201
|
Scanning ultrasound in the absence of blood-brain barrier opening is not sufficient to clear β-amyloid plaques in the APP23 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res Bull 2019; 153:8-14. [PMID: 31400496 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A major challenge in treating brain diseases is presented by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that constitutes an efficient barrier not only for toxins but also a wide range of therapeutic agents. In overcoming this impediment, ultrasound in combination with intravenously injected microbubbles has emerged as a powerful technology that allows for the selective brain uptake of blood-borne factors and therapeutic agents by transient opening of the blood-brain barrier. We have previously shown that ultrasound in combination with microbubbles, but in the absence of a therapeutic agent, can effectively clear protein aggregates such as the hallmark lesions of Alzheimer's disease, amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and Tau-containing neurofibrillary tangles. We have also demonstrated that the associated memory and motor impairments can be ameliorated or even restored. These studies included a negative sham control that received microbubbles in the absence of ultrasound. However, considering that ultrasound on its own is a pressure wave which has bioeffects, the possibility remained that ultrasound, without microbubbles, would also clear amyloid. We addressed this by performing repeated ultrasound only treatments of one brain hemisphere of Aβ-depositing APP23 mice, using the contralateral hemisphere as the unsonicated control. This was followed by an extensive histological analysis of fibrillar and non-fibrillar amyloid. We found that ultrasound on its own was not sufficient to clear amyloid. This implies that although ultrasound on its own has neuromodulatory effects, exogenously supplied microbubbles are required for the clearance of Aβ deposits.
Collapse
|
202
|
Ezpeleta J, Baudouin V, Arellano-Anaya ZE, Boudet-Devaud F, Pietri M, Baudry A, Haeberlé AM, Bailly Y, Kellermann O, Launay JM, Schneider B. Production of seedable Amyloid-β peptides in model of prion diseases upon PrP Sc-induced PDK1 overactivation. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3442. [PMID: 31371707 PMCID: PMC6672003 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11333-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques in the brain of some individuals with Creutzfeldt-Jakob or Gertsmann-Straussler-Scheinker diseases suggests that pathogenic prions (PrPSc) would have stimulated the production and deposition of Aβ peptides. We here show in prion-infected neurons and mice that deregulation of the PDK1-TACE α-secretase pathway reduces the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) α-cleavage in favor of APP β-processing, leading to Aβ40/42 accumulation. Aβ predominates as monomers, but is also found as trimers and tetramers. Prion-induced Aβ peptides do not affect prion replication and infectivity, but display seedable properties as they can deposit in the mouse brain only when seeds of Aβ trimers are co-transmitted with PrPSc. Importantly, brain Aβ deposition accelerates death of prion-infected mice. Our data stress that PrPSc, through deregulation of the PDK1-TACE-APP pathway, provokes the accumulation of Aβ, a prerequisite for the onset of an Aβ seeds-induced Aβ pathology within a prion-infectious context. Aβ plaques have been detected in brains of patients with prion diseases. Here, using mice, the authors show that prion infection enhances Aβ production via a PDK1-TACE mechanism and that brain deposition of Aβ induced by Aβ seeds co-transmitted with PrPSc contributes to mortality in prion disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Ezpeleta
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Baudouin
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Zaira E Arellano-Anaya
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France
| | - François Boudet-Devaud
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Mathéa Pietri
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Anne Baudry
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Anne-Marie Haeberlé
- Trafic Membranaire dans les Cellules du Système Nerveux, Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, CNRS UPR 3212, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Yannick Bailly
- Trafic Membranaire dans les Cellules du Système Nerveux, Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, CNRS UPR 3212, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Odile Kellermann
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Marie Launay
- Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris, INSERM UMR 942, Hôpital Lariboisière, 75010, Paris, France. .,Pharma Research Department, Hoffmann La Roche Ltd, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Benoit Schneider
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France. .,INSERM, UMR 1124, 75006, Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
203
|
Plucińska K, Crouch B, Yeap JM, Stoppelkamp S, Riedel G, Platt B. Histological and Behavioral Phenotypes of a Novel Mutated APP Knock-In Mouse. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 65:165-180. [PMID: 30040726 DOI: 10.3233/jad-180336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Gene mutations within amyloid precursor protein (APP or AβPP) and/or presenilin 1 (PS1) genes are determinants of familial Alzheimer's disease (fAD) and remain fundamental for experimental models. Here, we generated a neuronal knock-in mouse (PLB2APP) with mutated human APPSwe/Lon and investigated histopathology and behavioral phenotypes. Additionally, PLB2APP mice were cross-bred with a presenilin (PS1A246E) line to assess the impact of this gene combination. Immunohistochemistry determined amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology, astrogliosis (via GFAP labelling), and neuronal densities in hippocampal and cortical brain regions. One-year old PLB2APP mice showed higher levels of intracellular Aβ in CA1, dentate gyrus, and cortical regions compared to PLBWT controls. Co-expression of PS1 reduced hippocampal but elevated cortical Aβ build-up. Amyloid plaques were sparse in aged PLB2APP mice, and co-expression of PS1 promoted plaque formation. Heightened GFAP expression followed the region-specific pattern of Aβ in PLB2APP and PLB2APP/PS1 mice. Behaviorally, habituation to a novel environment was delayed in 6-month-old PLB2APP mice, and overall home-cage activity was reduced in both lines at 6 and 12 months, particularly during the dark phase. Spatial learning in the water maze was impaired in PLB2APP mice independent of PS1 expression and associated with reduced spatial navigation strategies. Memory retrieval was compromised in PLB2APP mice only. Our data demonstrate that low expression of APP is sufficient to drive histopathological and cognitive changes in mice without overexpression or excessive plaque deposition. AD-like phenotypes were altered by co-expression of PS1, including a shift from hippocampal to cortical Aβ pathology, alongside reduced deficits in spatial learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaja Plucińska
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Barry Crouch
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Jie M Yeap
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Sandra Stoppelkamp
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Gernot Riedel
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Bettina Platt
- School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| |
Collapse
|
204
|
Sleep architecture changes in the APP23 mouse model manifest at onset of cognitive deficits. Behav Brain Res 2019; 373:112089. [PMID: 31325518 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), which accounts for most of the dementia cases, is, aside from cognitive deterioration, often characterized by the presence of non-cognitive symptoms such as activity and sleep disturbances. AD patients typically experience increased sleep fragmentation, excessive daytime sleepiness and night-time insomnia. Here, we sought to investigate the link between sleep architecture, cognition and amyloid pathology in the APP23 amyloidosis mouse model for AD. By means of polysomnographic recordings the sleep-wake cycle of freely-moving APP23 and wild-type (WT) littermates of 3, 6 and 12 months of age was examined. In addition, ambulatory cage activity was assessed by interruption of infrared beams surrounding the home cage. To assess visuo-spatial learning and memory a hidden-platform Morris-type Water Maze (MWM) experiment was performed. We found that sleep architecture is only slightly altered at early stages of pathology, but significantly deteriorates from 12 months of age, when amyloid plaques become diffusely present. APP23 mice of 12 months old had quantitative reductions of NREM and REM sleep and were more awake during the dark phase compared to WT littermates. These findings were confirmed by increased ambulatory cage activity during that phase of the light-dark cycle. No quantitative differences in sleep parameters were observed during the light phase. However, during this light phase, the sleep pattern of APP23 mice was more fragmented from 6 months of age, the point at which also cognitive abilities started to be affected in the MWM. Sleep time also positively correlated with MWM performance. We also found that spectral components in the EEG started to alter at the age of 6 months. To conclude, our results indicate that sleep architectural changes arise around the time the first amyloid plaques start to form and cognitive deterioration becomes apparent. These changes start subtle, but gradually worsen with age, adequately mimicking the clinical condition.
