, E-17003 Girona, Spain
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206
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Müller CE, LeFevre GH, Timofte AE, Hussain FA, Sattely ES, Luthy RG. Competing mechanisms for perfluoroalkyl acid accumulation in plants revealed using an Arabidopsis model system. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2016; 35:1138-1147. [PMID: 26383989 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) bioaccumulate in plants, presenting a human exposure route if present in irrigation water. Curiously, accumulation of PFAAs in plant tissues is greatest for both the short-chain and long-chain PFAAs, generating a U-shaped relationship with chain length. In the present study, the authors decouple competing mechanisms of PFAA accumulation using a hydroponic model plant system (Arabidopsis thaliana) exposed to a suite of 10 PFAAs to determine uptake, depuration, and translocation kinetics. Rapid saturation of root concentrations occurred for all PFAAs except perfluorobutanoate, the least-sorptive (shortest-chain) PFAA. Shoot concentrations increased continuously, indicating that PFAAs are efficiently transported and accumulate in shoots. Tissue concentrations of PFAAs during depuration rapidly declined in roots but remained constant in shoots, demonstrating irreversibility of the translocation process. Root and shoot concentration factors followed the U-shaped trend with perfluoroalkyl chain length; however, when normalized to dead-tissue sorption, this relationship linearized. The authors therefore introduce a novel term, the "sorption normalized concentration factor," to describe PFAA accumulation in plants; because of their hydrophobicity, sorption is the determining factor for long-chain PFAAs, whereas the shortest-chain PFAAs are most effectively transported in the plant. The present study provides a mechanistic explanation for previously unexplained PFAA accumulation trends in plants and suggests that shorter-chained PFAAs may bioaccumulate more readily in edible portions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia E Müller
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Gregory H LeFevre
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Anca E Timofte
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Fatima A Hussain
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Sattely
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Richard G Luthy
- Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure Engineering Research Center (ReNUWIt), Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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207
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Perfluorooctane sulfonate removal by nanofiltration membrane—the effect and interaction of magnesium ion / humic acid. J Memb Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2015.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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208
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Shan G, Wang Z, Zhou L, Du P, Luo X, Wu Q, Zhu L. Impacts of daily intakes on the isomeric profiles of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in human serum. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 89-90:62-70. [PMID: 26826363 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been well studied in human daily intake for assessment of potential health risks. However, little is known about the isomeric compositions of PFASs in daily intake and their impacts on isomeric profiles in humans. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of PFASs with isomeric analysis in various human exposure matrices including foodstuffs, tap water and indoor dust. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and/or perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) were predominant in these exposure matrices collected in Tianjin, China. In fish and meat, linear (n-) PFOA was enriched with a percentage of 92.2% and 99.6%, respectively. Although n-PFOS was higher in fish (84.8%) than in technical PFOS (ca. 70%), it was much lower in meat (63.1%) and vegetables (58.5%). Dietary intake contributed >99% of the estimated daily intake (EDI) for the general population. The isomeric profiles of PFOA and PFOS in human serum were predicted based on the EDI and a one-compartment, first-order pharmacokinetic model. The isomeric percentage of n-PFOA in the EDI (98.6%) was similar to that in human serum (predicted: 98.2%, previously measured: 99.7%) of Tianjin residents. The results suggest direct PFOA intake plays an important role in its isomeric compositions in humans. For PFOS, the predicted n-PFOS (69.3%) was much higher than the previously measured values (59.2%) in human serum. This implies that other factors, such as indirect exposure to PFOS precursors and multiple excretion pathways, may contribute to the lower percentage of n-PFOS in humans than of technical PFOS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoqiang Shan
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Zhi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Lianqiu Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Pin Du
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Xiaoxiao Luo
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Qiannian Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Lingyan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
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209
