201
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Perini JÂDL, Stevanato FB, Sargi SC, Visentainer JEL, Dalalio MMDO, Matshushita M, Souza NED, Visentainer JV. Ácidos graxos poli-insaturados n-3 e n-6: metabolismo em mamíferos e resposta imune. REV NUTR 2010. [DOI: 10.1590/s1415-52732010000600013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A experimentação animal apresenta uma grande importância para o desenvolvimento da ciência. O uso de camundongos em experimentos ocorre devido à semelhança destes animais com os seres humanos, fácil criação e manutenção e resposta experimental bastante rápida. Esses animais possuem as mesmas enzimas dessaturases e elongases que os humanos, por isso são usados em pesquisas envolvendo incorporação e síntese de ácidos graxos em tecidos. Os ácidos graxos da família ômega-3 e ômega-6 são de suma importância na dieta humana, pois estes não são sintetizados pela síntese de novo e são precursores dos ácidos graxos poli-insaturados de cadeia muito longa, como os ácidos eicosapentaenóico, docosahexaenóico e araquidônico. Estes desempenham funções importantes no organismo, como a síntese de eicosanóides que estão envolvidos diretamente no sistema imune e nas respostas inflamatórias. A razão entre o consumo de ácidos graxos n-6 e n-3 na dieta é um importante fator para determinar a ingestão adequada de ácidos graxos bem como prevenir o aparecimento de doenças. Este artigo tem como objetivo avaliar a incorporação de ácidos graxos em tecidos de animais e discutir a importância dos ácidos da família n-3 e seus metabólitos no sistema imunológico.
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202
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Ethyl-eicosapentaenoate modulates changes in neurochemistry and brain lipids induced by parkinsonian neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium in mouse brain slices. Eur J Pharmacol 2010; 649:127-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.09.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2010] [Revised: 07/14/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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203
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Miller MR, Seifert J, Szabo NJ, Clare‐Salzler M, Rewers M, Norris JM. Erythrocyte membrane fatty acid content in infants consuming formulas supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA): an observational study. MATERNAL & CHILD NUTRITION 2010; 6:338-46. [PMID: 21050388 PMCID: PMC2992442 DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00230.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this observational study, we compared erythrocyte membrane fatty acids in infants consuming formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) with those consuming other types of milks. In 110 infants who were participants in a cohort study of otherwise healthy children at risk for developing type 1 diabetes, erythrocytes were collected at approximately 9 months of age, and fatty acid content was measured as a percentage of total lipids. Parents reported the type of milk the infants consumed in the month of and prior to erythrocyte collection: infant formula supplemented with ARA and DHA (supplemented formula), formula with no ARA and DHA supplements (non-supplemented formula), breast milk, or non-supplemented formula plus breast milk. Membrane DHA (4.42 versus 1.79, P < 0.001) and omega-3 fatty acid (5.81 versus 3.43, P < 0.001) levels were higher in infants consuming supplemented versus non-supplemented formula. Omega-6 fatty acids were lower in infants consuming supplemented versus non-supplemented formula (26.32 versus 29.68, P = 0.023); ARA did not differ between groups. Infants given supplemented formula had higher DHA (4.42 versus 2.81, P < 0.001) and omega-3 fatty acids (5.81 versus 4.45, P = 0.008) than infants drinking breast milk. In infants whose mothers did not receive any dietary advice, use of supplemented formula is associated with higher omega-3 and lower omega-6 fatty acid status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa R. Miller
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA
| | - Jennifer Seifert
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA
| | - Nancy J. Szabo
- Analytical Toxicology Core Laboratory, Center for Environmental & Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - Michael Clare‐Salzler
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA, and
| | - Marian Rewers
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA
| | - Jill M. Norris
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA
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204
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Caputo M, Zirpoli H, Torino G, Tecce MF. Selective regulation of UGT1A1 and SREBP-1c mRNA expression by docosahexaenoic, eicosapentaenoic, and arachidonic acids. J Cell Physiol 2010; 226:187-93. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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205
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Kuo YT, So PW, Parkinson JR, Yu WS, Hankir M, Herlihy AH, Goldstone AP, Frost GS, Wasserfall C, Bell JD. The combined effects on neuronal activation and blood–brain barrier permeability of time and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in mice, as measured in vivo using MEMRI. Neuroimage 2010; 50:1384-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.01.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2009] [Revised: 01/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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206
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Zobiole LHS, Oliveira RS, Visentainer JV, Kremer RJ, Bellaloui N, Yamada T. Glyphosate affects seed composition in glyphosate-resistant soybean. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:4517-22. [PMID: 20307082 DOI: 10.1021/jf904342t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The cultivation of glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybeans has continuously increased worldwide in recent years mainly due to the importance of glyphosate in current weed management systems. However, not much has been done to understand eventual effects of glyphosate application on GR soybean physiology, especially those related to seed composition with potential effects on human health. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of glyphosate application on GR soybeans compared with its near-isogenic non-GR parental lines. Results of the first experiment showed that glyphosate application resulted in significant decreases in shoot nutrient concentrations, photosynthetic parameters, and biomass production. Similar trends were observed for the second experiment, although glyphosate application significantly altered seed nutrient concentrations and polyunsaturated fatty acid percentages. Glyphosate resulted in significant decreases in polyunsaturated linoleic acid (18:2n-6) (2.3% decrease) and linolenic acid (18:3n-3) (9.6% decrease) and a significant increase in monounsaturated fatty acids 17:1n-7 (30.3% increase) and 18:1n-7 (25% increase). The combined observations of decreased photosynthetic parameters and low nutrient availability in glyphosate-treated plants may explain potential adverse effects of glyphosate in GR soybeans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz H S Zobiole
- Center for Advanced Studies in Weed Research (NAPD), Agronomy Department.