Collapse
|
205
|
Mango D, Saidi A, Cisale GY, Feligioni M, Corbo M, Nisticò R. Targeting Synaptic Plasticity in Experimental Models of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:778. [PMID: 31379566 PMCID: PMC6646937 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of hippocampal synaptic transmission represent the principal experimental models underlying learning and memory. Alterations of synaptic plasticity are observed in several neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Indeed, synaptic dysfunction is an early event in AD, making it an attractive therapeutic target for pharmaceutical intervention. To date, intensive investigations have characterized hippocampal synaptic transmission, LTP, and LTD in in vitro and in murine models of AD. In this review, we describe the synaptic alterations across the main AD models generated so far. We then examine the clinical perspective of LTP/LTD studies and discuss the limitations of non-clinical models and how to improve their predictive validity in the drug discovery process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dalila Mango
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, EBRI Rita Levi-Montalcini Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Amira Saidi
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, EBRI Rita Levi-Montalcini Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Giusy Ylenia Cisale
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Feligioni
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, EBRI Rita Levi-Montalcini Foundation, Rome, Italy.,Department of Neurorehabilitation Sciences, Casa Cura Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Corbo
- Department of Neurorehabilitation Sciences, Casa Cura Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Robert Nisticò
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, EBRI Rita Levi-Montalcini Foundation, Rome, Italy.,School of Pharmacy, Department of Biology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
206
|
Lee JS, Lee Y, André EA, Lee KJ, Nguyen T, Feng Y, Jia N, Harris BT, Burns MP, Pak DTS. Inhibition of Polo-like kinase 2 ameliorates pathogenesis in Alzheimer's disease model mice. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219691. [PMID: 31306446 PMCID: PMC6629081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by pathological hallmarks of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques. The plaques are formed by aggregation and accumulation of amyloid β (Aβ), a cleavage fragment of amyloid precursor protein (APP). Enhanced neuronal activity and seizure events are frequently observed in AD, and elevated synaptic activity promotes Aβ production. However, the mechanisms that link synaptic hyperactivity to APP processing and AD pathogenesis are not well understood. We previously found that Polo-like kinase 2 (Plk2), a homeostatic repressor of neuronal overexcitation, promotes APP β-processing in vitro. Here, we report that Plk2 stimulates Aβ production in vivo, and that Plk2 levels are elevated in a spatiotemporally regulated manner in brains of AD mouse models and human AD patients. Genetic disruption of Plk2 kinase function reduces plaque deposits and activity-dependent Aβ production. Furthermore, pharmacological Plk2 inhibition hinders Aβ formation, synapse loss, and memory decline in an AD mouse model. Thus, Plk2 links synaptic overactivity to APP β-processing, Aβ production, and disease-relevant phenotypes in vivo, suggesting that Plk2 may be a potential target for AD therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji Soo Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Yeunkum Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Emily A. André
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Kea Joo Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Thien Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Yang Feng
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Nuo Jia
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Brent T. Harris
- Department of Neurology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Mark P. Burns
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Daniel T. S. Pak
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
207
|
Memantine, a Noncompetitive N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Antagonist, Attenuates Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy by Increasing Insulin-Degrading Enzyme Expression. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:8573-8588. [PMID: 31280448 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-01678-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is characterized by cerebrovascular amyloid beta (Aβ) deposits and causes cerebral hemorrhages and dementia in elderly people. Memantine is used in Alzheimer's disease to inhibit the glutamatergic system by blocking N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Its therapeutic effects in CAA are unclear, however. Here, we used APP23 transgenic mice (CAA model) to investigate whether memantine has direct therapeutic effects on cerebrovascular Aβ deposits. We treated APP23 mice and age-matched wild-type littermates with memantine at ages 6-18 months. We counted the numbers of vessels with Aβ and hemosiderin deposits. We measured soluble and insoluble Aβ40 and Aβ42 levels and levels of amyloid precursor protein (APP), APP-processing enzymes (α-, β-, γ-secretase), and Aβ-degrading enzymes (insulin-degrading enzyme [IDE], neprilysin). Memantine reduced cerebrovascular Aβ and hemosiderin deposits in APP23 mice. Compared with controls, memantine-treated APP23 mice had reduced Aβ40 levels and increased levels of hippocampal and vascular IDE. Our results suggest that memantine reduces cerebrovascular Aβ deposits by enhancing Aβ-cleaving IDE expression. The clinical availability of memantine may allow its use as a novel therapeutic agent in CAA.
Collapse
|
208
|
Qiang L, Piermarini E, Muralidharan H, Yu W, Leo L, Hennessy LE, Fernandes S, Connors T, Yates PL, Swift M, Zholudeva LV, Lane MA, Morfini G, Alexander GM, Heiman-Patterson TD, Baas PW. Hereditary spastic paraplegia: gain-of-function mechanisms revealed by new transgenic mouse. Hum Mol Genet 2019; 28:1136-1152. [PMID: 30520996 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddy419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations of the SPAST gene, which encodes the microtubule-severing protein spastin, are the most common cause of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP). Haploinsufficiency is the prevalent opinion as to the mechanism of the disease, but gain-of-function toxicity of the mutant proteins is another possibility. Here, we report a new transgenic mouse (termed SPASTC448Y mouse) that is not haploinsufficient but expresses human spastin bearing the HSP pathogenic C448Y mutation. Expression of the mutant spastin was documented from fetus to adult, but gait defects reminiscent of HSP (not observed in spastin knockout mice) were adult onset, as is typical of human patients. Results of histological and tracer studies on the mouse are consistent with progressive dying back of corticospinal axons, which is characteristic of the disease. The C448Y-mutated spastin alters microtubule stability in a manner that is opposite to the expectations of haploinsufficiency. Neurons cultured from the mouse display deficits in organelle transport typical of axonal degenerative diseases, and these deficits were worsened by depletion of endogenous mouse spastin. These results on the SPASTC448Y mouse are consistent with a gain-of-function mechanism underlying HSP, with spastin haploinsufficiency exacerbating the toxicity of the mutant spastin proteins. These findings reveal the need for a different therapeutic approach than indicated by haploinsufficiency alone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Laura E Hennessy
- Department of Neurology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Gerardo Morfini
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Guillermo M Alexander
- Department of Neurology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Terry D Heiman-Patterson
- Department of Neurology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
209
|
Zhang S, Zhao J, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Cai F, Wang L, Song W. Upregulation of MIF as a defense mechanism and a biomarker of Alzheimer's disease. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2019; 11:54. [PMID: 31174614 PMCID: PMC6555932 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-019-0508-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine. Chronic inflammation induced by amyloid β proteins (Aβ) is one prominent neuropathological feature in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. METHODS Elisa, Western blot, and immunohistochemical staining analysis were performed to examine the level of MIF protein in CSF and brain tissues. MTT and LDH assays were used to examine the neurotoxicity, and the Morris Water Maze test was performed to examine the cognitive function in the MIF+/-/APP23 transgenic mice. RESULTS MIF expression was upregulated in the brain of AD patients and AD model mice. Elevated MIF concentration was detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of AD patients but not in that of the patients suffering from mild cognitive impairment and vascular dementia. Reduced MIF expression impaired learning and memory in the AD model mice. MIF expression largely associates with Aβ deposits and microglia. The binding assay revealed a direct association between MIF and Aβ oligomers. Neurons instead of glial cells were responsible for the secretion of MIF upon stimulation by Aβ oligomers. In addition, overexpression of MIF significantly protected neuronal cells from Aβ-induced cytotoxicity. CONCLUSION Our study suggests that neuronal secretion of MIF may serve as a defense mechanism to compensate for declined cognitive function in AD, and increased MIF level could be a potential AD biomarker.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Si Zhang
- Townsend Family Laboratories, Department of Psychiatry, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Jiehao Zhao
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong Neuroscience Institute, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuhu Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong Neuroscience Institute, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Townsend Family Laboratories, Department of Psychiatry, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Fang Cai
- Townsend Family Laboratories, Department of Psychiatry, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Lijuan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong Neuroscience Institute, Guangdong General Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Weihong Song
- Townsend Family Laboratories, Department of Psychiatry, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
210
|
Katzmarski N, Ziegler-Waldkirch S, Scheffler N, Witt C, Abou-Ajram C, Nuscher B, Prinz M, Haass C, Meyer-Luehmann M. Aβ oligomers trigger and accelerate Aβ seeding. Brain Pathol 2019; 30:36-45. [PMID: 31099449 PMCID: PMC6916291 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aggregation of amyloid‐β (Aβ) that leads to the formation of plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD) occurs through the stepwise formation of oligomers and fibrils. An earlier onset of aggregation is obtained upon intracerebral injection of Aβ‐containing brain homogenate into human APP transgenic mice that follows a prion‐like seeding mechanism. Immunoprecipitation of these brain extracts with anti‐Aβ oligomer antibodies or passive immunization of the recipient animals abrogated the observed seeding activity, although induced Aβ deposition was still evident. Here, we establish that, together with Aβ monomers, Aβ oligomers trigger the initial phase of Aβ seeding and that the depletion of oligomeric Aβ delays the aggregation process, leading to a transient reduction of seed‐induced Aβ deposits. This work extends the current knowledge about the role of Aβ oligomers beyond its cytotoxic nature by pointing to a role in the initiation of Aβ aggregation in vivo. We conclude that Aβ oligomers are important for the early initiation phase of the seeding process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Katzmarski
- Department of Neurology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Stephanie Ziegler-Waldkirch
- Department of Neurology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nina Scheffler
- Department of Neurology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christian Witt
- Department of Neurology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Claudia Abou-Ajram
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Brigitte Nuscher
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Insitute of Neuropathology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christian Haass
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Melanie Meyer-Luehmann
- Department of Neurology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
211
|
