201
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Eigenbrod T, Dalpke AH. Bacterial RNA: An Underestimated Stimulus for Innate Immune Responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:411-8. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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202
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Wan GX, Cao YW, Li WQ, Li YC, Zhang WJ, Li F. Associations between TLR9 polymorphisms and cancer risk: evidence from an updated meta-analysis of 25,685 subjects. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 15:8279-85. [PMID: 25339018 DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2014.15.19.8279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A meta-analysis incorporating 34 case-control studies from 19 articles involving 12,197 cases and 13,488 controls was conducted to assess the effects of three genetic variants of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9): rs187084, rs352140, and rs5743836. Studies on associations between TLR9 polymorphisms and cancer risk were systematically searched in electronic databases. The reported odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were pooled to assess the strength of any associations. The results showed that the rs187084 polymorphism was significantly associated with an increased risk of cancer (CC vs TC+TT: OR=1.14, 95% CI=1.02-1.28), specifically cervical cancer (C vs T: OR=1.19, 95% CI=1.05-1.34; TC vs TT: OR=1.32, 95% CI=1.10-1.58; CC vs TT: OR=1.31, 95% CI= 1.03-1.68; CC+TC vs TT: OR=1.32, 95% CI=1.11-1.56), and that this association was significantly positive in Caucasians (CC vs. TC+TT: OR=1.18, 95% CI=1.01-1.38). The rs352140 polymorphism had a protective effect on breast cancer (GA vs GG: OR=0.77, 95% CI=0.66-0.89), whereas the rs5743836 polymorphism was likely protective for digestive system cancers (CC+TC vs TT: OR=0.81, 95% CI=0.66-0.98). In conclusion, our results suggest that the rs187084 polymorphism may be associated with an elevated cancer risk, whereas polymorphisms of rs352140 and rs5743836 may play protective roles in the development of breast and digestive system cancers, respectively. From the results of this meta-analysis further large-scale case-control studies are warranted to verify associations between TLR9 polymorphisms and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Xing Wan
- Department of Pathology and the Key Laboratories for Xinjiang Endemic and Ethnic Diseases (a joint venture with the Chinese Ministry of Education), Shihezi University School of Medicine, Shihezi, Xinjiang, China E-mail :
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203
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Eigenbrod T, Pelka K, Latz E, Kreikemeyer B, Dalpke AH. TLR8 Senses Bacterial RNA in Human Monocytes and Plays a Nonredundant Role for Recognition ofStreptococcus pyogenes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:1092-9. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1403173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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204
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Bergstrøm B, Aune MH, Awuh JA, Kojen JF, Blix KJ, Ryan L, Flo TH, Mollnes TE, Espevik T, Stenvik J. TLR8 Senses Staphylococcus aureus RNA in Human Primary Monocytes and Macrophages and Induces IFN-β Production via a TAK1–IKKβ–IRF5 Signaling Pathway. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:1100-11. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1403176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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205
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RNA of Enterococcus faecalis Strain EC-12 Is a Major Component Inducing Interleukin-12 Production from Human Monocytic Cells. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129806. [PMID: 26083838 PMCID: PMC4470910 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is an important cytokine for the immunomodulatory effects of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Using murine immune cells, we previously reported that the RNA of Enterococcus faecalis EC-12, a LAB strain exerting probiotic-like beneficial effects, is the major IL-12-inducing immunogenic component. However, it was recently revealed that bacterial RNA can be a ligand for Toll-like receptor (TLR) 13, which is only expressed in mice. Because TLR13 is not expressed in humans, the immuno-stimulatory and -modulatory effects of LAB RNA in human cells should be augmented excluding TLR13 contribution. In experiment 1 of this study, the role of LAB RNA in IL-12 induction in human immune cells was studied using three LAB strains, E.faecalis EC-12, Lactobacillus gasseri JCM5344, and Bifidobacterium breve JCM1192. RNase A treatment of heat-killed LAB significantly decreased the IL-12 production of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells on stimulation, while RNase III treatment revealed virtually no effects. Further, IL-12 production against heat-killed E. faecalis EC-12 was abolished by depleting monocytes. These results demonstrated that single stranded RNA (ssRNA) of LAB is a strong inducer of IL-12 production from human monocytes. In experiment 2, major receptor for ssRNA of E. faecalis EC-12 was identified using THP-1 cells, a human monocytic cell line. The type of RNA molecules of E. faecalis EC-12 responsible for IL-12 induction was also identified. IL-12 production induced by the total RNA of E. faecalis EC-12 was significantly reduced by the treatment of siRNA for TLR8 but not for TLR7. Furthermore, both 23S and 16S rRNA, but not mRNA, of E. faecalis EC-12 markedly induced IL-12 production from THP-1 cells. These results suggested that the recognition of ssRNA of E. faecalis EC-12 was mediated by TLR8 and that rRNA was the RNA molecule that exhibited IL-12-inducing ability in human cells.