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207
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Leskovjan AC, Kretlow A, Miller LM. Fourier transform infrared imaging showing reduced unsaturated lipid content in the hippocampus of a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Anal Chem 2010; 82:2711-6. [PMID: 20187625 PMCID: PMC2848295 DOI: 10.1021/ac1002728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential to brain functions such as membrane fluidity, signal transduction, and cell survival. It is also thought that low levels of unsaturated lipid in the brain may contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk or severity. However, it is not known how accumulation of unsaturated lipids is affected in different regions of the hippocampus, which is a central target of AD plaque pathology, during aging. In this study, we used Fourier transform infrared imaging (FTIRI) to visualize the unsaturated lipid content in specific regions of the hippocampus in the PSAPP mouse model of AD as a function of plaque formation. Specifically, the unsaturated lipid content was imaged using the olefinic =CH stretching mode at 3012 cm(-1). The axonal, dendritic, and somatic layers of the hippocampus were examined in the mice at 13, 24, 40, and 56 weeks old. Results showed that lipid unsaturation in the axonal layer was significantly increased with normal aging in control (CNT) mice (p < 0.01) but remained low and relatively constant in PSAPP mice. Thus, these findings indicate that unsaturated lipid content is reduced in hippocampal white matter during amyloid pathogenesis and that maintaining unsaturated lipid content early in the disease may be critical in avoiding progression of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreana C. Leskovjan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794
- National Synchrotron Light Source, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973
| | - Ariane Kretlow
- National Synchrotron Light Source, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973
| | - Lisa M. Miller
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794
- National Synchrotron Light Source, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973
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208
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Delattre AM, Kiss Á, Szawka RE, Anselmo-Franci JA, Bagatini PB, Xavier LL, Rigon P, Achaval M, Iagher F, de David C, Marroni NA, Ferraz AC. Evaluation of chronic omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on behavioral and neurochemical alterations in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesion model of Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Res 2010; 66:256-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2009.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2009] [Revised: 10/16/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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209
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Sinn N, Milte C, Howe PRC. Oiling the brain: a review of randomized controlled trials of omega-3 fatty acids in psychopathology across the lifespan. Nutrients 2010; 2:128-70. [PMID: 22254013 PMCID: PMC3257637 DOI: 10.3390/nu2020128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2009] [Accepted: 02/03/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Around one in four people suffer from mental illness at some stage in their lifetime. There is increasing awareness of the importance of nutrition, particularly omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), for optimal brain development and function. Hence in recent decades, researchers have explored effects of n-3 PUFA on mental health problems over the lifespan, from developmental disorders in childhood, to depression, aggression, and schizophrenia in adulthood, and cognitive decline, dementia and Alzheimer's disease in late adulthood. This review provides an updated overview of the published and the registered clinical trials that investigate effects of n-3 PUFA supplementation on mental health and behavior, highlighting methodological differences and issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Sinn
- Nutritional Physiology Research Centre, Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Frome Road, Adelaide 5000, Australia.
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210
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Brown LA, Riby LM, Reay JL. Supplementing Cognitive Aging: A Selective Review of the Effects of Ginkgo Biloba and a Number of Everyday Nutritional Substances. Exp Aging Res 2010; 36:105-22. [DOI: 10.1080/03610730903417960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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211
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Aparicio Vizuete A, Robles F, Rodríguez-Rodríguez E, López-Sobaler AM, Ortega RM. Association between food and nutrient intakes and cognitive capacity in a group of institutionalized elderly people. Eur J Nutr 2009; 49:293-300. [PMID: 20013126 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-009-0086-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Some authors have indicated that the cognitive decline may be due to an inadequate nutritional status. AIM OF STUDY To determine the association between food and nutrient intakes and cognitive capacity score in a group of institutionalized elderly people. METHODS The study subjects were 178 elderly (> or = 65 years of age) institutionalized people from the Madrid region. The diets of these subjects were recorded using the precise weighing method over a 7-day period, and their cognitive capacity assessed using the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ). Subjects were grouped into those who did not incur errors (SPMSQ = 0) and who incurred one or more errors (SPMSQ > 0). Since an association was seen between the SPMSQ test score and age (r = 0.2030; p < 0.01), the subjects were also grouped according to whether they were above or below the percentile 50 (P(50)) for this variable (83 years). RESULTS The subjects with no errors in the SPMSQ test (32%) consumed greater quantities of cereals, eggs, oils, and fats. After adjusting for energy intake and educational level an inverse association was seen between fish and vegetable consumption and cognitive capacity score. In addition, these subjects had greater intakes of carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fatty acids, riboflavin, and vitamins C, D, and E. After adjusting for energy intake, a negative relationship was found between cognitive capacity score and the intake of fibre, vitamin B(6), and folic acid. CONCLUSION In general, the subjects of our study showed an adequate mental capacity, but those who made no errors in the SPMSQ test had more satisfactory diets. This shows the importance of the diet in the maintenance of cognitive function.
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212
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Yu JH, Kang SG, Jung UY, Jun CH, Kim H. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on apoptosis of human gastric epithelial cells exposed to silica-immobilized glucose oxidase. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1171:359-64. [PMID: 19723076 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04703.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress plays a critical role in apoptosis of gastric epithelial cells. Omega-3 fatty acids show anti-inflammatory and/or anticancer effects and regulate apoptosis in various cells. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether omega-3 fatty acids inhibit oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of gastric epithelial cells. The cells received oxidative stress caused by silica-immobilized glucose oxidase acting on beta-D-glucose and cultured in the absence or presence of alpha-linolenic acid or docosahexanoic acid. Viable cell numbers, levels of H(2)O(2) in the medium, DNA fragmentation, and protein levels of p53 and Bax were determined. As a result, silica-immobilized glucose oxidase acting on beta-D-glucose consistently and reproducibly produced H(2)O(2), which decreased cell viability and increased DNA fragmentation of the cells. Omega-3 fatty acids inhibited oxidative stress-induced cell death, DNA fragmentation, and induction of p53 and Bax of the cells. The silica-immobilized glucose oxidase could be a useful tool for studies on oxidative stress-induced cellular events because it is reusable and forms a stable enzyme system acting on glucose. Omega-3 fatty acids may be beneficial for preventing oxidative stress-induced apoptosis by inhibiting apoptotic gene expression and DNA fragmentation of gastric epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hoon Yu
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Brain Korea 21 Project, College of Human Ecology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
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213
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Bókkon I, Vimal RLP. Retinal phosphenes and discrete dark noises in rods: A new biophysical framework. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2009; 96:255-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2009.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2009] [Revised: 06/28/2009] [Accepted: 07/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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214
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Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids improve cholinergic transmission in the aged brain. GENES AND NUTRITION 2009; 4:309-14. [PMID: 19727886 DOI: 10.1007/s12263-009-0141-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The cholinergic theory of aging states that dysfunction of cholinergic neurons arising from the basal forebrain and terminating in the cortex and hippocampus may be involved in the cognitive decline that occurs during aging and Alzheimer's disease. Despite years of research, pharmacological interventions to treat or forestall the development of Alzheimer's disease have primarily focused on enhancing cholinergic transmission, either through increasing acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis or inhibition of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme responsible for ACh hydrolysis. However, recent studies have indicated that dietary supplementation can impact the cholinergic system, particularly during aging. The purpose of the present review is to examine the relevant research suggesting that cholinergic functioning may be maintained during aging via consuming a diet containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The data reviewed herein indicate that, at least in animal studies, inclusion of PUFAs in the diet can improve cholinergic transmission in the brain, possibly leading to improvements in cognitive functioning.