Izuo N, Murakami K, Fujihara Y, Maeda M, Saito T, Saido TC, Irie K, Shimizu T. An App knock-in mouse inducing the formation of a toxic conformer of Aβ as a model for evaluating only oligomer-induced cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2019; 515:462-467. [PMID: 31164199 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.05.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Irie and colleagues identified a "toxic conformer", which possesses a turn structure at positions 22-23, among various conformations of Aβ and have been reporting its potent oligomeric capacity and neurotoxicity. This toxic conformer was detected in the brains of AD patients and AD model mice (Tg2576 line), and passive immunization targeting this conformer ameliorated the cognitive dysfunction in an AD model. In this study, we developed a novel AD mouse model (AppNL-P-F/NL-P-F) with Swedish mutation (NL), Iberian mutation (F), and mutation (P) overproducing E22P-Aβ, a mimic of the toxic conformer, utilizing the knock-in technique that well recapitulates the Aβ pathology of AD patients in mice and avoids the artificial phenotype observed in transgenic-type model mice. We confirmed that AppNL-P-F/NL-P-F mice produce Aβ by ELISA and accumulate senile plaques by immunohistochemistry at eight months of age. In WB, we observed a potential trimer band and high molecular-weight oligomer bands without a monomeric band in the TBS-soluble fraction of AppNL-P-F/NL-P-F mice at six months of age. In the novel object recognition test, cognitive impairment was observed at six months of age in these mice. These findings suggest that the toxic conformer of Aβ induces cognitive dysfunction mediated by its oligomer formation in this mouse brain. AppNL-P-F/NL-P-F mice may be a useful model for evaluating Aβ oligomer-induced cognitive impairment in AD and will aid in exploring therapeutic targets for AD pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naotaka Izuo
- Department of Endocrinology, Hematology and Gerontology, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan; Vascular Neurodegeneration Laboratory, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne University, VIC, Australia
| | - Kazuma Murakami
- Division of Food Science & Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Fujihara
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan; Department of Bioscience and Genetics, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Maeda
- Immuno-Biological Laboratories Co, Ltd, Fujioka-shi, Gumma, Japan
| | - Takashi Saito
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Irie
- Division of Food Science & Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takahiko Shimizu
- Department of Endocrinology, Hematology and Gerontology, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan; Department of Mechanism of Aging, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
212
|
Wagner JM, Sichler ME, Schleicher EM, Franke TN, Irwin C, Löw MJ, Beindorff N, Bouter C, Bayer TA, Bouter Y. Analysis of Motor Function in the Tg4-42 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:107. [PMID: 31156407 PMCID: PMC6533559 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder and the most common form of dementia. Hallmarks of AD are memory impairments and cognitive deficits, but non-cognitive impairments, especially motor dysfunctions are also associated with the disease and may even precede classic clinical symptoms. With an aging society and increasing hospitalization of the elderly, motor deficits are of major interest to improve independent activities in daily living. Consistent with clinical findings, a variety of AD mouse models develop motor deficits as well. We investigated the motor function of 3- and 7-month-old Tg4-42 mice in comparison to wild-type controls and 5XFAD mice and discuss the results in context with several other AD mouse model. Our study shows impaired balance and motor coordination in aged Tg4-42 mice in the balance beam and rotarod test, while general locomotor activity and muscle strength is not impaired at 7 months. The cerebellum is a major player in the regulation and coordination of balance and locomotion through practice. Particularly, the rotarod test is able to detect cerebellar deficits. Furthermore, supposed cerebellar impairment was verified by 18F-FDG PET/MRI. Aged Tg4-42 mice showed reduced cerebellar glucose metabolism in the 18F-FDG PET. Suggesting that, deficits in coordination and balance are most likely due to cerebellar impairment. In conclusion, Tg4-42 mice develop motor deficits before memory deficits, without confounding memory test. Thus, making the Tg4-42 mouse model a good model to study the effects on cognitive decline of therapies targeting motor impairments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jannek M. Wagner
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Marius E. Sichler
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Eva M. Schleicher
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Timon N. Franke
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Caroline Irwin
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Maximilian Johannes Löw
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Nicola Beindorff
- Berlin Experimental Radionuclide Imaging Center, Charité – University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Caroline Bouter
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Thomas A. Bayer
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yvonne Bouter
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
213
|
Papariello A, Newell-Litwa K. Human-Derived Brain Models: Windows into Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Drug Therapies. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2019; 18:79-88. [PMID: 31090445 DOI: 10.1089/adt.2019.922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Human-derived neurons and brain organoids have revolutionized our ability to model brain development in a dish. In this review, we discuss the potential for human brain models to advance drug discovery for complex neuropsychiatric disorders. First, we address the advantages of human brain models to screen for new drugs capable of altering CNS activity. Next, we propose an experimental pipeline for using human-derived neurons and brain organoids to rapidly assess drug impact on key events in brain development, including neurite extension, synapse formation, and neural activity. The experimental pipeline begins with automated high content imaging for analysis of neurites, synapses, and neuronal viability. Following morphological examination, multi-well microelectrode array technology examines neural activity in response to drug treatment. These techniques can be combined with high throughput sequencing and mass spectrometry to assess associated transcriptional and proteomic changes. These combined technologies provide a foundation for neuropsychiatric drug discovery and future clinical assessment of patient-specific drug responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Papariello
- Graduate Program of Pharmacology and Toxicology, East Carolina University Brody School of Medicine, Greenville, North Carolina
| | - Karen Newell-Litwa
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, East Carolina University Brody School of Medicine, Greenville, North Carolina
| |
Collapse
|
214
|
Evaluating the applicability of mouse SINEs as an alternative normalization approach for RT-qPCR in brain tissue of the APP23 model for Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurosci Methods 2019; 320:128-137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2019.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
|
215
|
Clinical and Pathological Benefit of Twendee X in Alzheimer's Disease Transgenic Mice with Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2019; 28:1993-2002. [PMID: 31029568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2019.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple pathogeneses are involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD), such as amyloid-β accumulation, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress. The pathological impact of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion on Alzheimer's disease is still poorly understood. METHODS APP23 mice were implanted to bilateral common carotid arteries stenosis with ameroid constrictors for slowly progressive chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH). The effects of the administration of Twendee X (TwX) were evaluated by behavioral analysis, immunohistochemical analysis, and immunofluorescent histochemistry. RESULTS In the present study, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, which is commonly found in aged Alzheimer's disease, significantly exacerbated motor dysfunction of APP23 mice from 5 months and cognitive deficit from 8 months of age, as well as neuronal loss, extracellular amyloid-β plaque and intracellular oligomer formations, and amyloid angiopathy at 12 months. Severe upregulations of oxidative markers and inflammatory markers were found in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and thalamus at 12 months. Twendee X treatment (20 mg/kg/d, from 4.5 to 12 months) substantially rescued the cognitive deficit and reduced the above amyloid-β pathology and neuronal loss, alleviated neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. CONCLUSIONS The present findings suggested a potential therapeutic benefit of Twendee X for Alzheimer's disease with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.
Collapse
|
216
|
Ittner LM, Klugmann M, Ke YD. Adeno-associated virus-based Alzheimer's disease mouse models and potential new therapeutic avenues. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:3649-3665. [PMID: 30817847 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 12/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a highly prevalent neurodegenerative condition that presents with cognitive decline. The current understanding of underlying disease mechanisms remains incomplete. Genetically modified mouse models have been instrumental in deciphering pathomechanisms in AD. While these models were typically generated by classical transgenesis and genome editing, the use of adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) to model and investigate AD in mice, as well as to develop novel gene-therapy approaches, is emerging. Here, we reviewed literature that used AAVs to study and model AD and discuss potential gene therapy strategies. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Therapeutics for Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: New Directions for Precision Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.18/issuetoc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lars M Ittner
- Dementia Research Centre and Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Matthias Klugmann
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Yazi D Ke
- Dementia Research Centre and Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
217
|
Shi X, Ohta Y, Liu X, Shang J, Morihara R, Nakano Y, Feng T, Huang Y, Sato K, Takemoto M, Hishikawa N, Yamashita T, Abe K. Acute Anti-Inflammatory Markers ITIH4 and AHSG in Mice Brain of a Novel Alzheimer’s Disease Model. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 68:1667-1675. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-181218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Shi
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Ohta
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Xia Liu
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Jingwei Shang
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ryuta Morihara
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yumiko Nakano
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Tian Feng
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yong Huang
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Kota Sato
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Mami Takemoto
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Nozomi Hishikawa
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Toru Yamashita
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| | - Koji Abe
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
218
|
Silva AR, Grosso C, Delerue-Matos C, Rocha JM. Comprehensive review on the interaction between natural compounds and brain receptors: Benefits and toxicity. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 174:87-115. [PMID: 31029947 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Given their therapeutic activity, natural products have been used in traditional medicines throughout the centuries. The growing interest of the scientific community in phytopharmaceuticals, and more recently in marine products, has resulted in a significant number of research efforts towards understanding their effect in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson (PD) and Huntington (HD). Several studies have shown that many of the primary and secondary metabolites of plants, marine organisms and others, have high affinities for various brain receptors and may play a crucial role in the treatment of diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) in mammalians. Actually, such compounds may act on the brain receptors either by agonism, antagonism, allosteric modulation or other type of activity aimed at enhancing a certain effect. The current manuscript comprehensively reviews the state of the art on the interactions between natural compounds and brain receptors. This information is of foremost importance when it is intended to investigate and develop cutting-edge drugs, more effective and with alternative mechanisms of action to the conventional drugs presently used for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, we reviewed the effect of 173 natural products on neurotransmitter receptors, diabetes related receptors, neurotrophic factor related receptors, immune system related receptors, oxidative stress related receptors, transcription factors regulating gene expression related receptors and blood-brain barrier receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana R Silva