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206
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Yu S, Gao N. Compartmentalizing intestinal epithelial cell toll-like receptors for immune surveillance. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:3343-53. [PMID: 26001904 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-1931-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are membrane-bound microbial sensors that mediate important host-to-microbe responses. Cell biology aspects of TLR function have been intensively studied in professional immune cells, in particular the macrophages and dendritic cells, but not well explored in other specialized epithelial cell types. The adult intestinal epithelial cells are in close contact with trillions of enteric microbes and engage in lifelong immune surveillance. Mature intestinal epithelial cells, in contrast to immune cells, are highly polarized. Recent studies suggest that distinct mechanisms may govern TLR traffic and compartmentalization in these specialized epithelial cells to establish and maintain precise signaling of individual TLRs. We, using immune cells as references, discuss here the shared and/or unique molecular machineries used by intestinal epithelial cells to control TLR transport, localization, processing, activation, and signaling. A better understanding of these mechanisms will certainly generate important insights into both the mechanism and potential intervention of leading digestive disorders, in particular inflammatory bowel diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyan Yu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Room 206, 195 University Ave., Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
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207
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Chow J, Franz KM, Kagan JC. PRRs are watching you: Localization of innate sensing and signaling regulators. Virology 2015; 479-480:104-9. [PMID: 25800355 PMCID: PMC4424080 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
To prevent the spread of infection, an invading pathogen must first be recognized by the innate immune system. Host pattern recognition receptors detect distinct pathogen-associated molecules and induce the transcription and release of interferon and inflammatory molecules to resolve infection. Unlike infections with pathogens that replicate autonomously from the host, viral infections blur the boundaries of self and non-self. Differentiation of host from virus is achieved by restricting localization of host nucleic acids and by placing pattern recognition receptors in specific subcellular compartments. Within this review, we discuss how several families of pattern recognition receptors act to provide a comprehensive surveillance network that has the potential to induce interferon expression in response to any viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Chow
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children׳s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Program in Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kate M Franz
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children׳s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jonathan C Kagan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children׳s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Program in Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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208
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Wang M, Weiberg A, Jin H. Pathogen small RNAs: a new class of effectors for pathogen attacks. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2015; 16:219-23. [PMID: 25764211 PMCID: PMC6638317 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ming Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
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209
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Abstract
The mammalian Toll-like receptor (TLR) family consists of 13 members, and recognizes specific patterns of microbial components, called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). TLR-dependent recognition of PAMPs leads to activation of the innate immune system, which subsequently leads to activation of antigen-specific adaptive immunity. The TLR-mediated signaling pathways consist of the MyD88-dependent pathway and TRIF-dependent pathway, both of which induce gene expression. This unit discusses mammalian TLRs (TLR1 to 13) that have an essential role in the innate immune recognition of microorganisms. Also discussed are TLR-mediated signaling pathways and antibodies that are available to detect specific TLRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyoshi Takeda
- Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shizuo Akira
- WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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210
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Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a crucial role in the early defence against invading pathogens, yet our understanding of TLRs in marsupial immunity is limited. Here, we describe the characterisation of nine TLRs from a koala immune tissue transcriptome and one TLR from a draft sequence of the koala genome and the subsequent development of an assay to study genetic diversity in these genes. We surveyed genetic diversity in 20 koalas from New South Wales, Australia and showed that one gene, TLR10 is monomorphic, while the other nine TLR genes have between two and 12 alleles. 40 SNPs (16 non-synonymous) were identified across the ten TLR genes. These markers provide a springboard to future studies on innate immunity in the koala, a species under threat from two major infectious diseases.
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211
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Rimbach K, Kaiser S, Helm M, Dalpke AH, Eigenbrod T. 2'-O-Methylation within Bacterial RNA Acts as Suppressor of TLR7/TLR8 Activation in Human Innate Immune Cells. J Innate Immun 2015; 7:482-93. [PMID: 25823462 DOI: 10.1159/000375460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial RNA is an important stimulator of innate immune responses. Differences in posttranscriptional RNA modification profiles enable the immune system to discriminate between self and non-self nucleic acids. This principle may be exploited by certain bacteria to circumvent immune cell activation. In this regard, 2'-O-methylation of Escherichia coli tRNATyr at position 18 (Gm18) has recently been described to inhibit TLR7-mediated IFN-α production in human plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). Extending these findings, we now demonstrate that Gm18 also potently inhibits TLR7-independent human monocyte activation by RNA derived from a variety of bacterial strains. The half minimal inhibitory concentration values were similar to those found for IFN-α inhibition in pDCs. Mechanistically, 2'-O-methylated RNA impaired upstream signalling events, including MAP kinase and NFx03BA;B activation. Our results suggest that antagonizing effects of Gm18-modified RNA are due to competition with stimulatory RNA for receptor binding. The antagonistic effect was specific for RNA because the small molecule TLR7/8 agonist R848 was not inhibited. Despite the striking phenotype in human cells, 2'-O-methylated RNA did not interfere with TLR13 activation by bacterial 23S rRNA in murine DC and BMDM. Thus, we identify here Gm18 in E. coli tRNA(Tyr) as a universal suppressor of innate immune activation in the human but not the murine system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Rimbach