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Schaider LA, Ackerman JM, Rudel RA. Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 547:470-481. [PMID: 26822473 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Domestic drinking water wells serve 44 million people in the US and are common globally. They are often located in areas served by onsite wastewater treatment systems, including septic systems, which can be sources of biological and chemical pollutants to groundwater. In this study we tested 20 domestic drinking water wells in a sand and gravel aquifer on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA, for 117 organic wastewater compounds (OWCs) and for inorganic markers of septic system impact. We detected 27 OWCs, including 12 pharmaceuticals, five per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), four organophosphate flame retardants, and an artificial sweetener (acesulfame). Maximum concentrations of several PFASs and pharmaceuticals were relatively high compared to public drinking water supplies in the US. The number of detected OWCs and total concentrations of pharmaceuticals and of PFASs were positively correlated with nitrate, boron, and acesulfame and negatively correlated with well depth. These wells were all located in areas served exclusively by onsite wastewater treatment systems, which are likely the main source of the OWCs in these wells, although landfill leachate may also be a source. Our results suggest that current regulations to protect domestic wells from pathogens in septic system discharges do not prevent OWCs from reaching domestic wells, and that nitrate, a commonly measured drinking water contaminant, is a useful screening tool for OWCs in domestic wells. Nitrate concentrations of 1mg/L NO3-N, which are tenfold higher than local background and tenfold lower than the US federal drinking water standard, were associated with wastewater impacts from OWCs in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Janet M Ackerman
- Silent Spring Institute, 29 Crafts Street, Newton, MA 02458, USA
| | - Ruthann A Rudel
- Silent Spring Institute, 29 Crafts Street, Newton, MA 02458, USA
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210
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Zaggia A, Conte L, Falletti L, Fant M, Chiorboli A. Use of strong anion exchange resins for the removal of perfluoroalkylated substances from contaminated drinking water in batch and continuous pilot plants. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 91:137-46. [PMID: 26774262 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Revised: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
In recent years abnormally high levels of perfluoroalkylated substances (PFAS) have been detected both in surface and underground water sampled in an area covering approximately 150 square kilometers in the Veneto region (Italy) indicating the presence of a pollution point source (fluorochemicals production plant). Adsorption on granular activated carbon is an emergency measure which is poorly effective requiring frequent replacement. This work focuses on the application of three strong anion exchange resins (Purolite® A520E, A600E and A532E) for the removal of traces of PFOA, PFOS, PFBA and PFBS (concentration of hundreds of ng L(-1)) from drinking water. This technology is attractive for the possibility of reusing resins after an in-situ regeneration step. A strong relationship between the hydrophobicity of the exchange functional group of the resin and its capacity in removing PFAS exists. A600E (non hydrophobic) and A520E (fairly hydrophobic) show a reduced sorption capacity compared to A532E (highly hydrophobic). While A600E and A520E can be regenerated with solvent-less dilute solutions of non-toxic NH4Cl and NH4OH, A532E requires concentrated solutions of methanol or ethanol and 1% NH4Cl and for the sake of this work it was regarded as non-regenerable. The volume of regeneration effluents requiring incineration can be efficiently reduced by more than 96.5% by using reverse osmosis coupled with under-vacuum evaporation. Transmission electron analysis on saturated resins showed that large molecular macro-aggregates of PFAS can form in the intraparticle pores of resin indicating that ion exchange is not the only mechanism involved in PFAS removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Zaggia
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35030 Padova, Italy.
| | - Lino Conte
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35030 Padova, Italy
| | - Luigi Falletti
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35030 Padova, Italy
| | - Massimo Fant
- Acque del Chiampo S.p.A. - Servizio Idrico Integrato, Via Ferraretta 20, 36071 Vicenza, Italy
| | - Andrea Chiorboli
- Acque del Chiampo S.p.A. - Servizio Idrico Integrato, Via Ferraretta 20, 36071 Vicenza, Italy
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211
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Lin H, Wang Y, Niu J, Yue Z, Huang Q. Efficient Sorption and Removal of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) from Aqueous Solution by Metal Hydroxides Generated in Situ by Electrocoagulation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:10562-10569. [PMID: 26244813 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b02092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Removal of environmentally persistent perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), that is, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs, C4 ∼ C10) were investigated through sorption on four metal hydroxide flocs generated in situ by electrocoagulation in deionized water with 10 mM NaCl as supporting electrolyte. The results indicated that the zinc hydroxide flocs yielded the highest removal efficiency with a wide range concentration of PFOA/PFOS (1.5 μM ∼ 0.5 mM) at the zinc dosage <150 mg L(-1) with the energy consumption <0.18 Wh L(-1). The sorption kinetics indicated that the zinc hydroxide flocs had an equilibrium adsorbed amount (qe) up to 5.74/7.69 mmol g(-1) (Zn) for PFOA/PFOS at the initial concentration of 0.5 mM with an initial sorption rate (v0) of 1.01 × 10(3)/1.81 × 10(3) mmol g(-1) h(-1). The sorption of PFOA/PFOS reached equilibrium within <10 min. The sorption mechanisms of PFAAs on the zinc hydroxide flocs were proposed based on the investigation of various driving forces. The results indicated that the hydrophobic interaction was primarily responsible for the PFAAs sorption. The electrocoagulation process with zinc anode may have a great potential for removing PFAAs from industrial wastewater as well as contaminated environmental waterbody.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University , Beijing 100875, P.R. China
- College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia , Griffin, Georgia 30223, United States
| | - Yujuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University , Beijing 100875, P.R. China
| | - Junfeng Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University , Beijing 100875, P.R. China