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology (DB), University of Minho (UM), Campus Gualtar, P-4710-057, Braga, Portugal
| | - Clara Grosso
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, P-4249-015, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Cristina Delerue-Matos
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, P-4249-015, Porto, Portugal
| | - João M Rocha
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology (DB), University of Minho (UM), Campus Gualtar, P-4710-057, Braga, Portugal; REQUIMTE/LAQV, Grupo de investigação de Química Orgânica Aplicada (QUINOA), Laboratório de polifenóis alimentares, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica (DQB), Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto (FCUP), Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, P-4169-007, Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
219
|
Bi C, Bi S, Li B. Processing of Mutant β-Amyloid Precursor Protein and the Clinicopathological Features of Familial Alzheimer's Disease. Aging Dis 2019; 10:383-403. [PMID: 31011484 PMCID: PMC6457050 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2018.0425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex, multifactorial disease involving many pathological mechanisms. Nonetheless, single pathogenic mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP) or presenilin 1 or 2 can cause AD with almost all of the clinical and neuropathological features, and therefore, we believe an important mechanism of pathogenesis in AD could be revealed from examining pathogenic APP missense mutations. A comprehensive review of the literature, including clinical, neuropathological, cellular and animal model data, was conducted through PubMed and the databases of Alzforum mutations, HGMD, UniProt, and AD&FTDMDB. Pearson correlation analysis combining the clinical and neuropathological data and aspects of mutant APP processing in cellular models was performed. We find that an increase in Aβ42 has a significant positive correlation with the appearance of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and tends to cause an earlier age of AD onset, while an increase in Aβ40 significantly increases the age at death. The increase in the α-carboxyl terminal fragment (CTF) has a significantly negative correlation with the age of AD onset, and β-CTF has a similar effect without statistical significance. Animal models show that intracellular Aβ is critical for memory defects. Based on these results and the fact that amyloid plaque burden correlates much less well with cognitive impairment than do NFT counts, we propose a "snowball hypothesis": the accumulation of intraneuronal NFTs caused by extracellular Aβ42 and the increase in intraneuronal APP proteolytic products (CTFs and Aβs) could cause cellular organelle stress that leads to neurodegeneration in AD, which then resembles the formation of abnormal protein "snowballs" both inside and outside of neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Bi
- Washington Institute for Health Sciences, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
| | - Stephanie Bi
- Washington Institute for Health Sciences, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
| | - Bin Li
- Washington Institute for Health Sciences, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular & Cellular Biology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington DC 20057, USA
| |
Collapse
|
220
|
Sakakibara Y, Sekiya M, Saito T, Saido TC, Iijima KM. Amyloid-β plaque formation and reactive gliosis are required for induction of cognitive deficits in App knock-in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. BMC Neurosci 2019; 20:13. [PMID: 30894120 PMCID: PMC6425634 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-019-0496-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Knock-in (KI) mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) that endogenously overproduce Aβ without non-physiological overexpression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) provide important insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of AD. Previously, we reported that AppNL-G-F mice, which harbor three familial AD mutations (Swedish, Beyreuther/Iberian, and Arctic) exhibited emotional alterations before the onset of definitive cognitive deficits. To determine whether these mice exhibit deficits in learning and memory at more advanced ages, we compared the Morris water maze performance of AppNL-G-F and AppNL mice, which harbor only the Swedish mutation, with that of wild-type (WT) C57BL/6J mice at the age of 24 months. To correlate cognitive deficits and neuroinflammation, we also examined Aβ plaque formation and reactive gliosis in these mice. RESULTS In the Morris water maze, a spatial task, 24-month-old AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F mice exhibited significantly poorer spatial learning than WT mice during the hidden training sessions, but similarly to WT mice during the visible training sessions. Not surprisingly, AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F mice also exhibited spatial memory deficits both 1 and 7 days after the last training session. By contrast, 24-month-old AppNL/NL mice had intact spatial learning and memory relative to WT mice. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that 24-month-old AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F mice developed massive Aβ plaques and reactive gliosis (microgliosis and astrocytosis) throughout the brain, including the cortex and hippocampus. By contrast, we observed no detectable brain pathology in AppNL/NL mice despite overproduction of human Aβ40 and Aβ42 in their brains. CONCLUSIONS Aβ plaque formation, followed by sustained neuroinflammation, is necessary for the induction of definitive cognitive deficits in App-KI mouse models of AD. Our data also indicate that introduction of the Swedish mutation alone in endogenous APP is not sufficient to produce either AD-related brain pathology or cognitive deficits in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yasufumi Sakakibara
- Department of Alzheimer’s Disease Research, Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi 474-8511 Japan
| | - Michiko Sekiya
- Department of Alzheimer’s Disease Research, Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi 474-8511 Japan
| | - Takashi Saito
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198 Japan
| | - Takaomi C. Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198 Japan
| | - Koichi M. Iijima
- Department of Alzheimer’s Disease Research, Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi 474-8511 Japan
- Department of Experimental Gerontology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, 467-8603 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
221
|
Yan Y, Bejoy J, Marzano M, Li Y. The Use of Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Organoids to Study Extracellular Matrix Development during Neural Degeneration. Cells 2019; 8:E242. [PMID: 30875781 PMCID: PMC6468789 DOI: 10.3390/cells8030242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism that causes the Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathologies, including amyloid plaque, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuron death, is not well understood due to the lack of robust study models for human brain. Three-dimensional organoid systems based on human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have shown a promising potential to model neurodegenerative diseases, including AD. These systems, in combination with engineering tools, allow in vitro generation of brain-like tissues that recapitulate complex cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions. Brain ECMs play important roles in neural differentiation, proliferation, neuronal network, and AD progression. In this contribution related to brain ECMs, recent advances in modeling AD pathology and progression based on hPSC-derived neural cells, tissues, and brain organoids were reviewed and summarized. In addition, the roles of ECMs in neural differentiation of hPSCs and the influences of heparan sulfate proteoglycans, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, and hyaluronic acid on the progression of neurodegeneration were discussed. The advantages that use stem cell-based organoids to study neural degeneration and to investigate the effects of ECM development on the disease progression were highlighted. The contents of this article are significant for understanding cell-matrix interactions in stem cell microenvironment for treating neural degeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanwei Yan
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA.
| | - Julie Bejoy
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA.
| | - Mark Marzano
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA.
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
222
|
Michno W, Nyström S, Wehrli P, Lashley T, Brinkmalm G, Guerard L, Syvänen S, Sehlin D, Kaya I, Brinet D, Nilsson KPR, Hammarström P, Blennow K, Zetterberg H, Hanrieder J. Pyroglutamation of amyloid-βx-42 (Aβx-42) followed by Aβ1-40 deposition underlies plaque polymorphism in progressing Alzheimer's disease pathology. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:6719-6732. [PMID: 30814252 PMCID: PMC6497931 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the formation of polymorphic deposits comprising diffuse and cored plaques. Because diffuse plaques are predominantly observed in cognitively unaffected, amyloid-positive (CU-AP) individuals, pathogenic conversion into cored plaques appears to be critical to AD pathogenesis. Herein, we identified the distinct Aβ species associated with amyloid polymorphism in brain tissue from individuals with sporadic AD (s-AD) and CU-AP. To this end, we interrogated Aβ polymorphism with amyloid conformation–sensitive dyes and a novel in situ MS paradigm for chemical characterization of hyperspectrally delineated plaque morphotypes. We found that maturation of diffuse into cored plaques correlated with increased Aβ1–40 deposition. Using spatial in situ delineation with imaging MS (IMS), we show that Aβ1–40 aggregates at the core structure of mature plaques, whereas Aβ1–42 localizes to diffuse amyloid aggregates. Moreover, we observed that diffuse plaques have increased pyroglutamated Aβx-42 levels in s-AD but not CU-AP, suggesting an AD pathology–related, hydrophobic functionalization of diffuse plaques facilitating Aβ1–40 deposition. Experiments in tgAPPSwe mice verified that, similar to what has been observed in human brain pathology, diffuse deposits display higher levels of Aβ1–42 and that Aβ plaque maturation over time is associated with increases in Aβ1–40. Finally, we found that Aβ1–40 deposition is characteristic for cerebral amyloid angiopathy deposition and maturation in both humans and mice. These results indicate that N-terminal Aβx-42 pyroglutamation and Aβ1–40 deposition are critical events in priming and maturation of pathogenic Aβ from diffuse into cored plaques, underlying neurotoxic plaque development in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Michno
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Sofie Nyström
- the Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Patrick Wehrli
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Tammaryn Lashley
- the Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Gunnar Brinkmalm
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Laurent Guerard
- the Center for Cellular Imaging, Core Facilities, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 41390 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Stina Syvänen
- the Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Dag Sehlin
- the Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ibrahim Kaya
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Dimitri Brinet
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - K Peter R Nilsson
- the Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Per Hammarström
- the Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Kaj Blennow
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden.,the Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden.,the Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom.,the Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden.,the UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom, and
| | - Jörg Hanrieder
- From the Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 43180 Mölndal, Sweden, .,the Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