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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212
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Jung S, von Thülen T, Laukemper V, Pigisch S, Hangel D, Wagner H, Kaufmann A, Bauer S. A single naturally occurring 2'-O-methylation converts a TLR7- and TLR8-activating RNA into a TLR8-specific ligand. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120498. [PMID: 25785446 PMCID: PMC4364935 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
TLR7 and TLR8 recognize RNA from pathogens and lead to subsequent immune stimulation. Here we demonstrate that a single naturally occurring 2’-O-methylation within a synthetic 18s rRNA derived RNA sequence prevents IFN-α production, however secretion of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 is not impaired. By analysing TLR-deficient plasmacytoid dendritic cells and performing HEK293 genetic complementation assays we could demonstrate that the single 2’-O-methylation containing RNA still activated TLR8 but not TLR7. Therefore this specific 2’-O-ribose methylation in rRNA converts a TLR7 / TLR8 ligand to an exclusively TLR8-specific ligand. Interestingly, other modifications at this position such as 2’-O-deoxy or 2’-fluoro had no strong modulating effect on TLR7 or TLR8 activation suggesting an important role of 2’-O-methylation for shaping differential TLR7 or TLR8 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Jung
- Institut für Immunologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, BMFZ, Marburg, Germany
| | - Tina von Thülen
- Institut für Immunologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, BMFZ, Marburg, Germany
| | - Viktoria Laukemper
- Institut für Immunologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, BMFZ, Marburg, Germany
| | - Stephanie Pigisch
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Doris Hangel
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Hermann Wagner
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Andreas Kaufmann
- Institut für Immunologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, BMFZ, Marburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Bauer
- Institut für Immunologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, BMFZ, Marburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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213
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Fieber C, Janos M, Koestler T, Gratz N, Li XD, Castiglia V, Aberle M, Sauert M, Wegner M, Alexopoulou L, Kirschning CJ, Chen ZJ, von Haeseler A, Kovarik P. Innate immune response to Streptococcus pyogenes depends on the combined activation of TLR13 and TLR2. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119727. [PMID: 25756897 PMCID: PMC4355416 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immune recognition of the major human-specific Gram-positive pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes is not understood. Here we show that mice employ Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2- and TLR13-mediated recognition of S. pyogenes. These TLR pathways are non-redundant in the in vivo context of animal infection, but are largely redundant in vitro, as only inactivation of both of them abolishes inflammatory cytokine production by macrophages and dendritic cells infected with S. pyogenes. Mechanistically, S. pyogenes is initially recognized in a phagocytosis-independent manner by TLR2 and subsequently by TLR13 upon internalization. We show that the TLR13 response is specifically triggered by S. pyogenes rRNA and that Tlr13−/− cells respond to S. pyogenes infection solely by engagement of TLR2. TLR13 is absent from humans and, remarkably, we find no equivalent route for S. pyogenes RNA recognition in human macrophages. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that TLR13 occurs in all kingdoms but only in few mammals, including mice and rats, which are naturally resistant against S. pyogenes. Our study establishes that the dissimilar expression of TLR13 in mice and humans has functional consequences for recognition of S. pyogenes in these organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Fieber
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marton Janos
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tina Koestler
- Center for Integrative Bioinformatics Vienna, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nina Gratz
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Xiao-Dong Li
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | | | - Marion Aberle
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina Sauert
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mareike Wegner
- Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Universitäts-Hautklinik, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lena Alexopoulou
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), Aix-Marseille Université UM 2, Marseille, France
| | | | - Zhijian J. Chen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Arndt von Haeseler
- Center for Integrative Bioinformatics Vienna, Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Faculty of Computer Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Pavel Kovarik
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- * E-mail:
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214
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Zhu W, Tao L, Quick ML, Joyce JA, Qu JM, Luo ZQ. Sensing cytosolic RpsL by macrophages induces lysosomal cell death and termination of bacterial infection. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004704. [PMID: 25738962 PMCID: PMC4349785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The intracellular bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila provokes strong host responses and has proven to be a valuable model for the discovery of novel immunosurveillance pathways. Our previous work revealed that an environmental isolate of L. pneumophila induces a noncanonical form of cell death, leading to restriction of bacterial replication in primary mouse macrophages. Here we show that such restriction also occurs in infections with wild type clinical isolates. Importantly, we found that a lysine to arginine mutation at residue 88 (K88R) in the ribosome protein RpsL that not only confers bacterial resistance to streptomycin, but more importantly, severely attenuated the induction of host cell death and enabled L. pneumophila to replicate in primary mouse macrophages. Although conferring similar resistance to streptomycin, a K43N mutation in RpsL does not allow productive intracellular bacterial replication. Further analysis indicated that RpsL is capable of effectively inducing macrophage death via a pathway involved in lysosomal membrane permeabilization; the K88R mutant elicits similar responses but is less potent. Moreover, cathepsin B, a lysosomal protease that causes cell death after being released into the cytosol upon the loss of membrane integrity, is required for efficient RpsL-induced macrophage death. Furthermore, despite the critical role of cathepsin B in delaying RpsL-induced cell death, macrophages lacking cathepsin B do not support productive intracellular replication of L. pneumophila harboring wild type RpsL. This suggests the involvement of other yet unidentified components in the restriction of bacterial replication. Our results identified RpsL as a regulator in the interactions between bacteria such as L. pneumophila and primary mouse macrophages by triggering