| | - Zhihan Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University , Beijing 100875, P.R. China
| | - Qingguo Huang
- College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia , Griffin, Georgia 30223, United States
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212
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Yan H, Cousins IT, Zhang C, Zhou Q. Perfluoroalkyl acids in municipal landfill leachates from China: Occurrence, fate during leachate treatment and potential impact on groundwater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 524-525:23-31. [PMID: 25889541 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Raw and treated landfill leachate samples were collected from 5 municipal landfill sites in China to measure the concentrations and contamination profile of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in leachate during different steps of treatment. The total concentration of PFAAs (∑PFAAs) ranged from 7280 to 292,000 ng L(-1) in raw leachate and from 98.4 to 282,000 ng L(-1) in treated leachate. The dominant compounds measured were PFOA (mean contribution 28.8% and 36.8% in raw and treated leachate, respectively) and PFBS (26.1% and 40.8% in raw and treated leachate, respectively). A calculation of mass flows during the leachate treatment processes showed that the fate of individual PFAAs was substance and treatment-specific. The Chinese national leakage of ∑PFAAs to groundwater from landfill leachate was estimated to be 3110 kg year(-1), which is a significant environmental release that is potentially threatening the sustainable use of groundwater as a drinking water source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Ian T Cousins
- Department of Applied Environmental Science (ITM), Stockholm University, Svante Arrhenius väg 8, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Chaojie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Qi Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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213
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Allred BM, Lang JR, Barlaz MA, Field JA. Physical and Biological Release of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) from Municipal Solid Waste in Anaerobic Model Landfill Reactors. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:7648-7656. [PMID: 26055930 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A wide variety of consumer products that are treated with poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and related formulations are disposed of in landfills. Landfill leachate has significant concentrations of PFASs and acts as secondary point sources to surface water. This study models how PFASs enter leachate using four laboratory-scale anaerobic bioreactors filled with municipal solid waste (MSW) and operated over 273 days. Duplicate reactors were monitored under live and abiotic conditions to evaluate influences attributable to biological activity. The biologically active reactors simulated the methanogenic conditions that develop in all landfills, producing ∼140 mL CH4/dry g refuse. The average total PFAS leaching measured in live reactors (16.7 nmol/kg dry refuse) was greater than the average for abiotic reactors (2.83 nmol/kg dry refuse), indicating biological processes were primarily responsible for leaching. The low-level leaching in the abiotic reactors was primarily due to PFCAs ≤C8 (2.48 nmol/kg dry refuse). Concentrations of known biodegradation intermediates, including methylperfluorobutane sulfonamide acetic acid and the n:2 and n:3 fluorotelomer carboxylates, increased steadily after the onset of methanogenesis, with the 5:3 fluorotelomer carboxylate becoming the single most concentrated PFAS observed in live reactors (9.53 nmol/kg dry refuse).
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Affiliation(s)
- B McKay Allred
- †Department of Chemistry, 153 Gilbert Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-4003, United States
| | - Johnsie R Lang
- ‡Department of Civil, Constructional, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Box 7908, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7908, United States
| | - Morton A Barlaz
- ‡Department of Civil, Constructional, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Box 7908, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7908, United States
| | - Jennifer A Field
- §Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, 1007 ALS Building, Oregon State University, 2750 Campus Way Corvallis, Oregon 97331-4003, United States
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214
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Optimization and comparison of several extraction methods for determining perfluoroalkyl substances in abiotic environmental solid matrices using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:5767-81. [PMID: 26025550 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8759-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
In this study, four extraction methods of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in soils and sediments were validated and compared in order to select the one that provides the best recoveries and the highest sensitivity. The determination of PFASs was carried out by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The extraction methods compared were based on (i) an aqueous solution of acetic acid and methanol (recoveries 44-125%, relative standard deviation (RSD) <25%), (ii) methanol (34-109%, <25%), (iii) sodium hydroxide digestion (24-178%, <49%), and (iv) ion pair (35-179%, <31%). The best results were obtained with methanol extraction, which recovered a greater number of PFASs and provided values between 45-103% in sediment and 34-109% in soil with RSDs <25% and limits of quantification (LOQs) between 0.02-0.31 and 0.01-6.00 ng g(-1), respectively. The selected method was successfully applied to Segura River sediments and soil samples taken near the Turia River. This study demonstrates the presence of PFASs in the studied rivers of the Valencian Community (0.07-14.91 ng g(-1) in Segura River sediments; 0.02-64.04 ng g(-1) in Turia River soils). Graphical Abstract Selected matrices and extraction methods for determination of perfluoroalkyl substances.