223
|
Mullane K, Williams M. Preclinical Models of Alzheimer's Disease: Relevance and Translational Validity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 84:e57. [PMID: 30802363 DOI: 10.1002/cpph.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The only drugs currently approved for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) are four acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and the NMDA antagonist memantine. Apart from these drugs, which have minimal to no clinical benefit, the 40-year search for effective therapeutics to treat AD has resulted in a clinical failure rate of 100% not only for compounds that prevent brain amyloid deposition or remove existing amyloid plaques but also those acting by a variety of other putative disease-associated mechanisms. This indicates that the preclinical data generated from current AD targets to support the selection, optimization, and translation of new chemical entities (NCEs) and biologics to clinical trials is seriously compromised. While many of these failures reflect flawed hypotheses or a lack of adequate characterization of the preclinical pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic (PD/PK) properties of lead NCEs-including their bioavailability and toxicity-the conceptualization, validation, and interrogation of the current animal models of AD represent key limitations. The overwhelming majority of these AD models are transgenic, based on aspects of the amyloid hypothesis and the genetics of the familial form of the disease. As a result, these generally lack construct and predictive validity for the sporadic form of the human disease. The 170 or so transgenic models, perhaps the largest number ever focused on a single disease, use rodents, mainly mice, and in addition to amyloid also address aspects of tau causality with more complex multigene models including other presumed causative factors together with amyloid. This overview discusses the current animal models of AD in the context of both the controversies surrounding the causative role of amyloid in the disease and the need to develop validated models of cognitive function/dysfunction that more appropriately reflect the phenotype(s) of human aged-related dementias. © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Williams
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| |
Collapse
|
224
|
Fukunaga K, Izumi H, Yabuki Y, Shinoda Y, Shioda N, Han F. Alzheimer's disease therapeutic candidate SAK3 is an enhancer of T-type calcium channels. J Pharmacol Sci 2019; 139:51-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2018.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
|
225
|
Zhang J, Konsmo A, Sandberg A, Wu X, Nyström S, Obermüller U, Wegenast-Braun BM, Konradsson P, Lindgren M, Hammarström P. Phenolic Bis-styrylbenzo[c]-1,2,5-thiadiazoles as Probes for Fluorescence Microscopy Mapping of Aβ Plaque Heterogeneity. J Med Chem 2019; 62:2038-2048. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zhang
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Audun Konsmo
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Alexander Sandberg
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Xiongyu Wu
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Sofie Nyström
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Ulrike Obermüller
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- DZNE−German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bettina M. Wegenast-Braun
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- DZNE−German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter Konradsson
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Mikael Lindgren
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Per Hammarström
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
226
|
Medeiros ADM, Silva RH. Sex Differences in Alzheimer’s Disease: Where Do We Stand? J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 67:35-60. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-180213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- André de Macêdo Medeiros
- Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center of Health and Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal Rural do Semiárido, Mossoró, Brazil
| | - Regina Helena Silva
- Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
227
|
Verkhratsky A, Parpura V, Rodriguez-Arellano JJ, Zorec R. Astroglia in Alzheimer's Disease. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1175:273-324. [PMID: 31583592 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-9913-8_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia. Cellular changes in the brains of the patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease occur well in advance of the clinical symptoms. At the cellular level, the most dramatic is a demise of neurones. As astroglial cells carry out homeostatic functions of the brain, it is certain that these cells are at least in part a cause of Alzheimer's disease. Historically, Alois Alzheimer himself has recognised this at the dawn of the disease description. However, the role of astroglia in this disease has been understudied. In this chapter, we summarise the various aspects of glial contribution to this disease and outline the potential of using these cells in prevention (exercise and environmental enrichment) and intervention of this devastating disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Verkhratsky
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK. .,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Center for Basic and Translational Neuroscience, University of Copenhagen, 2200, Copenhagen, Denmark. .,Achucarro Center for Neuroscience, IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48011, Bilbao, Spain.
| | - Vladimir Parpura
- Department of Neurobiology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.,University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Jose Julio Rodriguez-Arellano
- BioCruces Health Research Institute, IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.,Department of Neuroscience, The University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Plaza de Cruces 12, 48903, Barakaldo, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Robert Zorec
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pathophysiology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Celica BIOMEDICAL, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| |
Collapse
|
228
|
Deba F, Peterson S, Hamouda AK. An Animal Model to Test Reversal of Cognitive Decline Associated with Beta-Amyloid Pathologies. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 2011:393-412. [PMID: 31273712 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9554-7_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Disposition of beta-amyloid peptide 1-42 (Aβ1-42) in the space around the synapses and formation of Aβ-containing aggregates known as neuritic or senile plaques are hallmark features of neurodegenerative pathologies associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). While AD is a multifactorial disease that includes other proteinopathies (e.g., hyperphosphorylated tau aggregates) and neurotransmitter disturbances (e.g., loss of cortical cholinergic innervation), Aβ (soluble or in senile plaques) remains the major undisputed factor that contributes to the pathological and behavior presentation of AD. Overproduction of Aβ and mutations in Aβ precursor (amyloid precursor protein) or enzymes involved in Aβ1-42 production and removal (γ secretase/presenilins) have been shown in cases of early onset of AD and produced AD-like pathologies in animal models. In addition, the level of soluble Aβ1-42 has been shown to correlate with cognitive impairment in animal models before the presence of senile plaques or other histological features of AD. However, much still is unknown about the biochemical processes leading to amyloid formation and its relation to the pathogenesis, neuronal damage/dysfunction, and behavioral changes associated with AD. In this article, we review animal models that have been developed to study AD-like pathologies and then provide detailed methodology to develop an acute rat model of Aβ-induced cognitive impairment. We use this model to examine the cognitive-enhancing effect of novel pharmacological interventions targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Farah Deba
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Fisch College of Pharmacy, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA
| | - Steven Peterson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Irma Lerma Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M University, Kingsville, TX, USA.
| | - Ayman K Hamouda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Fisch College of Pharmacy, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
229
|
Experimental Models of Tauopathy - From Mechanisms to Therapies. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1184:381-391. [PMID: 32096051 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-32-9358-8_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Animal models have been instrumental in reproducing key aspects of human tauopathy. In pursuing these efforts, the mouse continues to have a prominent role. In this chapter, we focus on models that overexpress wild-type or mutant forms of tau, the latter being based on mutations found in familial cases of frontotemporal dementia. We review some of these models in more detail and discuss what they have revealed about the underlying pathomechanisms, as well as highlighting new developments that exploit gene editing tools such as TALEN and CRISPR. Interestingly, when investigating the role of tau in impairing cellular functions, common themes emerge. Because tau is a scaffolding protein that aggregates in the somatodendritic domain under pathological conditions, it traps proteins such as parkin and JIP1, preventing them from executing their normal function in mitophagy and axonal transport, respectively. Another aspect is the emerging role of tau in the translational machinery and the finding that the somatodendritic accumulation of tau in Alzheimer's disease may in part be due to the induction of the de novo synthesis of tau by amyloid-β via the Fyn/ERK/S6 pathway. We further discuss treatment strategies such as tau-based vaccinations and therapeutic ultrasound and conclude by discussing whether there is a future for animal models of tauopathies.
Collapse
|
230
|
Lopez Sanchez MIG, van Wijngaarden P, Trounce IA. Amyloid precursor protein-mediated mitochondrial regulation and Alzheimer's disease. Br J Pharmacol 2018; 176:3464-3474. [PMID: 30471088 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite clear evidence of a neuroprotective physiological role of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its non-amyloidogenic processing products, APP has been investigated mainly in animal and cellular models of amyloid pathology in the context of Alzheimer's disease. The rare familial mutations in APP and presenilin-1/2, which sometimes drive increased amyloid β (Aβ) production, may have unduly influenced Alzheimer's disease research. APP and its cleavage products play important roles in cellular and mitochondrial metabolism, but many studies focus solely on Aβ. Mitochondrial bioenergetic metabolism is essential for neuronal function, maintenance and survival, and multiple reports indicate mitochondrial abnormalities in patients with Alzheimer's disease. In this review, we focus on mitochondrial abnormalities reported in sporadic Alzheimer's disease patients and the role of full-length APP and its non-amyloidogenic fragments, particularly soluble APPα, on mitochondrial bioenergetic metabolism. We do not review the plethora of animal and in vitro studies using mutant APP/presenilin constructs or experiments using exogenous Aβ. In doing so, we aim to invigorate research and discussion around non-amyloidogenic APP processing products and the mechanisms linking mitochondria and complex neurodegenerative disorders such as sporadic Alzheimer's disease. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Therapeutics for Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: New Directions for Precision Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.18/issuetoc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Isabel G Lopez Sanchez
- Ophthalmology, Department of Surgery, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Peter van Wijngaarden
- Ophthalmology, Department of Surgery, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ian A Trounce
- Ophthalmology, Department of Surgery, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
231
|