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215
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Raz R, Gabis L. Essential fatty acids and attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 2009; 51:580-92. [PMID: 19549202 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03351.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
AIM Essential fatty acids (EFAs), also known as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, have been claimed to have beneficial effects as a treatment for attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Animal experiments have provided information about the role of EFA in the brain, and several mechanisms of EFA activity are well known. The current review provides an updated, systematic overview of the theory and use of EFA in ADHD. METHOD Clinical studies and review papers of EFA blood levels and EFA supplementation trials in children with ADHD were researched in the Medline PubMed database. Additional studies were found from the references of these reports. RESULTS Children with ADHD present lower levels of blood EFAs, and open-label EFA supplementation trials in ADHD raise EFA blood levels and improve symptoms of ADHD. Randomized controlled trials, however, have generally been unsuccessful in demonstrating any behavioural treatment effects. INTERPRETATION Current findings do not support the use of EFA supplements as a primary or supplementary treatment for children with ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raanan Raz
- Weinberg Child Development Centre, Edmond and Lily Safra Children's Hospital, Sheba Medical Centre, Tel-Hashomer, Israel.
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216
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Abstract
Aged rats show decrements in performance on motor and cognitive tasks that require the use of spatial learning and memory. Previously we have shown that these deficits can be reversed by the polyphenolics in fruits and vegetables. Walnuts, which contain the n-3 fatty acids a-linolenic acid and linoleic acid, are a dietary source of polyphenols, antioxidants and lipids. Thus, the present study examined the effects of walnut supplementation on motor and cognitive ability in aged rats. Fischer 344 rats, aged 19 months, were fed a control, or a 2, 6 or 9% walnut diet for 8 weeks before motor and cognitive testing. Results for the motor testing showed that the 2% walnut diet improved performance on rod walking, while the 6% walnut diet improved performance on the medium plank walk; the higher dose of the 9% walnut diet did not improve psychomotor performance and on the large plank actually impaired performance. All of the walnut diets improved working memory in the Morris water maze, although the 9% diet showed impaired reference memory. These findings show for the first time that moderate dietary walnut supplementation can improve cognitive and motor performance in aged rats.
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217
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Delibas N, Altuntas I, Sutcu R, Yonden Z, Koylu H. EFFECTS OF DIETARY LONG CHAIN PUFAs ON HIPPOCAMPAL LIPID PEROXIDATION AND NMDA RECEPTOR SUBUNITS A AND B CONCENTRATION IN STREPTOZOTOCIN-DIABETIC RATS. Int J Neurosci 2009; 114:1353-64. [PMID: 15370192 DOI: 10.1080/00207450490476147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effects of streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetes and dietary long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) on hippocampal N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit expression and lipid peroxidation. MDA level was significantly increased after 8 weeks of STZ-diabetes. LC-PUFAs administration significantly reduced MDA levels in diabetic rats. NR2A and NR2B protein concentrations were significantly decreased by about 30% in diabetic rats. Dietary LC-PUFAs partially restored NR2A and NR2B in diabetic rats whereas the most significant increase was seen in nondiabetic rats. Consequently, dietary LC-PUFAs can partially restore hippocampal NMDA receptors and decrease lipid peroxidation in diabetes. LC-PUFAs are thus a possible prophylactic means for preventing the cognitive deficiencies of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namik Delibas
- Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Isparta, Turkey.
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218
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Türközer Z, Güler G, Seyhan N. Effects of exposure to 50 Hz electric field at different strengths on oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme activities in the brain tissue of guinea pigs. Int J Radiat Biol 2009; 84:581-90. [DOI: 10.1080/09553000802203606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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219
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Laasonen M, Hokkanen L, Leppämäki S, Tani P, Erkkilä AT. Project DyAdd: Fatty acids and cognition in adults with dyslexia, ADHD, or both. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2009; 81:79-88. [PMID: 19464861 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2009.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2008] [Revised: 01/06/2009] [Accepted: 04/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Both attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia are suggested to co-occur with altered fatty acid (FA) metabolism, but it is unknown how FAs are associated with the cognitive domains that characterize these disorders. In the project DyAdd, we investigated the associations between FAs in serum phospholipids and phonological processing, reading, spelling, arithmetic, executive functions, and attention. Healthy controls (n=36), adults with ADHD (n=26), dyslexia (n=36), or both (n=9) were included in the study. FAs included saturated, monounsaturated, total polyunsaturated, n-3, and n-6 FAs, together with n-6/n-3, AA/EPA, and LA/ALA ratios. When all the study subjects were included in the analyses, especially polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs) were positively associated with cognition, but reading was least associated with FAs. These associations were modulated by gender, intelligence, n-3 PUFA intake, and group. Accordingly, within the ADHD group, only few associations emerged with PUFAs, n-6 PUFAs, and cognitive domains, whereas in the dyslexia group the more prevalent associations appeared with PUFAs and n-3 PUFAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja Laasonen
- Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 9 (Siltavuorenpenger 20), FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
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220
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Kröger E, Verreault R, Carmichael PH, Lindsay J, Julien P, Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Laurin D. Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of dementia: the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 90:184-92. [PMID: 19474137 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) may protect against dementia, although epidemiologic studies have yielded inconclusive results. Fish is the main dietary source of n-3 PUFAs and is sometimes contaminated with mercury. This neurotoxicant may modify the association with dementia. OBJECTIVE We evaluated the association of erythrocyte membrane total n-3 PUFAs, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and blood mercury with the incidence of dementia and Alzheimer disease (AD) in the Canadian Study of Health and Aging (CSHA) with adjustment for confounders including apolipoprotein E epsilon4 (APOE epsilon4) status. DESIGN The CSHA is a cohort study of a representative sample of persons aged > or =65 y, conducted from 1991 to 2002. A subsample of 663 nondemented CSHA subjects with a complete clinical examination, blood samples, and follow-up information was eligible for prospective analyses on laboratory measurements. Of these, 149 were incident cases of dementia, including 105 with AD. RESULTS In adjusted Cox regression models with age as the time scale, there were no associations between total n-3 PUFAs, DHA, or EPA and dementia or AD. In contrast, a mercury concentration in the highest quartile was associated with a reduced risk of dementia (hazard ratio: 0.53; 95% CI: 0.33, 0.88). However, significant risk reductions were limited to subjects with concentrations of both n-3 PUFAs and mercury that were above the median. There was no modification of risk by APOE epsilon4 status. CONCLUSIONS No associations between n-3 PUFAs and dementia or AD were found. The results regarding mercury may indicate a spurious association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edeltraut Kröger
- Centre d'Excellence sur le Vieillissement de Quebec, Unite de Recherche sur le Vieillissement, Centre de Recherche FRSQ du Centre Hospitalier Affilie Universitaire de Québec, Québec, Canada
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221
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Influence of Temperature on Growth and Peak Oil Biosynthesis in a Carbon-Limited Medium by Pythium irregulare. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s11746-009-1409-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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222
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Kashiyae Y, Kontani M, Kawashima H, Kiso Y, Kudo Y, Sakakibara M. Arachidonic acid enhances intracellular calcium levels in dentate gyrus, but not CA1, in aged rat. Neurosci Res 2009; 64:143-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Revised: 02/17/2009] [Accepted: 02/19/2009] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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223