unique cellular pathways that restrict intracellular bacterial replication. The death of the host cell during infection can be triggered by one or more microbial molecules; this “live or die” selection provides effective means for the dissection of immune recognition mechanisms as well as for the identification of the microbial molecules responsible for such responses. We found that infection of primary mouse macrophages by Legionella pneumophila strains harboring wild type RpsL, the S12 component of the bacterial ribosome, causes macrophage death by a mechanism independent of the three inflammatory caspases, caspase 1, 7 and 11. Importantly, although both confer resistance to streptomycin at indistinguishable effectiveness, the K88R, but not the K43N mutation in RpsL enables L. pneumophila to replicate in macrophages. Purified RpsL and RpsLK43N physically delivered into macrophages cause cell death by inducing damage to lysosomal membranes and the release of cathepsins. We also found that the lysosomal protease cathepsin B is required for efficient RpsL-induced cell death but its absence is not sufficient for macrophages to support intracellular bacterial replication. Thus, RpsL functions as an immune induction molecule to trigger one or more signaling cascades that leads to lysosomal cell death as well as the termination of bacterial replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhan Zhu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Lili Tao
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Huadong Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Marsha L. Quick
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Johanna A. Joyce
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jie-Ming Qu
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Huadong Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhao-Qing Luo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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215
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Feuerstein R, Seidl M, Prinz M, Henneke P. MyD88 in macrophages is critical for abscess resolution in staphylococcal skin infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:2735-45. [PMID: 25681348 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
When Staphylococcus aureus penetrates the epidermis and reaches the dermis, polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMLs) accumulate and an abscess is formed. However, the molecular mechanisms that orchestrate initiation and termination of inflammation in skin infection are incompletely understood. In human myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) deficiency, staphylococcal skin and soft tissue infections are a leading and potentially life-threatening problem. In this study, we found that MyD88-dependent sensing of S. aureus by dermal macrophages (Mϕ) contributes to both timely escalation and termination of PML-mediated inflammation in a mouse model of staphylococcal skin infection. Mϕs were key to recruit PML within hours in response to staphylococci, irrespective of bacterial viability. In contrast with bone marrow-derived Mϕs, dermal Mϕs did not require UNC-93B or TLR2 for activation. Moreover, PMLs, once recruited, were highly activated in an MyD88-independent fashion, yet failed to clear the infection if Mϕs were missing or functionally impaired. In normal mice, clearance of the infection and contraction of the PML infiltrate were accompanied by expansion of resident Mϕs in a CCR2-dependent fashion. Thus, whereas monocytes were dispensable for the early immune response to staphylococci, they contributed to Mϕ renewal after the infection was overcome. Taken together, MyD88-dependent sensing of staphylococci by resident dermal Mϕs is key for a rapid and balanced immune response, and PMLs are dependent on intact Mϕ for full function. Renewal of resident Mϕs requires both local control of bacteria and inflammatory monocytes entering the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinhild Feuerstein
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Seidl
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; Institute of Pathology, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; and
| | - Philipp Henneke
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany; Center for Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
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216
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Di Gioia M, Zanoni I. Toll-like receptor co-receptors as master regulators of the immune response. Mol Immunol 2015; 63:143-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2014.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2014] [Revised: 05/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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217
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Weiberg A, Bellinger M, Jin H. Conversations between kingdoms: small RNAs. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2015; 32:207-215. [PMID: 25622136 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2014.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Humans, animals, and plants are constantly under attack from pathogens and pests, resulting in severe consequences on global human health and crop production. Small RNA (sRNA)-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) is a conserved regulatory mechanism that is involved in almost all eukaryotic cellular processes, including host immunity and pathogen virulence. Recent evidence supports the significant contribution of sRNAs and RNAi to the communication between hosts and some eukaryotic pathogens, pests, parasites, or symbiotic microorganisms. Mobile silencing signals—most likely sRNAs—are capable of translocating from the host to its interacting organism, and vice versa. In this review, we will provide an overview of sRNA communications between different kingdoms, with a primary focus on the advances in plant-pathogen interaction systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Weiberg
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Center for Plant Cell Biology and Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Marschal Bellinger
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Center for Plant Cell Biology and Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Hailing Jin
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Center for Plant Cell Biology and Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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218