Llorens-Martín M. Exercising New Neurons to Vanquish Alzheimer Disease. Brain Plast 2018; 4:111-126. [PMID: 30564550 PMCID: PMC6296267 DOI: 10.3233/bpl-180065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia in individuals over 65 years of age. The neuropathological hallmarks of the condition are Tau neurofibrillary tangles and Amyloid-β senile plaques. Moreover, certain susceptible regions of the brain experience a generalized lack of neural plasticity and marked synaptic alterations during the progression of this as yet incurable disease. One of these regions, the hippocampus, is characterized by the continuous addition of new neurons throughout life. This phenomenon, named adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN), provides a potentially endless source of new synaptic elements that increase the complexity and plasticity of the hippocampal circuitry. Numerous lines of evidence show that physical activity and environmental enrichment (EE) are among the most potent positive regulators of AHN. Given that neural plasticity is markedly decreased in many neurodegenerative diseases, the therapeutic potential of making certain lifestyle changes, such as increasing physical activity, is being recognised in several non-pharmacologic strategies seeking to slow down or prevent the progression of these diseases. This review article summarizes current evidence supporting the putative therapeutic potential of EE and physical exercise to increase AHN and hippocampal plasticity both under physiological and pathological circumstances, with a special emphasis on neurodegenerative diseases and AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Llorens-Martín
- Department of Molecular Neuropathology, Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, CBMSO, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases CIBERNED, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
232
|
Moriguchi S, Kita S, Iwamoto T, Fukunaga K. [Dysfunction of Na +/Ca 2+ exchangers is associated with cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease]. Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi 2018; 152:299-305. [PMID: 30531101 DOI: 10.1254/fpj.152.299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) is mainly expressed in the plasma membrane and mediates electrogenical exchange of one Ca2+ for three Na+, depending on the electrochemical gradients across the plasma membrane. NCX has three different isoforms (NCX1, NCX2, NCX3) encoded by distinct genes in mammals. Here, we report that NCX2 and NCX3 protein levels are relatively reduced in hippocampal CA1 of Alzheimer's disease model mice. Likewise, NCX2+/- or NCX3+/- mice exhibited impaired hippocampal LTP and memory-related behaviors. In immunoblot analyses, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) autophosphorylation significantly decreased in hippocampal CA1 of NCX2+/- mice compared to wild-type mice. By contrast, NCX2+/- mice was correlated with elevated calcineurin (CaN) activity and rescued by treatment with the calcineurin inhibitor FK506. Taken together, the imbalance of CaMKII and CaN activities with concomitant LTP impairment likely accounts for the learning disability observed in NCX2+/- mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shigeki Moriguchi
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University
| | - Satomi Kita
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University.,Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Fukuoka University
| | - Takahiro Iwamoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Fukuoka University
| | - Kohji Fukunaga
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University
| |
Collapse
|
233
|
Kreiner G. What have we learned recently from transgenic mouse models about neurodegeneration? The most promising discoveries of this millennium. Pharmacol Rep 2018; 70:1105-1115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2018.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
234
|
Heiland T, Zeitschel U, Puchades MA, Kuhn PH, Lichtenthaler SF, Bjaalie JG, Hartlage-Rübsamen M, Roßner S, Höfling C. Defined astrocytic expression of human amyloid precursor protein in Tg2576 mouse brain. Glia 2018; 67:393-403. [PMID: 30485540 PMCID: PMC6588085 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Transgenic Tg2576 mice expressing human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP) with the Swedish mutation are among the most frequently used animal models to study the amyloid pathology related to Alzheimer's disease (AD). The transgene expression in this model is considered to be neuron‐specific. Using a novel hAPP‐specific antibody in combination with cell type‐specific markers for double immunofluorescent labelings and laser scanning microscopy, we here report that—in addition to neurons throughout the brain—astrocytes in the corpus callosum and to a lesser extent in neocortex express hAPP. This astrocytic hAPP expression is already detectable in young Tg2576 mice before the onset of amyloid pathology and still present in aged Tg2576 mice with robust amyloid pathology in neocortex, hippocampus, and corpus callosum. Surprisingly, hAPP immunoreactivity in cortex is restricted to resting astrocytes distant from amyloid plaques but absent from reactive astrocytes in close proximity to amyloid plaques. In contrast, neither microglial cells nor oligodendrocytes of young or aged Tg2576 mice display hAPP labeling. The astrocytic expression of hAPP is substantiated by the analyses of hAPP mRNA and protein expression in primary cultures derived from Tg2576 offspring. We conclude that astrocytes, in particular in corpus callosum, may contribute to amyloid pathology in Tg2576 mice and thus mimic this aspect of AD pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tina Heiland
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ulrike Zeitschel
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maja A Puchades
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Peer-Hendrik Kuhn
- Institute of Pathology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan F Lichtenthaler
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany.,Neuroproteomics, School of Medicine, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany
| | - Jan G Bjaalie
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Steffen Roßner
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Corinna Höfling
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
235
|
Hoxha E, Lippiello P, Zurlo F, Balbo I, Santamaria R, Tempia F, Miniaci MC. The Emerging Role of Altered Cerebellar Synaptic Processing in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:396. [PMID: 30542279 PMCID: PMC6278174 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the cerebellum in Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been neglected for a long time. Recent studies carried out using transgenic mouse models have demonstrated that amyloid-β (Aβ) is deposited in the cerebellum and affects synaptic transmission and plasticity, sometimes before plaque formation. A wide variability of motor phenotype has been observed in the different murine models of AD, without a consistent correlation with the extent of cerebellar histopathological changes or with cognitive deficits. The loss of noradrenergic drive may contribute to the impairment of cerebellar synaptic function and motor learning observed in these mice. Furthermore, cerebellar neurons, particularly granule cells, have been used as in vitro model of Aβ-induced neuronal damage. An unexpected conclusion is that the cerebellum, for a long time thought to be somehow protected from AD pathology, is actually considered as a region vulnerable to Aβ toxic damage, even at the early stage of the disease, with consequences on motor performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eriola Hoxha
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Turin, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Pellegrino Lippiello
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Fabio Zurlo
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Ilaria Balbo
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Turin, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Rita Santamaria
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Filippo Tempia
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Turin, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), Turin, Italy
| | - Maria Concetta Miniaci
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
236
|
Fimognari N, Hollings A, Lam V, Tidy RJ, Kewish CM, Albrecht MA, Takechi R, Mamo JCL, Hackett MJ. Biospectroscopic Imaging Provides Evidence of Hippocampal Zn Deficiency and Decreased Lipid Unsaturation in an Accelerated Aging Mouse Model. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2774-2785. [PMID: 29901988 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Western society is facing a health epidemic due to the increasing incidence of dementia in aging populations, and there are still few effective diagnostic methods, minimal treatment options, and no cure. Aging is the greatest risk factor for memory loss that occurs during the natural aging process, as well as being the greatest risk factor for neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer's disease. Greater understanding of the biochemical pathways that drive a healthy aging brain toward dementia (pathological aging or Alzheimer's disease), is required to accelerate the development of improved diagnostics and therapies. Unfortunately, many animal models of dementia model chronic amyloid precursor protein overexpression, which although highly relevant to mechanisms of amyloidosis and familial Alzheimer's disease, does not model well dementia during the natural aging process. A promising animal model reported to model mechanisms of accelerated natural aging and memory impairments, is the senescence accelerated murine prone strain 8 (SAMP8), which has been adopted by many research group to study the biochemical transitions that occur during brain aging. A limitation to traditional methods of biochemical characterization is that many important biochemical and elemental markers (lipid saturation, lactate, transition metals) cannot be imaged at meso- or microspatial resolution. Therefore, in this investigation, we report the first multimodal biospectroscopic characterization of the SAMP8 model, and have identified important biochemical and elemental alterations, and colocalizations, between 4 month old SAMP8 mice and the relevant control (SAMR1) mice. Specifically, we demonstrate direct evidence of Zn deficiency within specific subregions of the hippocampal CA3 sector, which colocalize with decreased lipid unsaturation. Our findings also revealed colocalization of decreased lipid unsaturation and increased lactate in the corpus callosum white matter, adjacent to the hippocampus. Such findings may have important implication for future research aimed at elucidating specific biochemical pathways for therapeutic intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Fimognari
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Ashley Hollings
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
- Curtin Institute for Functional Molecules and Interfaces, School of Molecular and Life Science, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6845, Australia
| | - Virginie Lam
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
- School of Public Health, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Rebecca J. Tidy
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
- Curtin Institute for Functional Molecules and Interfaces, School of Molecular and Life Science, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6845, Australia
| | - Cameron M. Kewish
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, 800 Blackburn Road, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - Matthew A. Albrecht
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Ryu Takechi
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
- School of Public Health, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - John C. L. Mamo
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
- School of Public Health, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Mark J. Hackett
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
- Curtin Institute for Functional Molecules and Interfaces, School of Molecular and Life Science, Curtin University, Bentley, WA 6845, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
237
|
The TRPM2 channel nexus from oxidative damage to Alzheimer's pathologies: An emerging novel intervention target for age-related dementia. Ageing Res Rev 2018; 47:67-79. [PMID: 30009973 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), an age-related neurodegenerative condition, is the most common cause of dementia among the elder people, but currently there is no treatment. A number of putative pathogenic events, particularly amyloid β peptide (Aβ) accumulation, are believed to be early triggers that initiate AD. However, thus far targeting Aβ generation/aggregation as the mainstay strategy of drug development has not led to effective AD-modifying therapeutics. Oxidative damage is a conspicuous feature of AD, but this remains poorly defined phenomenon and mechanistically ill understood. The TRPM2 channel has emerged as a potentially ubiquitous molecular mechanism mediating oxidative damage and thus plays a vital role in the pathogenesis and progression of diverse neurodegenerative diseases. This article will review the emerging evidence from recent studies and propose a novel 'hypothesis' that multiple TRPM2-mediated cellular and molecular mechanisms cascade Aβ and/or oxidative damage to AD pathologies. The 'hypothesis' based on these new findings discusses the prospect of considering the TRPM2 channel as a novel therapeutic target for intervening AD and age-related dementia.