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Willis LM, Shukitt-Hale B, Joseph JA. Modulation of cognition and behavior in aged animals: role for antioxidant- and essential fatty acid-rich plant foods. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 89:1602S-1606S. [PMID: 19339395 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging results in the development of cognitive and motor deficits in humans and animals that are evident by midlife. These deficits are thought to stem from neuronal damage and dysfunction as a result of a variety of stressors, including increased oxidative stress and modifications in brain lipid composition. Recent clinical and animal studies have identified nutritional intervention as a viable method to curtail the cognitive aging process. Human studies have been primarily observational and have indicated that inclusion of antioxidant-rich foods in the diet can slow the progression of cognitive decline. Basic science studies investigating nutritional modulation of age-related cognitive decline have focused on foods rich in antioxidants or essential fatty acids. The purpose of this review is to discuss recent advancements in animal research showing that age-related cognitive and behavioral decline can be ameliorated with nutritional supplementation with polyphenol- or polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich plant foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Willis
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA
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Kawashima A, Harada T, Kami H, Yano T, Imada K, Mizuguchi K. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on synaptic plasticity, fatty acid profile and phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling in rat hippocampus and differentiated PC12 cells. J Nutr Biochem 2009; 21:268-77. [PMID: 19369057 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2008.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2008] [Revised: 12/04/2008] [Accepted: 12/19/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Placebo-controlled clinical studies suggest that intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids improves neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease and schizophrenia. To evaluate the impact of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), we orally administered highly purified ethyl EPA (EPA-E) to rats at a dose of 1.0 mg/g per day and measured long-term potentiation of the CA1 hippocampal region, a physiological correlate of synaptic plasticity that is thought to underlie learning and memory. The mean field excitatory postsynaptic potential slope of the EPA-E group was significantly greater than that of the control group in the CA1 region. Gene expression of hippocampal p85alpha, one of the regulatory subunits of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase), was increased with EPA-E administration. Investigation of fatty acid profiles of neuronal and glia-enriched fractions demonstrated that a single administration of EPA-E significantly increased neuronal and glial EPA content and glial docosahexaenoic acid content, clearly suggesting that EPA was indeed taken up by both neurons and glial cells. In addition, we investigated the direct effects of EPA on the PI3-kinase/Akt pathway in differentiated PC12 cells. Phosphorylated-Akt expression was significantly increased in EPA-treated cells, and nerve growth factor withdrawal-induced increases in cell death and caspase-3 activity were suppressed by EPA treatment. These findings suggest that EPA protects against neurodegeneration by modulating synaptic plasticity and activating the PI3-kinase/Akt pathway, possibly by its own functional effects in neurons and glial cells and by its capacity to increase brain docosahexaenoic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Kawashima
- Development Research, Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mochida Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Jimba, Gotemba, Shizuoka 412-8524, Japan
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225
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Ménard C, Patenaude C, Gagné AM, Massicotte G. AMPA receptor-mediated cell death is reduced by docosahexaenoic acid but not by eicosapentaenoic acid in area CA1 of hippocampal slice cultures. J Neurosci Res 2009; 87:876-86. [PMID: 18951489 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, several studies have shown that high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the brain might limit neuronal damage in various pathological conditions. For example, in animal models of Alzheimer's disease, omega-3 type PUFAs such as docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acids have been proposed to decrease both the cognitive and the cellular manifestations of premature ageing. The mechanisms by which they promote brain integrity remain to be established, and the experiments on cultured hippocampal slices described here examine the possibility that omega-3 fatty acids can modulate brain cell viability by interacting with glutamate receptors. We observed, by lactate dehydrogenase release and propidium iodide (PI) uptake, that excitotoxicity triggered by an alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) receptor agonist was markedly reduced in hippocampal slices treated with DHA. PI uptake experiments also revealed that neuroprotection by DHA was restricted to the hippocampal CA1 region and could not be reproduced by EPA or arachidonic acid, an omega-6 PUFA. Moreover, the beneficial effect of DHA was specific to AMPA receptor stimulation, insofar as the toxicity induced by N-methyl-D-aspartate or kainate receptor agonists was not diminished by DHA preincubation. Biotinylation experiments finally indicated that the neuroprotective actions of DHA could result from down-regulation of AMPA receptors in hippocampal membranes. This investigation thus provides the first indication that a beneficial outcome of DHA on the brain could derive from specific modulation of AMPA-mediated toxicity, reinforcing the notion that dietary DHA uptake might be useful in preventing neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Ménard
- Département de Chimie-Biologie, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada
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226
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Paik MJ, Li WY, Ahn YH, Lee PH, Choi S, Kim KR, Kim YM, Bang OY, Lee G. The free fatty acid metabolome in cerebral ischemia following human mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in rats. Clin Chim Acta 2009; 402:25-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2008.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2008] [Revised: 12/02/2008] [Accepted: 12/02/2008] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Gao F, Kiesewetter D, Chang L, Ma K, Bell JM, Rapoport SI, Igarashi M. Whole-body synthesis-secretion rates of long-chain n-3 PUFAs from circulating unesterified alpha-linolenic acid in unanesthetized rats. J Lipid Res 2009; 50:749-58. [PMID: 19074373 PMCID: PMC2656669 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.d800056-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2008] [Revised: 12/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), long-chain n-3 PUFAs important for brain and heart function, can be obtained from dietary fish products or by liver synthesis from alpha-linolenic acid (alpha-LNA). Their daily human dietary requirements are not clear, and their liver synthesis rates in humans and nonhumans are unknown. We estimated whole-body (presumably liver) synthesis rates in unanesthetized rats by infusing [U-(13)C]alpha-LNA intravenously for 2 h and measuring labeled and unlabeled n-3 PUFA in arterial plasma using negative chemical ionization GC-MS. Newly synthesized esterified [(13)C]DHA, [(13)C]EPA, and [(13)C]docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) appeared in arterial plasma after 60 min of infusion, then their concentrations rose in an S-shaped manner. Esterified concentration x plasma volume data were fit with a sigmoidal equation, whose peak first derivatives provided synthesis rates of unlabeled EPA, DPA, and DHA equal to 8.40, 6.27, and 9.84 mumol/day, respectively. The DHA synthesis rate exceeded the published daily rat brain DHA consumption rate by 30-fold, suggesting that liver synthesis from alpha-LNA could maintain brain DHA homeostasis were DHA absent from the diet. This stable isotope infusion method could be used to quantify whole-body DHA synthesis rates in human subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Gao
- Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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228
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Kabuto H, Amakawa M, Mankura M, Yamanushi TT, Mori A. Docosahexaenoic Acid Ethyl Ester Enhances 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Neuronal Damage by Induction of Lipid Peroxidation in Mouse Striatum. Neurochem Res 2009; 34:1299-303. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-008-9909-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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229
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Leigh Gibson E, Green MW. Nutritional influences on cognitive function: mechanisms of susceptibility. Nutr Res Rev 2009; 15:169-206. [DOI: 10.1079/nrr200131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Abstract
An abundance of research has investigated causes and treatments for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The research includes identification of suboptimal levels of nutrients and sensitivities to certain foods and food additives. This review gives an overview of this research and provides an up-to-date account of clinical trials that have been conducted with zinc, iron, magnesium, Pycnogenol, omega-3 fatty acids, and food sensitivities. A literature search was conducted using PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, and Google Scholar and included studies published before April 2008. Although further research is required, the current evidence supports indications of nutritional and dietary influences on behavior and learning in these children, with the strongest support to date reported for omega-3s and behavioral food reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Sinn
- Nutritional Physiology Research Centre, School of Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia.