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Ghosal A, Upadhyaya BB, Fritz JV, Heintz-Buschart A, Desai MS, Yusuf D, Huang D, Baumuratov A, Wang K, Galas D, Wilmes P. The extracellular RNA complement of Escherichia coli. Microbiologyopen 2015; 4:252-266. [PMID: 25611733 PMCID: PMC4398507 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The secretion of biomolecules into the extracellular milieu is a common and well-conserved phenomenon in biology. In bacteria, secreted biomolecules are not only involved in intra-species communication but they also play roles in inter-kingdom exchanges and pathogenicity. To date, released products, such as small molecules, DNA, peptides, and proteins, have been well studied in bacteria. However, the bacterial extracellular RNA complement has so far not been comprehensively characterized. Here, we have analyzed, using a combination of physical characterization and high-throughput sequencing, the extracellular RNA complement of both outer membrane vesicle (OMV)-associated and OMV-free RNA of the enteric Gram-negative model bacterium Escherichia coli K-12 substrain MG1655 and have compared it to its intracellular RNA complement. Our results demonstrate that a large part of the extracellular RNA complement is in the size range between 15 and 40 nucleotides and is derived from specific intracellular RNAs. Furthermore, RNA is associated with OMVs and the relative abundances of RNA biotypes in the intracellular, OMV and OMV-free fractions are distinct. Apart from rRNA fragments, a significant portion of the extracellular RNA complement is composed of specific cleavage products of functionally important structural noncoding RNAs, including tRNAs, 4.5S RNA, 6S RNA, and tmRNA. In addition, the extracellular RNA pool includes RNA biotypes from cryptic prophages, intergenic, and coding regions, of which some are so far uncharacterised, for example, transcripts mapping to the fimA-fimL and ves-spy intergenic regions. Our study provides the first detailed characterization of the extracellular RNA complement of the enteric model bacterium E. coli. Analogous to findings in eukaryotes, our results suggest the selective export of specific RNA biotypes by E. coli, which in turn indicates a potential role for extracellular bacterial RNAs in intercellular communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anubrata Ghosal
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
| | - Bimal Babu Upadhyaya
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
| | - Joëlle V Fritz
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
| | - Anna Heintz-Buschart
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
| | - Mahesh S Desai
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
| | - Dilmurat Yusuf
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
| | - David Huang
- Pacific Northwest Diabetes Research, Seattle, Washington
| | - Aidos Baumuratov
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
| | - Kai Wang
- Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, Washington
| | - David Galas
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg.,Pacific Northwest Diabetes Research, Seattle, Washington
| | - Paul Wilmes
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Campus Belval, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, L-4362, Luxembourg
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219
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Manček-Keber M, Jerala R. Postulates for validating TLR4 agonists. Eur J Immunol 2015; 45:356-70. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201444462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mateja Manček-Keber
- Department of Biotechnology; National Institute of Chemistry; Ljubljana Slovenia
- EN-FIST Centre of Excellence; Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Roman Jerala
- Department of Biotechnology; National Institute of Chemistry; Ljubljana Slovenia
- EN-FIST Centre of Excellence; Ljubljana Slovenia
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220
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He S, Mao X, Sun H, Shirakawa T, Zhang H, Wang X. Potential therapeutic targets in the process of nucleic acid recognition: opportunities and challenges. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2015; 36:51-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2014.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 10/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Babik W, Dudek K, Fijarczyk A, Pabijan M, Stuglik M, Szkotak R, Zieliński P. Constraint and adaptation in newt toll-like receptor genes. Genome Biol Evol 2014; 7:81-95. [PMID: 25480684 PMCID: PMC4316619 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evu266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute die-offs of amphibian populations worldwide have been linked to the emergence of viral and fungal diseases. Inter and intraspecific immunogenetic differences may influence the outcome of infection. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are an essential component of innate immunity and also prime acquired defenses. We report the first comprehensive assessment of TLR gene variation for urodele amphibians. The Lissotriton newt TLR repertoire includes representatives of 13 families and is compositionally most similar to that of the anuran Xenopus. Both ancient and recent gene duplications have occurred in urodeles, bringing the total number of TLR genes to at least 21. Purifying selection has predominated the evolution of newt TLRs in both long (∼70 Ma) and medium (∼18 Ma) timescales. However, we find evidence for both purifying and positive selection acting on TLRs in two recently diverged (2-5 Ma) allopatric evolutionary lineages (Lissotriton montandoni and L. vulgaris graecus). Overall, both forms of selection have been stronger in L. v. graecus, while constraint on most TLR genes in L. montandoni appears relaxed. The differences in selection regimes are unlikely to be biased by demographic effects because these were controlled by means of a historical demographic model derived from an independent data set of 62 loci. We infer that TLR genes undergo distinct trajectories of adaptive evolution in closely related amphibian lineages, highlight the potential of TLRs to capture the signatures of different assemblages of pathogenic microorganisms, and suggest differences between lineages in the relative roles of innate and acquired immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiesław Babik
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Dudek
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Fijarczyk
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Maciej Pabijan
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Michał Stuglik
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Rafał Szkotak
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Piotr Zieliński
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
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224
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You X, Bian C, Zan Q, Xu X, Liu X, Chen J, Wang J, Qiu Y, Li W, Zhang X, Sun Y, Chen S, Hong W, Li Y, Cheng S, Fan G, Shi C, Liang J, Tom Tang Y, Yang C, Ruan Z, Bai J, Peng C, Mu Q, Lu J, Fan M, Yang S, Huang Z, Jiang X, Fang X, Zhang G, Zhang Y, Polgar G, Yu H, Li J, Liu Z, Zhang G, Ravi V, Coon SL, Wang J, Yang H, Venkatesh B, Wang J, Shi Q. Mudskipper genomes provide insights into the terrestrial adaptation of amphibious fishes. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5594. [PMID: 25463417 PMCID: PMC4268706 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Mudskippers are amphibious fishes that have developed morphological and physiological adaptations to match their unique lifestyles. Here we perform whole-genome sequencing of four representative mudskippers to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying these adaptations. We discover an expansion of innate immune system genes in the mudskippers that may provide defence against terrestrial pathogens. Several genes of the ammonia excretion pathway in the gills have experienced positive selection, suggesting their important roles in mudskippers’ tolerance to environmental ammonia. Some vision-related genes are differentially lost or mutated, illustrating genomic changes associated with aerial vision. Transcriptomic analyses of mudskippers exposed to air highlight regulatory pathways that are up- or down-regulated in response to hypoxia. The present study provides a valuable resource for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying water-to-land transition of vertebrates. Mudskippers are amphibious fishes that have adapted to live on mudflats. Here, the authors sequence the genomes of four different mudskipper species and highlight genetic changes that may have had an evolutionary role in the water-to-land transition of vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin You