Collapse
|
238
|
Hüttenrauch M, Ogorek I, Klafki H, Otto M, Stadelmann C, Weggen S, Wiltfang J, Wirths O. Glycoprotein NMB: a novel Alzheimer's disease associated marker expressed in a subset of activated microglia. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2018; 6:108. [PMID: 30340518 PMCID: PMC6194687 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-018-0612-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an irreversible, devastating neurodegenerative brain disorder characterized by the loss of neurons and subsequent cognitive decline. Despite considerable progress in the understanding of the pathophysiology of AD, the precise molecular mechanisms that cause the disease remain elusive. By now, there is ample evidence that activated microglia have a critical role in the initiation and progression of AD. The present study describes the identification of Glycoprotein nonmetastatic melanoma protein B (GPNMB) as a novel AD-related factor in both transgenic mice and sporadic AD patients by expression profiling, immunohistochemistry and ELISA measurements. We show that GPNMB levels increase in an age-dependent manner in transgenic AD models showing profound cerebral neuron loss and demonstrate that GPNMB co-localizes with a distinct population of IBA1-positive microglia cells that cluster around amyloid plaques. Our data further indicate that GPNMB is part of a microglia activation state that is only present under neurodegenerative conditions and that is characterized by the up-regulation of a subset of genes including TREM2, APOE and CST7. In agreement, we provide in vitro evidence that soluble Aβ has a direct effect on GPNMB expression in an immortalized microglia cell line. Importantly, we show for the first time that GPNMB is elevated in brain samples and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of sporadic AD patients when compared to non-demented controls. The current findings indicate that GPNMB represents a novel disease-associated marker that appears to play a role in the neuroinflammatory response of AD.
Collapse
|
239
|
Sadleir KR, Popovic J, Vassar R. ER stress is not elevated in the 5XFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:18434-18443. [PMID: 30315100 PMCID: PMC6290164 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.005769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease mouse models that overexpress amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin 1 (PS1) form β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques, a hallmark Alzheimer's disease lesion. It has been assumed that the neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, neurodegeneration, and cognitive impairment observed in these mice are caused by cerebral Aβ accumulation. However, it is also possible that accumulation of the overexpressed transmembrane proteins APP and PS1 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) triggers chronic ER stress and activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). The 5XFAD mouse, a widely used amyloid pathology model, overexpresses APP and PS1, displays aggressive amyloid pathology, and has been reported to exhibit ER stress. To systematically evaluate whether 5XFAD mice have increased ER stress, here we used biochemical approaches to assess a comprehensive panel of UPR markers. We report that APP and PS1 levels are 1.8- and 1.5-fold, respectively, of those in 5XFAD compared with nontransgenic brains, indicating that transgenes are not massively overexpressed in 5XFAD mice. Using immunoblotting, we quantified UPR protein levels in nontransgenic, 5XFAD, and 5XFAD;BACE1−/− mice at 4, 6, and 9 months of age. Importantly, we did not observe elevation of the ER stress markers p-eIF2α, ATF4, CHOP, p-IRE1α, or BiP at any age in 5XFAD or 5XFAD;BACE1−/− compared with nontransgenic mice. Despite lacking Aβ generation, 5XFAD;BACE1−/− mice still expressed APP and PS1 transgenes, indicating that their overexpression does not cause ER stress. These results reveal the absence of ER stress in 5XFAD mice, suggesting that artifactual phenotypes associated with overexpression-induced ER stress are not a concern in this model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R Sadleir
- From the Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Jelena Popovic
- From the Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Robert Vassar
- From the Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| |
Collapse
|
240
|
Yao D, Jing T, Niu L, Huang X, Wang Y, Deng X, Wang M. Amyloidogenesis induced by diet cholesterol and copper in a model mouse for Alzheimer’s disease and protection effects of zinc and fluvastatin. Brain Res Bull 2018; 143:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
241
|
Nirzhor SSR, Khan RI, Neelotpol S. The Biology of Glial Cells and Their Complex Roles in Alzheimer's Disease: New Opportunities in Therapy. Biomolecules 2018; 8:biom8030093. [PMID: 30201881 PMCID: PMC6164719 DOI: 10.3390/biom8030093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Even though Alzheimer's disease (AD) is of significant interest to the scientific community, its pathogenesis is very complicated and not well-understood. A great deal of progress has been made in AD research recently and with the advent of these new insights more therapeutic benefits may be identified that could help patients around the world. Much of the research in AD thus far has been very neuron-oriented; however, recent studies suggest that glial cells, i.e., microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (NG2 glia), are linked to the pathogenesis of AD and may offer several potential therapeutic targets against AD. In addition to a number of other functions, glial cells are responsible for maintaining homeostasis (i.e., concentration of ions, neurotransmitters, etc.) within the central nervous system (CNS) and are crucial to the structural integrity of neurons. This review explores the: (i) role of glial cells in AD pathogenesis; (ii) complex functionalities of the components involved; and (iii) potential therapeutic targets that could eventually lead to a better quality of life for AD patients.
Collapse
|
242
|
Hsu PH, Lin YT, Chung YH, Lin KJ, Yang LY, Yen TC, Liu HL. Focused Ultrasound-Induced Blood-Brain Barrier Opening Enhances GSK-3 Inhibitor Delivery for Amyloid-Beta Plaque Reduction. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12882. [PMID: 30150769 PMCID: PMC6110796 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31071-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that is the leading cause of age-related dementia. Currently, therapeutic agent delivery to the CNS is a valued approach for AD therapy. Unfortunately, the CNS penetration is greatly hampered by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Focused-ultrasound (FUS) has been demonstrated to temporally open the BBB, thus promoting therapeutic agent delivery to the CNS. Recently, the BBB opening procedure was further reported to clear the deposited Aβ plaque due to microglia activation. In this study, we aimed to evaluate whether the use of FUS-induced BBB opening to enhance GSK-3 inhibitor delivery, which would bring additive effect of Aβ plaque clearance by FUS with the reduction of Aβ plaque synthesis by GSK-3 inhibitor in an AD mice model. FUS-induced BBB opening on APPswe/PSEN1-dE9 transgenic mice was performed unilaterally, with the contralateral hemisphere serving as a reference. GSK-3 level was confirmed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and autoradiography (ARG) was also conducted to quantitatively confirm the Aβ plaque reduction. Results from IHC showed GSK-3 inhibitor effectively reduced GSK-3 activity up to 61.3% with the addition of FUS-BBB opening and confirming the proposed therapeutic route. ARG also showed significant Aβ-plaque reduction up to 31.5%. This study reveals the therapeutic potentials of ultrasound to AD treatment, and may provide a useful strategy for neurodegenerative disease treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Hung Hsu
- Center for Advanced Molecular Imaging and Translation, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Tin Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsiu Chung
- Center for Advanced Molecular Imaging and Translation, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Ju Lin
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Liang-Yo Yang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Chen Yen
- Center for Advanced Molecular Imaging and Translation, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Li Liu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
243
|
Novel Quantitative Analyses of Spontaneous Synaptic Events in Cortical Pyramidal Cells Reveal Subtle Parvalbumin-Expressing Interneuron Dysfunction in a Knock-In Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. eNeuro 2018; 5:eN-CFN-0059-18. [PMID: 30105300 PMCID: PMC6088364 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0059-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that has become a compelling global public health concern. Besides pathological hallmarks such as extracellular amyloid plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), and loss of neurons and synapses, clinical reports have shown that epileptiform activity, even seizures, can occur early in the disease. Aberrant synaptic and network activities as well as epileptiform discharges have also been observed in various mouse models of AD. The new AppNL-F mouse model is generated by a gene knock-in approach and there are limited studies on basic synaptic properties in AppNL-F mice. Therefore, we applied quantitative methods to analyze spontaneous excitatory and inhibitory synaptic events in parietal cortex layer 2/3 pyramidal cells. First, by an objective amplitude distribution analysis, we found decreased amplitudes of spontaneous IPSCs (sIPSCs) in aged AppNL-F mice caused by a reduction in the amplitudes of the large sIPSCs with fast rates of rise, consistent with deficits in the function of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (PV INs). Second, we calculated the burstiness and memory in a series of successive synaptic events. Lastly, by using a novel approach to determine the excitation-to-inhibition (E/I) ratio, we found no changes in the AppNL-F mice, indicating that homeostatic mechanisms may have maintained the overall balance of excitation and inhibition in spite of a mildly impaired PV IN function.