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232
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Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2009; 58:1-31. [PMID: 19878856 DOI: 10.1016/s1043-4526(09)58001-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), which is considered a pseudocereal or pseudograin, has been recognized as a complete food due to its protein quality. It has remarkable nutritional properties; not only from its protein content (15%) but also from its great amino acid balance. It is an important source of minerals and vitamins, and has also been found to contain compounds like polyphenols, phytosterols, and flavonoids with possible nutraceutical benefits. It has some functional (technological) properties like solubility, water-holding capacity (WHC), gelation, emulsifying, and foaming that allow diversified uses. Besides, it has been considered an oil crop, with an interesting proportion of omega-6 and a notable vitamin E content. Quinoa starch has physicochemical properties (such as viscosity, freeze stability) which give it functional properties with novel uses. Quinoa has a high nutritional value and has recently been used as a novel functional food because of all these properties; it is a promising alternative cultivar.
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Porta N, Bourgois B, Galabert C, Lecointe C, Cappy P, Bordet R, Vallée L, Auvin S. Anticonvulsant effects of linolenic acid are unrelated to brain phospholipid cell membrane compositions. Epilepsia 2009; 50:65-71. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01723.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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234
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Kucukatay V, Erken G, Bor-Kucukatay M, Kocamaz E. Effect of Sulfite Treatment on Erythrocyte Deformability in Young and Aged Rats. Toxicol Mech Methods 2008; 19:19-23. [DOI: 10.1080/15376510802175788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vural Kucukatay
- Pamukkale University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Kinikli, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Gulten Erken
- Pamukkale University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Kinikli, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Melek Bor-Kucukatay
- Pamukkale University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Kinikli, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Erdogan Kocamaz
- Pamukkale University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Kinikli, Denizli, Turkey
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235
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Depression in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of omega-3 fatty-acid supplementation. J Affect Disord 2008; 111:351-9. [PMID: 18485485 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2007] [Revised: 03/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Effect of fish oil supplementation in parkinsonian patients with depression measured by Montgomery-Asberg Rating Scale (MADRS), the Clinical Global Impressions Scale (CGI) and Beck Depression Inventory (BECK). METHOD Double-blind, placebo-controlled study analyzed depression in 31 patients with Parkinson's Disease and Major Depression (DSM-IV). The patients were double-blind separated in 2 groups that received fish oil (containing omega-3 fatty acids) or mineral oil capsules for 3 months; each group was separated in 2 new groups: one taking antidepressant medication and another one not taking it. RESULTS 29 patients completed the 12-week trial, 58% were female and the mean age was 64.4 years old. Patients supplemented with fish oil showed a significant decrease in MADRS and CGI-Depression scores, and there was no difference among groups in BDI. 14 patients (42%) met criteria for > or = 50% reduction in MADRS score, 7 patients (22%) met criteria for remission (final MADRS total score < or = 12), and 2 patients (6%) discontinued supplementation of fish oil. HPLC analysis of fatty-acid profile showed increase of omega-3 fatty acid in the erythrocyte membrane of patients taking fish oil. CONCLUSION These results reveal that PD patients taking fish oil, with or without antidepressants, presented improvement in depressive symptoms and indicate that the intake of omega-3 can be used with an antidepressant effect or as adjuvant therapy with some other medication. This is a first pilot study with parkinsonian patients and omega-3 supplementation and requires replication in a larger sample.