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Chao Bian
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Qijie Zan
- Shenzhen Wild Animal Rescue Center, Shenzhen 518040, China
| | - Xun Xu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Xin Liu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Jieming Chen
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | | | - Ying Qiu
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Wujiao Li
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Xinhui Zhang
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Ying Sun
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Shixi Chen
- College of Ocean and Earth Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Wanshu Hong
- College of Ocean and Earth Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | | | | | | | | | - Jie Liang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | | | | | - Zhiqiang Ruan
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Jie Bai
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Chao Peng
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Qian Mu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Jun Lu
- 1] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] Shenzhen BGI Fisheries Sci &Tech Co. Ltd, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Mingjun Fan
- Center for Fish Genomics, BGI-Wuhan, Wuhan 430075, China
| | - Shuang Yang
- 1] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] Center for Fish Genomics, BGI-Wuhan, Wuhan 430075, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Gianluca Polgar
- Environmental and Life Sciences Programme, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jln Tungku Link, BE1410 Brunei Darussalam
| | - Hui Yu
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Jia Li
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Zhongjian Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Orchid Conservation and Utilization of the Orchid Conservation and Research Center of Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518114, China
| | - Guoqiang Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Orchid Conservation and Utilization of the Orchid Conservation and Research Center of Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518114, China
| | - Vydianathan Ravi
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR, Biopolis, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Steven L Coon
- Molecular Genomics Laboratory, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Jian Wang
- 1] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] James D. Watson Institute of Genome Science, Hangzhou 310008, China
| | - Huanming Yang
- 1] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] James D. Watson Institute of Genome Science, Hangzhou 310008, China [3] Princess Al Jawhara Center of Excellence in the Research of Hereditary Disorders, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Byrappa Venkatesh
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR, Biopolis, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Jun Wang
- 1] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] Princess Al Jawhara Center of Excellence in the Research of Hereditary Disorders, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia [3] Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Qiong Shi
- 1] Shenzhen Key Lab of Marine Genomics, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genomics, Shenzhen 518083, China [2] BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China [3] Shenzhen BGI Fisheries Sci &Tech Co. Ltd, Shenzhen 518083, China [4] Center for Fish Genomics, BGI-Wuhan, Wuhan 430075, China
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Abstract
Acute respiratory tract infection (RTI) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and the majority of RTIs are caused by viruses, among which respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and the closely related human metapneumovirus (hMPV) figure prominently. Host innate immune response has been implicated in recognition, protection and immune pathological mechanisms. Host-viral interactions are generally initiated via host recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of the virus. This recognition occurs through host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) which are expressed on innate immune cells such as epithelial cells, dendritic cells, macrophages and neutrophils. Multiple PRR families, including Toll-like receptors (TLRs), RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) and NOD-like receptors (NLRs), contribute significantly to viral detection, leading to induction of cytokines, chemokines and type I interferons (IFNs), which subsequently facilitate the eradication of the virus. This review focuses on the current literature on RSV and hMPV infection and the role of PRRs in establishing/mediating the infection in both in vitro and in vivo models. A better understanding of the complex interplay between these two viruses and host PRRs might lead to efficient prophylactic and therapeutic treatments, as well as the development of adequate vaccines.
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226
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Lee PT, Zou J, Holland JW, Martin SAM, Collet B, Kanellos T, Secombes CJ. Identification and characterisation of TLR18-21 genes in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 41:549-559. [PMID: 25450999 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2014.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/04/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Teleost fish possess many types of toll-like receptor (TLR) some of which exist in other vertebrate groups and some that do not (ie so-called "fish-specific" TLRs). In this study, we identified in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) whole-genome shotgun (WGS) contigs seven TLRs that are not found in mammals, including six types of fish-specific TLRs (one TLR18, one TLR19, and four TLR20 members (two of which are putative soluble forms (s)) and one TLR21. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that teleost TLR19-21 are closely related with murine TLR11-TLR13, whilst teleost TLR18 groups with mammalian TLR1, 2, 6 and 10. A typical TLR protein domain structure was found in all these TLRs with the exception of TLR20b(s) and TLR20c(s). TLR-GFP expression plasmids transfected into SHK-1 cells showed that salmon TLR19, TLR20a and TLR20d were preferentially localised to the intracellular compartment. Real time PCR analysis suggested that salmon TLR19-TLR21 are mainly expressed in immune related organs, such as spleen, head kidney and gills, while TLR18 transcripts are more abundant in muscle. In vitro stimulation of primary head kidney cells with type I IFN, IFNγ and IL-1β had no impact on TLR expression. Infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) infection, in vivo, down-regulated TLR20a, TLR20b(s), TLR20d and TLR21 in infected salmon kidney tissue. In contrast, up-regulation of TLR19 and TLR20a expression was found in posterior kidney in rainbow trout with clinical proliferative kidney disease (PKD).
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Affiliation(s)
- P T Lee
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK.