Collapse
|
244
|
|
245
|
Caccamo A, Belfiore R, Oddo S. Genetically reducing mTOR signaling rescues central insulin dysregulation in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2018; 68:1. [PMID: 29729422 PMCID: PMC6777740 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease. The causes of sporadic AD, which represents more than 95% of AD cases, are unknown. Several AD risk factors have been identified and among these, type 2 diabetes increases the risk of developing AD by 2-fold. However, the mechanisms by which diabetes contributes to AD pathogenesis remain elusive. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a protein kinase that plays a crucial role in the insulin signaling pathway and has been linked to AD. We used a crossbreeding strategy to remove 1 copy of the mTOR gene from the forebrain of Tg2576 mice, a mouse model of AD. We used 20-month-old mice to assess changes in central insulin signaling and found that Tg2576 mice had impaired insulin signaling. These impairments were mTOR dependent as we found an improvement in central insulin signaling in mice with lower brain mTOR activity. Furthermore, removing 1 copy of mTOR from Tg2576 mice improved cognition and reduced levels of Aβ, tau, and cytokines. Our findings indicate that mTOR signaling is a key mediator of central insulin dysfunction in Tg2576. These data further highlight a possible role for mTOR signaling in AD pathogenesis and add to the body of evidence indicating that reducing mTOR activity could be a valid therapeutic approach for AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Caccamo
- The Arizona State University-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center at the Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, 85287
| | - Ramona Belfiore
- The Arizona State University-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center at the Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, 85287
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy, 95125
| | - Salvatore Oddo
- The Arizona State University-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center at the Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, 85287
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, 85287
| |
Collapse
|
246
|
Geng P, Zhang J, Dai W, Han X, Tan Q, Cheng D, Fang P, Liu X. Autophagic Degradation Deficit Involved in Sevoflurane-Induced Amyloid Pathology and Spatial Learning Impairment in APP/PS1 Transgenic Mice. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:185. [PMID: 30018537 PMCID: PMC6037844 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The adverse effects of anesthetics on elderly people, especially those with brain diseases are very concerning. Whether inhaled anesthetics have adverse effects on Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which is the most common form of dementia with brain degenerative changes, remains controversial. Autophagy, a crucial biological degradation process, is extremely important for the pathogenesis of AD. In this study, the inhaled anesthetic sevoflurane elicited many enlarged autolysosomes and impaired the overall autophagic degradation in the hippocampus of an AD mouse model, which is involved in the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) and spatial learning deficits. However, rapamycin treatment counteracted all these effects. The results suggested that inhaled anesthetics may accelerate the pathological process of AD, and enlarged autolysosomes may be a new marker for prediction and diagnosis of the neurotoxicity of anesthetics in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengcheng Geng
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jiqian Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Wei Dai
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xiaoyu Han
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Qilian Tan
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Dan Cheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Panpan Fang
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xuesheng Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| |
Collapse
|
247
|
Bearer EL, Manifold-Wheeler BC, Medina CS, Gonzales AG, Chaves FL, Jacobs RE. Alterations of functional circuitry in aging brain and the impact of mutated APP expression. Neurobiol Aging 2018; 70:276-290. [PMID: 30055413 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 06/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disease of aging that results in cognitive impairment, dementia, and death. Pathognomonic features of AD are amyloid plaques composed of proteolytic fragments of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. One type of familial AD occurs when mutant forms of APP are inherited. Both APP and tau are components of the microtubule-based axonal transport system, which prompts the hypothesis that axonal transport is disrupted in AD, and that such disruption impacts cognitive function. Transgenic mice expressing mutated forms of APP provide preclinical experimental systems to study AD. Here, we perform manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging to study transport from hippocampus to forebrain in four cohorts of living mice: young and old wild-type and transgenic mice expressing a mutant APP with both Swedish and Indiana mutations (APPSwInd). We find that transport is decreased in normal aging and further altered in aged APPSwInd plaque-bearing mice. These findings support the hypothesis that transport deficits are a component of AD pathology and thus may contribute to cognitive deficits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elaine L Bearer
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA; Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | | | | | - Aaron G Gonzales
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Frances L Chaves
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Russell E Jacobs
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA; Biological Imaging Center, Beckman Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
248
|
Tolomeo D, Micotti E, Serra SC, Chappell M, Snellman A, Forloni G. Chemical exchange saturation transfer MRI shows low cerebral 2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake in a model of Alzheimer's Disease. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9576. [PMID: 29934551 PMCID: PMC6015016 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27839-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucose is the central nervous system's only energy source. Imaging techniques capable to detect pathological alterations of the brain metabolism are useful in different diagnostic processes. Such techniques are also beneficial for assessing the evaluation efficacy of therapies in pre-clinical and clinical stages of diseases. Chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a possible alternative to positron emission tomography (PET) imaging that has been widely explored in cancer research in humans and animal models. We propose that pathological alterations in brain 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) uptake, typical of neurodegenerative diseases, can be detected with CEST MRI. Transgenic mice overexpressing a mutated form of amyloid precusrsor protein (APP23), a model of Alzheimer's disease, analyzed with CEST MRI showed a clear reduction of 2DG uptake in different brain regions. This was reminiscent of the cerebral condition observed in Alzheimer's patients. The results indicate the feasibility of CEST for analyzing the brain metabolic state, with better image resolution than PET in experimental models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Tolomeo
- Laboratory of Biology of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Milan, (MI), Italy
| | - Edoardo Micotti
- Laboratory of Biology of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Milan, (MI), Italy
| | | | - Michael Chappell
- Department of Engineering Science, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford, 6396, Oxford, UK
| | - Anniina Snellman
- Medicity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, (Tykistökatu 6, FI-20510), Turku, Finland.,Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, (Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, FI-20520,), Turku, Finland
| | - Gianluigi Forloni
- Laboratory of Biology of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Milan, (MI), Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
249
|
Iashchishyn IA, Gruden MA, Moskalenko RA, Davydova TV, Wang C, Sewell RDE, Morozova-Roche LA. Intranasally Administered S100A9 Amyloids Induced Cellular Stress, Amyloid Seeding, and Behavioral Impairment in Aged Mice. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:1338-1348. [PMID: 29618200 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid formation and neuroinflammation are major features of Alzheimer's disease pathology. Proinflammatory mediator S100A9 was shown to act as a link between the amyloid and neuroinflammatory cascades in Alzheimer's disease, leading together with Aβ to plaque formation, neuronal loss and memory impairment. In order to examine if S100A9 alone in its native and amyloid states can induce neuronal stress and memory impairment, we have administered S100A9 species intranasally to aged mice. Single and sequential immunohistochemistry and passive avoidance behavioral test were conducted to evaluate the consequences. Administered S100A9 species induced widespread cellular stress responses in cerebral structures, including frontal lobe, hippocampus and cerebellum. These were manifested by increased levels of S100A9, Bax, and to a lesser extent activated caspase-3 immunopositive cells. Upon administration of S100A9 fibrils, the amyloid oligomerization was observed in the brain tissues, which can further exacerbate cellular stress. The cellular stress responses correlated with significantly increased training and decreased retention latencies measured in the passive avoidance test for the S100A9 treated animal groups. Remarkably, the effect size in the behavioral tests was moderate already in the group treated with native S100A9, while the effect sizes were large in the groups administered S100A9 amyloid oligomers or fibrils. The findings demonstrate the brain susceptibility to neurotoxic damage of S100A9 species leading to behavioral and memory impairments. Intranasal administration of S100A9 species proved to be an effective method to study amyloid induced brain dysfunctions, and S100A9 itself may be postulated as a target to allay early stage neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Igor A. Iashchishyn
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå SE-90187, Sweden
- Department of General Chemistry, Sumy State University, Sumy 40007, Ukraine
| | - Marina A. Gruden
- Department of Functional Neurochemistry, P. K. Anokhin Research Institute of Normal Physiology, Moscow 125315, Russia
| | - Roman A. Moskalenko
- Department of Pathology, Sumy State University, Sumy 40007, Ukraine
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå SE-90187, Sweden
| | - Tatiana V. Davydova
- Department of Neuroimmunopathology, Research Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Moscow 125315, Russia
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå SE-90187, Sweden
| | - Robert D. E. Sewell
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3NB, United Kingdom
| | | |
Collapse
|
250
|
Ovsepian SV, Blazquez-Llorca L, Freitag SV, Rodrigues EF, Herms J. Ambient Glutamate Promotes Paroxysmal Hyperactivity in Cortical Pyramidal Neurons at Amyloid Plaques via Presynaptic mGluR1 Receptors. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:4733-4749. [PMID: 27600841 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Synaptic dysfunctions and altered neuronal activity play major role in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), with underlying mechanisms largely unknown. We report that in the prefrontal cortex of amyloid precursor protein-presenilin 1 and APP23 AD mice, baseline activity of pyramidal cells is disrupted by episodes of paroxysmal hyperactivity. Induced by spontaneous EPSC bursts, these incidents are prevalent in neurons proximal to amyloid plaques and involve enhanced activity of glutamate with metabotropic effects. Abolition of EPSC bursts by tetrodotoxin and SERCA ATPase blockers thapsigargin or cyclopiasonic acid suggests their presynaptic origin and sensitized store-released calcium. Accordingly, the rate of EPSC bursts activated by single axon stimulation is enhanced. Aggravation of the hyperactivity by blockers of excitatory amino acid transporter (±)-HIP-A and DL-TBOA together with histochemical and ultrastructural evidence for enrichment of plaque-related dystrophies with synaptic vesicles and SNARE protein SNAP-25 infer the later as hot-spots for ectopic release of glutamate. Inhibition of EPSC bursts by I/II mGluR1 blocker MCPG or selective mGluR1 antagonist LY367385 implicate metabotropic glutamatergic effects in generation of paroxysmal bursts. These findings demonstrate for the first time that at amyloid plaques, enhanced activity of nonsynaptic glutamate can promote irregular EPSC bursts with hyperactivity of pyramidal cells via mGluR1 receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saak Victor Ovsepian
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen-Straße 17, 81377 Munich, Germany.,Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilian University, Feodor-Lynen-Straße 23, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Lidia Blazquez-Llorca
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen-Straße 17, 81377 Munich, Germany.,Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilian University, Feodor-Lynen-Straße 23, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Susana Valero Freitag
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen-Straße 17, 81377Munich, Germany
| | - Eva Ferreira Rodrigues
- Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilian University, Feodor-Lynen-Straße 23, 81377 Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Ludwig Maximilian University, Feodor-Lynen-Straße 17, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Jochen Herms
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen-Straße 17, 81377 Munich, Germany.,Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilian University, Feodor-Lynen-Straße 23, 81377 Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Ludwig Maximilian University, Feodor-Lynen-Straße 17, 81377 Munich, Germany
| |
Collapse
|