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Igarashi M, Gao F, Kim HW, Ma K, Bell JM, Rapoport SI. Dietary n-6 PUFA deprivation for 15 weeks reduces arachidonic acid concentrations while increasing n-3 PUFA concentrations in organs of post-weaning male rats. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2008; 1791:132-9. [PMID: 19073280 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2008.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2008] [Revised: 10/23/2008] [Accepted: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Few studies have examined effects of feeding animals a diet deficient in n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) but with an adequate amount of n-3 PUFAs. To do this, we fed post-weaning male rats a control n-6 and n-3 PUFA adequate diet and an n-6 deficient diet for 15 weeks, and measured stable lipid and fatty acid concentrations in different organs. The deficient diet contained nutritionally essential linoleic acid (LA,18:2n-6) as 2.3% of total fatty acids (10% of the recommended minimum LA requirement for rodents) but no arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6), and an adequate amount (4.8% of total fatty acids) of alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3). The deficient compared with adequate diet did not significantly affect body weight, but decreased testis weight by 10%. AA concentration was decreased significantly in serum (-86%), brain (-27%), liver (-68%), heart (-39%), testis (-25%), and epididymal adipose tissue (-77%). Eicosapentaenoic (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) concentrations were increased in all but adipose tissue, and the total monounsaturated fatty acid concentration was increased in all organs. The concentration of 20:3n-9, a marker of LA deficiency, was increased by the deficient diet, and serum concentrations of triacylglycerol, total cholesterol and total phospholipid were reduced. In summary, 15 weeks of dietary n-6 PUFA deficiency with n-3 PUFA adequacy significantly reduced n-6 PUFA concentrations in different organs of male rats, while increasing n-3 PUFA and monounsaturated fatty acid concentrations. This rat model could be used to study metabolic, functional and behavioral effects of dietary n-6 PUFA deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miki Igarashi
- Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 9, Room 1S126, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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237
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Papandreou MA, Dimakopoulou A, Linardaki ZI, Cordopatis P, Klimis-Zacas D, Margarity M, Lamari FN. Effect of a polyphenol-rich wild blueberry extract on cognitive performance of mice, brain antioxidant markers and acetylcholinesterase activity. Behav Brain Res 2008; 198:352-8. [PMID: 19056430 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2008] [Revised: 10/30/2008] [Accepted: 11/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of a polyphenol-rich extract (PrB) of Vaccinium angustifolium (wild blueberries) introduced intraperitoneally (i.p.) at 30 (PrB30) and 60 (PrB60) mg/kg body weight for 7 days, on cognitive performance, brain oxidative status and acetylcholinesterase activity in adult, male, 3-4-month-old Balb-c mice. Evaluation of rodent learning and memory was assessed by a step-through test on day 6 after a double training and an initial acquisition trial on day 5. Antioxidant status was determined by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), ascorbic acid concentration (FRASC), malondialdehyde and reduced glutathione levels in whole brain homogenates. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was determined by Ellman's colorimetric method. Results showed that the PrB60-treated mice exhibited a significant improvement in learning and memory (step-through latency time of 228+/-38 s compared to 101+/-32 s of the control group). PrB extract administration also resulted in reduced lipid peroxidation products (38 and 79%) and higher brain ascorbic acid levels (21 and 64%) in both PrB30 and PrB60-treated groups, respectively, and higher glutathione levels (28%) in the PrB60-treated group. Furthermore, salt- and detergent soluble AChE activity significantly decreased in both PrB-treated groups. Thus, the significant cognitive enhancement observed in adult mice after short-term i.p. supplementation with the blueberry extract concentrated in polyphenols, is closely related to higher brain antioxidant properties and inhibition of AChE activity. These findings stress the critical impact of wild blueberry bioactive components on brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalini A Papandreou
- Laboratory of Human & Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Greece
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238
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Samieri C, Féart C, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Pérès K, Auriacombe S, Peuchant E, Delcourt C, Barberger-Gateau P. Low plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and depressive symptomatology are independent predictors of dementia risk. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88:714-21. [PMID: 18779288 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/88.3.714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The potential preventive role of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in Alzheimer disease has aroused increasing interest. Plasma n-3 PUFAs have been shown to be inversely related to the risk of dementia and to depression, which is frequently associated with dementia. OBJECTIVE The objective was to ascertain whether plasma PUFAs predict the risk of incident dementia in a cohort of older persons, independently of their depressive status. DESIGN Of 1214 nondemented participants in the Three-City Study from Bordeaux (France) who were followed up for 4 y, 65 developed dementia. The association between the proportion of plasma fatty acids at baseline and the risk of incident dementia was assessed by multivariate proportional hazard models, taking into account depressive status assessed on the basis of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. RESULTS A higher plasma eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) concentration was associated with a lower incidence of dementia [hazard ratio (HR) for 1 SD = 0.69; 95% CI: 0.48, 0.98], independently of depressive status and after adjustment for age, education, apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele, diabetes, and baseline plasma vitamin E and triacylglycerol. The relations between docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), total n-3 PUFAs, and incident dementia did not remain significant in multivariate models. Higher ratios of arachidonic acid (AA) to DHA and of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids were related to an increased risk of dementia, particularly in depressive subjects (n = 90): ratio of AA to DHA (HR: 2.65; 95% CI: 1.07, 6.56) and ratio of n-6 to n-3 (HR: 1.61; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.47). CONCLUSIONS A high plasma EPA concentration may decrease the risk of dementia, whereas high ratios of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids and of AA to DHA may increase the risk of dementia, especially in depressed older persons. The role of EPA in dementia warrants further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécilia Samieri
- Inserm, U897, Equipe Epidémiologie de Nutrition et des Comportements Alimentaires, Bordeaux, France.
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Roberts L, Bailes J, Dedhia H, Zikos A, Singh A, McDowell D, Failinger C, Biundo R, Petrick J, Carpenter J. Surviving a mine explosion. J Am Coll Surg 2008; 207:276-83. [PMID: 18656058 DOI: 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2008.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2007] [Revised: 10/16/2007] [Accepted: 02/19/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence Roberts
- Division of Trauma, Department of Surgery, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV, USA.
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240
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Borsonelo EC, Galduróz JCF. The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in development, aging and substance abuse disorders: review and propositions. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2008; 78:237-45. [PMID: 18502631 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2008.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2008] [Revised: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 03/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially omega-3 and -6, play an important role in the functioning of membranes. Therefore, changes in their physical properties might entail impairment of the neurotransmission between cells. Studies emphasize the importance of omega-3 intakes, but they also highlight the need of a balance between omega-6 and -3, whose ideal ratio should be 4:1. The Western diet has very high amounts of saturated fat and omega-6, which might contribute, at least partially, to physiopathologies and high incidence as well as prevalence of psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. This narrow review aimed at systematizing the studies on the importance of PUFAs in some particular cases, that is, the extremes of life: pre- and post-natal development, and cognitive aging. Additionally, it aimed at studying the association between PUFAs and substance abuse disorders. We used the databases LILACs, MEDLINE and PUBMED.