| | - J Zou
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
| | - J W Holland
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
| | - S A M Martin
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
| | - B Collet
- Marine Scotland, 375 Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, UK
| | - T Kanellos
- Zoetis International Service, 23-25 Avenue du Dr. Lannelongue 75668 Paris Cedex 14, France
| | - C J Secombes
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
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227
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Campos PC, Gomes MTR, Guimarães G, Costa Franco MMS, Marim FM, Oliveira SC. Brucella abortus DNA is a major bacterial agonist to activate the host innate immune system. Microbes Infect 2014; 16:979-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2014.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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228
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Schaefer L. Complexity of danger: the diverse nature of damage-associated molecular patterns. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:35237-45. [PMID: 25391648 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r114.619304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 423] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In reply to internal or external danger stimuli, the body orchestrates an inflammatory response. The endogenous triggers of this process are the damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). DAMPs represent a heterogeneous group of molecules that draw their origin either from inside the various compartments of the cell or from the extracellular space. Following interaction with pattern recognition receptors in cross-talk with various non-immune receptors, DAMPs determine the downstream signaling outcome of septic and aseptic inflammatory responses. In this review, the diverse nature, structural characteristics, and signaling pathways elicited by DAMPs will be critically evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana Schaefer
- From the Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/Zentrum für Arzneimittelforschung, Entwicklung und -Sicherheit (ZAFES), Institut für Allgemeine Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Klinikum der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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229
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Zhang Y, Li Y, Li Y, Li R, Ma Y, Wang H, Wang Y. Chloroquine inhibits MGC803 gastric cancer cell migration via the Toll-like receptor 9/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathway. Mol Med Rep 2014; 11:1366-71. [PMID: 25369757 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2014.2839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Stimulation of Toll‑like receptor 9 (TLR9) has been associated with invasion in various types of cancer cell in vitro. The present study aimed to evaluate the expression of TLR9 in MGC803 gastric cancer cells and investigate the effect of a non‑specific TLR9 inhibitor, chloroquine (CQ), on MGC803 cell migration via the TLR9/nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signaling pathway. The expression of TLR9 was investigated using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‑PCR), flow cytometry and western blot analysis. The effects of CQ on MGC803 cell proliferation were measured by MTT colorimetric assay. The mRNA expression levels of cyclooxygenase‑2 (COX‑2), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑2, MMP‑7 and NFκB p65 were evaluated by RT‑PCR in MGC803 cells stimulated by various concentrations of CQ. The migration of gastric cancer cells treated with CQ at 12, 24 and 36 h was measured by wound healing assay. The results indicated that MGC803 cells expressed TLR9 and that CQ had anti‑proliferative effects on MGC803 cells and inhibited mRNA expression of COX‑2, MMP‑2, MMP‑7 and NFκB p65 (P<0.05). Furthermore, CQ inhibited the bioactivity of NFκB p65 and prevented the migration of MGC803 cells in a dose‑dependent manner (P<0.05). In conclusion, the results indicated that the TLR9/NFκB signaling pathway was involved in gastric cancer cell migration and that CQ had anti‑tumor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanli Zhang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medicine, Ningixia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Yunhong Li
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Yalan Li
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medicine, Ningixia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medicine, Ningixia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Yajun Ma
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medicine, Ningixia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medicine, Ningixia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Yin Wang
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
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230
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Human NLRP3 inflammasome senses multiple types of bacterial RNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:16059-64. [PMID: 25355909 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1412487111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammasomes are multiprotein platforms that activate caspase-1, which leads to the processing and secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18. Previous studies demonstrated that bacterial RNAs activate the nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-repeat-containing family, pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in both human and murine macrophages. Interestingly, only mRNA, but neither tRNA nor rRNAs, derived from bacteria could activate the murine Nlrp3 inflammasome. Here, we report that all three types of bacterially derived RNA (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNAs) were capable of activating the NLRP3 inflammasome in human macrophages. Bacterial RNA's 5'-end triphosphate moieties, secondary structure, and double-stranded structure were dispensable; small fragments of bacterial RNA were sufficient to activate the inflammasome. In addition, we also found that 20-guanosine ssRNA can activate the NLRP3 inflammasome in human macrophages but not in murine macrophages. Therefore, human and murine macrophages may have evolved to recognize bacterial cytosolic RNA differently during bacterial infections.
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231
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Hochrein H, Kirschning CJ. Bacteria evade immune recognition via TLR13 and binding of their 23S rRNA by MLS antibiotics by the same mechanisms. Oncoimmunology 2014; 2:e23141. [PMID: 23802068 PMCID: PMC3661153 DOI: 10.4161/onci.23141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system recognizes pathogens and other danger by means of pattern recognition receptors. Recently, we have demonstrated that the orphan Toll-like receptor 13 (TLR13) senses a defined sequence of the bacterial rRNA and that bacteria use specific mechanisms to evade macrolide lincosamide streptogramin (MLS) antibiotics detection via TLR13.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hubertus Hochrein
- Department of Research Immunology; Bavarian Nordic GmbH; Martinsried, Germany
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232
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Barreto-Bergter E, Figueiredo RT. Fungal glycans and the innate immune recognition. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:145. [PMID: 25353009 PMCID: PMC4196476 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Polysaccharides such as α- and β-glucans, chitin, and glycoproteins extensively modified with both N- and O-linked carbohydrates are the major components of fungal surfaces. The fungal cell wall is an excellent target for the action of antifungal agents, since most of its components are absent from mammalian cells. Recognition of these carbohydrate-containing molecules by the innate immune system triggers inflammatory responses and activation of microbicidal mechanisms by leukocytes. This review will discuss the structure of surface fungal glycoconjugates and polysaccharides and their recognition by innate immune receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana Barreto-Bergter
- Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo T Figueiredo
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas/Unidade de Xerém, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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233
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Pandey S, Kawai T, Akira S. Microbial sensing by Toll-like receptors and intracellular nucleic acid sensors. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2014; 7:a016246. [PMID: 25301932 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a016246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 261] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recognition of an invading pathogen is critical to elicit protective responses. Certain microbial structures and molecules, which are crucial for their survival and virulence, are recognized by different families of evolutionarily conserved pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). This recognition initiates a signaling cascade that leads to the transcription of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines to eliminate pathogens and attract immune cells, thereby perpetuating further adaptive immune responses. Considerable research on the molecular mechanisms underlying host-pathogen interactions has resulted in the discovery of multifarious PRRs. In this review, we discuss the recent developments in microbial recognition by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and intracellular nucleic acid sensors and the signaling pathways initiated by them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surya Pandey
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunobiology, Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), Nara 630-0192, Japan Laboratory of Host Defense, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan Department of Host Defense, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Taro Kawai
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunobiology, Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), Nara 630-0192, Japan Laboratory of Host Defense, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shizuo Akira
- Laboratory of Host Defense, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan Department of Host Defense, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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234
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Adamczak DM, Nowak JK, Frydrychowicz M, Kaczmarek M, Sikora J. The role of Toll-like receptors and vitamin D in diabetes mellitus type 1--a review. Scand J Immunol 2014; 80:75-84. [PMID: 24845558 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
It is widely accepted that type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease resulting from an interaction between immunologic, genetic and environmental factors. However, the exact mechanism leading to the development of T1DM remains incomplete. There is a large body of evidence pointing towards the important role of toll-like receptor (TLR) activation and vitamin D deficiency in T1DM pathogenesis. In this article, we review the available data on the influence of TLRs' level of activation and vitamin D status on the risk of the development of T1DM in humans and rodent models. We also summarize the current information regarding the interactions between TLRs' level of activation, vitamin D status and various environmental factors, such as enteroviral infections, the gut microbiota and breastfeeding substitution, among others. Our results stipulate that vitamin D seems to protect against T1DM by reducing the TLRs' level of activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Adamczak
- Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Clinical Hospital No. 1, Poznan, Poland; Department of Clinical Immunology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
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235
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Yamashiro LH, Oliveira SC, Báfica A. Innate immune sensing of nucleic acids from mycobacteria. Microbes Infect 2014; 16:991-7. [PMID: 25284681 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Endosomal and cytosolic receptors engage recognition of mycobacterial-derived nucleic acids (MyNAs). In contrast, virulent mycobacteria may utilize nucleic acid recognition pathways to escape the host immune system. This short review will summarize the mechanisms by which MyNAs are sensed and how they influence host protective responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lívia Harumi Yamashiro
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Brazil; Pharmacology Graduate Program, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Sérgio Costa Oliveira
- Laboratory of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - André Báfica
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Brazil; Pharmacology Graduate Program, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil.