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215
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216
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Houde M, Giraudo M, Douville M, Bougas B, Couture P, De Silva AO, Spencer C, Lair S, Verreault J, Bernatchez L, Gagnon C. A multi-level biological approach to evaluate impacts of a major municipal effluent in wild St. Lawrence River yellow perch (Perca flavescens). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2014; 497-498:307-318. [PMID: 25137380 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.07.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The development of integrated ecotoxicological approaches is of great interest in the investigation of global concerns such as impacts of municipal wastewater effluents on aquatic ecosystems. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a major wastewater municipal effluent on fish using a multi-level biological approach, from gene transcription and enzyme activities to histological changes. Yellow perch (Perca flavescens) were selected based on their wide distribution, their commercial and recreational importance, and the availability of a customized microarray. Yellow perch were sampled upstream of a major municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and 4 km and 10 km downstream from its point of discharge in the St. Lawrence River (Quebec, Canada). Concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and metals/trace elements in whole body homogenates were comparable to those from other industrialized regions of the world. Genomic results indicated that the transcription level of 177 genes was significantly different (p<0.024) between exposed and non-exposed fish. Among these genes, 38 were found to be differentially transcribed at both downstream sites. Impacted genes were associated with biological processes and molecular functions such as immunity, detoxification, lipid metabolism/energy homeostasis (e.g., peroxisome proliferation), and retinol metabolism suggesting impact of WWTP on these systems. Moreover, antioxidant enzyme activities were more elevated in perch collected at the 4 km site. Biomarkers of lipid metabolism, biosynthetic activity, and aerobic capacities were significantly lower (p<0.05) in fish residing near the outfall of the effluent. Histological examination of the liver indicated no differences between sites. Correlations between PFAS, PBDE, and metal/trace element tissue concentrations and markers of peroxisomal proliferation, oxidative stress, and retinoid metabolism were found at the gene and cellular levels. Present results suggest that relating transcriptomic analyses to phenotypic responses is important to better understand impacts of environmental contamination on wild fish populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magali Houde
- Centre Saint-Laurent, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC H2Y 2E7, Canada.
| | - Maeva Giraudo
- Centre Saint-Laurent, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC H2Y 2E7, Canada.
| | - Mélanie Douville
- Centre Saint-Laurent, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC H2Y 2E7, Canada.
| | - Bérénice Bougas
- Institut de biologie intégrative et des systèmes, Université Laval, 1030, avenue de la Médecine, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, 490 de la Couronne, Québec, QC G1K 9A9, Canada.
| | - Patrice Couture
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, 490 de la Couronne, Québec, QC G1K 9A9, Canada.
| | - Amila O De Silva
- Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, ON L7R 4A6, Canada.
| | - Christine Spencer
- Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, ON L7R 4A6, Canada.
| | - Stéphane Lair
- Centre québécois sur la santé des animaux sauvages, Université de Montréal, C.P. 5000, St-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 7C6, Canada.
| | - Jonathan Verreault
- Centre de recherche en toxicologie de l'environnement (TOXEN), Département des sciences biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montreal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada.
| | - Louis Bernatchez
- Institut de biologie intégrative et des systèmes, Université Laval, 1030, avenue de la Médecine, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Christian Gagnon
- Centre Saint-Laurent, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC H2Y 2E7, Canada.
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217
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McGuire ME, Schaefer C, Richards T, Backe WJ, Field JA, Houtz E, Sedlak DL, Guelfo JL, Wunsch A, Higgins CP. Evidence of remediation-induced alteration of subsurface poly- and perfluoroalkyl substance distribution at a former firefighter training area. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:6644-52. [PMID: 24866261 DOI: 10.1021/es5006187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of fluorinated chemicals that are utilized in firefighting and have been reported in groundwater and soil at several firefighter training areas. In this study, soil and groundwater samples were collected from across a former firefighter training area to examine the extent to which remedial activities have altered the composition and spatial distribution of PFASs in the subsurface. Log Koc values for perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), estimated from analysis of paired samples of groundwater and aquifer solids, indicated that solid/water partitioning was not entirely consistent with predictions based on laboratory studies. Differential PFAA transport was not strongly evident in the subsurface, likely due to remediation-induced conditions. When compared to the surface soil spatial distributions, the relative concentrations of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and PFAA precursors in groundwater strongly suggest that remedial activities altered the subsurface PFAS distribution, presumably through significant pumping of groundwater and transformation of precursors to PFAAs. Additional evidence for transformation of PFAA precursors during remediation included elevated ratios of perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) to PFOS in groundwater near oxygen sparging wells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan E McGuire
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines , Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
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