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Affiliation(s)
- E C Borsonelo
- Department of Psychobiology, Federal University of São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 862, São Paulo, Brazil
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241
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Ferraz AC, Kiss A, Araújo RLF, Salles HMR, Naliwaiko K, Pamplona J, Matheussi F. The antidepressant role of dietary long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids in two phases in the developing brain. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2008; 78:183-8. [PMID: 18378130 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2008.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2007] [Revised: 02/06/2008] [Accepted: 02/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In this work we investigated the effect from fish oil (FO) supplementation, rich in n-3 fatty acids, on an antidepressant effect on adult rats in Phase A (supplementation during pregnancy and lactation) and phase B (supplementation during post-weaning until adulthood). During Phase A, female rats, used as matrix to obtain male rats, were divided in three groups: FO (daily supplemented), CF (coconut fat daily supplemented) and control (not supplemented). Our results showed that adult rats whose mothers were supplemented with FO during Phase A and rats supplemented during phase B demonstrated a significantly decreased immobility time when compared to control and CF groups. There was no difference in neither motor activity nor anxiety behavior in the three groups excluding false positive results. Our results suggest that n-3 fatty acids supplementation during Phases A and B had a beneficial effect on preventing the development of depression-like behavior in adult rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anete Curte Ferraz
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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Abstract
The type and quantity of dietary fat ingested contributes to the onset and progression of chronic diseases, like diabetes and atherosclerosis. The liver plays a central role in whole body lipid metabolism and responds rapidly to changes in dietary fat composition. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) play a key role in membrane composition and function, metabolism and the control of gene expression. Certain PUFA, like the n-3 PUFA, enhance hepatic fatty acid oxidation and inhibit fatty acid synthesis and VLDL secretion, in part, by regulating gene expression. Our studies have established that key transcription factors, like PPARalpha, SREBP-1, ChREBP and MLX, are regulated by n-3 PUFA, which in turn control levels of proteins involved in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Of the n-3 PUFA, 22:6,n-3 has recently been established as a key controller of hepatic lipid synthesis. 22:6,n-3 controls the 26S proteasomal degradation of the nuclear form of SREBP-1. SREBP-1 is a major transcription factor that controls the expression of multiple genes involved fatty acid synthesis and desaturation. 22:6,n-3 suppresses nuclear SREBP-1, which in turn suppresses lipogenesis. This mechanism is achieved, in part, through control of the phosphorylation status of protein kinases. This review will examine both the general features of PUFA-regulated hepatic gene transcription and highlight the unique mechanisms by which 22:6,n-3 impacts gene expression. The outcome of this analysis will reveal that changes in hepatic 22:6,n-3 content has a major impact on hepatic lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Moreover, the mechanisms involve 22:6,n-3 control of several well-known signaling pathways, such as Akt, Erk1/2, Gsk3beta and PKC (novel or atypical). 22:6,n-3 control of these same signaling pathways in non-hepatic tissues may help to explain the diverse actions of n-3 PUFA on such complex physiological processes as visual acuity and learning.
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243
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Omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid increases SorLA/LR11, a sorting protein with reduced expression in sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD): relevance to AD prevention. J Neurosci 2008; 27:14299-307. [PMID: 18160637 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3593-07.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental and genetic factors, notably ApoE4, contribute to the etiology of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). Reduced mRNA and protein for an apolipoprotein E (ApoE) receptor family member, SorLA (LR11) has been found in LOAD but not early-onset AD, suggesting that LR11 loss is not secondary to pathology. LR11 is a neuronal sorting protein that reduces amyloid precursor protein (APP) trafficking to secretases that generate beta-amyloid (Abeta). Genetic polymorphisms that reduce LR11 expression are associated with increased AD risk. However these polymorphisms account for only a fraction of cases with LR11 deficits, suggesting involvement of environmental factors. Because lipoprotein receptors are typically lipid-regulated, we postulated that LR11 is regulated by docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an essential omega-3 fatty acid related to reduced AD risk and reduced Abeta accumulation. In this study, we report that DHA significantly increases LR11 in multiple systems, including primary rat neurons, aged non-Tg mice and an aged DHA-depleted APPsw AD mouse model. DHA also increased LR11 in a human neuronal line. In vivo elevation of LR11 was also observed with dietary fish oil in young rats with insulin resistance, a model for type II diabetes, another AD risk factor. These data argue that DHA induction of LR11 does not require DHA-depleting diets and is not age dependent. Because reduced LR11 is known to increase Abeta production and may be a significant genetic cause of LOAD, our results indicate that DHA increases in SorLA/LR11 levels may play an important role in preventing LOAD.
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Christensen JH, Schmidt EB. Autonomic nervous system, heart rate variability and n-3 fatty acids. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 2008; 8 Suppl 1:S19-22. [PMID: 17876192 DOI: 10.2459/01.jcm.0000289276.10675.a1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Animal and in-vitro studies have shown profound antiarrhythmic effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on the heart. Because n-3 PUFAs (in particular docosahexaenoic acid) are abundant in nervous tissue, this antiarrhythmic effect may be mediated by effects of n-3 PUFAs on autonomic control or tone. This paper reviews the effect of n-3 PUFAs on heart rate variability, a noninvasive indicator of cardiac autonomic function. In most, although not all, studies, dietary n-3 PUFA levels and n-3 PUFA supplementation are related to improved heart rate variability. Although further research is required to confirm these relationships, the results support a beneficial effect of n-3 PUFAs on autonomic tone in humans, specifically an increase in vagal tone, which may reduce the risk of arrhythmias. The modulation of heart rate variability by n-3 PUFAs may partly explain the reduction in sudden cardiac death observed in subjects with a regular intake of n-3 PUFAs.
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Guerra A, Demmelmair H, Toschke AM, Koletzko B. Three-Year Tracking of Fatty Acid Composition of Plasma Phospholipids in Healthy Children. ANNALS OF NUTRITION AND METABOLISM 2007; 51:433-8. [DOI: 10.1159/000111163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2005] [Accepted: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Rapoport SI, Rao J, Igarashi M. Brain metabolism of nutritionally essential polyunsaturated fatty acids depends on both the diet and the liver. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2007; 77:251-61. [PMID: 18060754 PMCID: PMC2725409 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2007.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Plasma alpha-linolenic acid (alpha-LNA, 18:3n-3) and linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) do not contribute significantly to the brain content of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) or arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6), respectively, and neither DHA nor AA can be synthesized de novo in vertebrate tissue. Therefore, measured rates of incorporation of circulating DHA and AA into brain exactly represent their rates of consumption by brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) has been used to show, based on this information, that the adult human brain consumes AA and DHA at rates of 17.8 and 4.6 mg/day, respectively, and that AA consumption does not change significantly with age. In unanesthetized adult rats fed an n-3 PUFA "adequate" diet containing 4.6% alpha-LNA (of total fatty acids) as its only n-3 PUFA, the rate of liver synthesis of DHA was more than sufficient to maintain brain DHA, whereas the brain's rate of DHA synthesis is very low and unable to do so. Reducing dietary alpha-LNA in the DHA-free diet led to upregulation of liver but not brain coefficients of alpha-LNA conversion to DHA and of liver expression of elongases and desaturases that catalyze this conversion. Concurrently, brain DHA loss slowed due to downregulation of several of its DHA-metabolizing enzymes. Dietary alpha-LNA deficiency also promoted accumulation of brain docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-6), and upregulated expression of AA-metabolizing enzymes, including cytosolic and secretory phospholipases A(2) and cyclooxygenase-2. These changes, plus reduced levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in n-3 PUFA diet deficient rats, likely render their brain more vulnerable to neuropathological insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley I. Rapoport
- Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 9, Room 1S128, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA e-mail:
| | - Jagadeesh Rao
- Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 9, Room 1S128, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA e-mail:
| | - Miki Igarashi
- Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 9, Room 1S128, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA e-mail:
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Igarashi M, Ma K, Chang L, Bell JM, Rapoport SI. Dietary n-3 PUFA deprivation for 15 weeks upregulates elongase and desaturase expression in rat liver but not brain. J Lipid Res 2007; 48:2463-70. [PMID: 17715424 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m700315-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Fifteen weeks of dietary n-3 PUFA deprivation increases coefficients of conversion of circulating alpha-linolenic acid (alpha-LNA; 18:3n-3) to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) in rat liver but not brain. To determine whether these increases reflect organ differences in enzymatic activities, we examined brain and liver expression of converting enzymes and of two of their transcription factors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) and sterol-regulatory element binding protein-1 (SREBP-1), in rats fed an n-3 PUFA "adequate" (4.6% alpha-LNA of total fatty acid, no DHA) or "deficient" (0.2% alpha-LNA, no DHA) diet for 15 weeks after weaning. In rats fed the deficient compared with the adequate diet, mRNA and activity levels of Delta5 and Delta6 desaturases and elongases 2 and 5 were upregulated in liver but not brain, but liver PPARalpha and SREBP-1 mRNA levels were unchanged. In rats fed the adequate diet, enzyme activities generally were higher in liver than brain. Thus, differences in conversion enzyme expression explain why the liver has a greater capacity to synthesize DHA from circulating alpha-LNA than does the brain in animals on an adequate n-3 PUFA diet and why liver synthesis capacity is increased by dietary deprivation. These data suggest that liver n-3 PUFA metabolism determines DHA availability to the brain when DHA is absent from the diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miki Igarashi
- Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Lauretani F, Bandinelli S, Bartali B, Benedetta B, Cherubini A, Iorio AD, Blè A, Giacomini V, Corsi AM, Guralnik JM, Ferrucci L. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids predict accelerated decline of peripheral nerve function in older persons. Eur J Neurol 2007; 14:801-8. [PMID: 17594339 PMCID: PMC2646099 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2007.01860.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Pre-clinical studies suggest that both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids have beneficial effects on peripheral nerve function. Rats feed a diet rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) showed modification of phospholipid fatty acid composition in nerve membranes and improvement of sciatic nerve conduction velocity (NCV). We tested the hypothesis that baseline plasma omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids levels predict accelerated decline of peripheral nerve function. Changes between baseline and the 3-year follow-up in peripheral nerve function was assessed by standard surface ENG of the right peroneal nerve in 384 male and 443 female participants of the InCHIANTI study (age range: 24-97 years). Plasma concentrations of selected fatty acids assessed at baseline by gas chromatography. Independent of confounders, plasma omega-6 fatty acids and linoleic acid were significantly correlated with peroneal NCV at enrollment. Lower plasma PUFA, omega-6 fatty acids, linoleic acid, ratio omega-6/omega-3, arachidonic acid and docosahexanoic acid levels were significantly predicted a steeper decline in nerve function parameters over the 3-year follow-up. Low plasma omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids levels were associated with accelerated decline of peripheral nerve function with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Lauretani
- Tuscany Regional Health Agency, Florence, Italy
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Geppert J, Demmelmair H, Hornstra G, Koletzko B. Co-supplementation of healthy women with fish oil and evening primrose oil increases plasma docosahexaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid levels without reducing arachidonic acid concentrations. Br J Nutr 2007; 99:360-9. [PMID: 17678567 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114507801577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Fish oil supplementation during pregnancy not only improves maternal and neonatal DHA status, but often reduces gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), dihomo-GLA (DGLA), and arachidonic acid (ARA) levels also, which may compromise foetal and infant development. The present study investigated the effects of a fish oil/evening primrose oil (FSO/EPO) blend (456 mg DHA/d and 353 mg GLA/d) compared to a placebo (mixture of habitual dietary fatty acids) on the plasma fatty acid (FA) composition in two groups of twenty non-pregnant women using a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled parallel design. FA were quantified in plasma total lipids, phospholipids, cholesterol esters, and TAG at weeks 0, 4, 6 and 8. After 8 weeks of intervention, percentage changes from baseline values of plasma total lipid FA were significantly different between FSO/EPO and placebo for GLA (+49.9 % v. +2.1 %, means), DGLA (+13.8 % v. +0.7 %) and DHA (+59.6 % v. +5.5 %), while there was no significant difference for ARA ( - 2.2 % v. - 5.9 %). FA changes were largely comparable between plasma lipid fractions. In both groups three subjects reported mild adverse effects. As compared with placebo, FSO/EPO supplementation did not result in any physiologically relevant changes of safety parameters (blood cell count, liver enzymes). In women of childbearing age the tested FSO/EPO blend was well tolerated and appears safe. It increases plasma GLA, DGLA, and DHA levels without impairing ARA status. These data provide a basis for testing this FSO/EPO blend in pregnant women for its effects on maternal and neonatal FA status and infant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Geppert
- Division of Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Dr von Hauner Children's Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Germany
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Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Sloane PD, Heiss G, Ibrahim J. n-3 Fatty acids, hypertension and risk of cognitive decline among older adults in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Public Health Nutr 2007; 11:17-29. [PMID: 17625029 PMCID: PMC4863651 DOI: 10.1017/s1368980007000080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent research indicates that n-3 fatty acids can inhibit cognitive decline, perhaps differentially by hypertensive status. DESIGN We tested these hypotheses in a prospective cohort study (the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities). Dietary assessment using a food-frequency questionnaire and plasma fatty acid exposure by gas chromatography were completed in 1987-1989 (visit 1), while cognitive assessment with three screening tools--the Delayed Word Recall Test, the Digit Symbol Substitution Test of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised and the Word Fluency Test (WFT)--was completed in 1990-1992 (visit 2) and 1996-1998 (visit 4). Regression calibration and simulation extrapolation were used to control for measurement error in dietary exposures. SETTING Four US communities--Forsyth County (North Carolina), Jackson (Mississippi), suburbs of Minneapolis (Minnesota) and Washington County (Maryland). SUBJECTS Men and women aged 50-65 years at visit 1 with complete dietary data (n = 7814); white men and women in same age group in the Minnesota field centre with complete plasma fatty acid data (n = 2251). RESULTS Findings indicated that an increase of one standard deviation in dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids (% of energy intake) and balancing long-chain n-3/n-6 decreased the risk of 6-year cognitive decline in verbal fluency with an odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of 0.79 (0.66-0.95) and 0.81 (0.68-0.96), respectively, among hypertensives. An interaction with hypertensive status was found for dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids (g day-1) and WFT decline (likelihood ratio test, P = 0.06). This exposure in plasma cholesteryl esters was also protective against WFT decline, particularly among hypertensives (OR = 0.51, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION One implication from our study is that diets rich in fatty acids of marine origin should be considered for middle-aged hypertensive subjects. To this end, randomised clinical trials are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- May A Beydoun
- Center for Human Nutrition, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N Wolfe Street E2610, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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