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236
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Fieber C, Kovarik P. Responses of innate immune cells to group A Streptococcus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:140. [PMID: 25325020 PMCID: PMC4183118 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS), also called Streptococcus pyogenes, is a Gram-positive beta-hemolytic human pathogen which causes a wide range of mostly self-limiting but also several life-threatening diseases. Innate immune responses are fundamental for defense against GAS, yet their activation by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and GAS-derived pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) is incompletely understood. In recent years, the use of animal models together with the powerful tools of human molecular genetics began shedding light onto the molecular mechanisms of innate immune defense against GAS. The signaling adaptor MyD88 was found to play a key role in launching the immune response against GAS in both humans and mice, suggesting that PRRs of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family are involved in sensing this pathogen. The specific TLRs and their ligands have yet to be identified. Following GAS recognition, induction of cytokines such as TNF and type I interferons (IFNs), leukocyte recruitment, phagocytosis, and the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been recognized as key events in host defense. A comprehensive knowledge of these mechanisms is needed in order to understand their frequent failure against GAS immune evasion strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pavel Kovarik
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunobiology and Genetics, University of ViennaVienna, Austria
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237
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Patel JR, García-Sastre A. Activation and regulation of pathogen sensor RIG-I. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2014; 25:513-23. [PMID: 25212896 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cells are equipped with a large set of pattern recognition receptors or sensors that detect foreign molecules such as pathogenic nucleic acids and initiate proinflammatory and antimicrobial innate immune responses. RIG-I is a cytosolic sensor that detects 5'-triphosphate double-stranded RNAs produced during infection. RIG-I is responsible for mounting an antimicrobial response against a variety of viruses and intracellular bacteria. RIG-I contains an intricate structural architecture that allows for efficient signaling downstream in the pathway and autoregulation. The RIG-I-mediated antimicrobial pathway is highly regulated in cells requiring various cofactors, negative regulators, and posttranslational modifications. Modulation of RIG-I and RIG-I-mediated signaling in cells by pathogens to evade recognition and activation of the antimicrobial pathway highlights the essential nature of RIG-I in the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenish R Patel
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
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238
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Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play crucial roles in the innate immune system by recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns derived from various microbes. TLRs signal through the recruitment of specific adaptor molecules, leading to activation of the transcription factors NF-κB and IRFs, which dictate the outcome of innate immune responses. During the past decade, the precise mechanisms underlying TLR signaling have been clarified by various approaches involving genetic, biochemical, structural, cell biological, and bioinformatics studies. TLR signaling appears to be divergent and to play important roles in many aspects of the innate immune responses to given pathogens. In this review, we describe recent progress in our understanding of TLR signaling regulation and its contributions to host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takumi Kawasaki
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunobiology, Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology , Ikoma , Japan
| | - Taro Kawai
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunobiology, Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology , Ikoma , Japan
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239
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Role of Toll-like receptor 13 in innate immune recognition of group B streptococci. Infect Immun 2014; 82:5013-22. [PMID: 25225249 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02282-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine Toll-like receptor 13 (TLR13), an endosomal receptor that is not present in humans, is activated by an unmethylated motif present in the large ribosomal subunit of bacterial RNA (23S rRNA). Little is known, however, of the impact of TLR13 on antibacterial host defenses. Here we examined the role of this receptor in the context of infection induced by the model pathogen group B streptococcus (GBS). To this end, we used bacterial strains masked from TLR13 recognition by virtue of constitutive expression of the ErmC methyltransferase, which results in dimethylation of the 23S rRNA motif at a critical adenine residue. We found that TLR13-mediated rRNA recognition was required for optimal induction of tumor necrosis factor alpha and nitrous oxide in dendritic cell and macrophage cultures stimulated with heat-killed bacteria or purified bacterial RNA. However, TLR13-dependent recognition was redundant when live bacteria were used as a stimulus. Moreover, masking bacterial rRNA from TLR13 recognition did not increase the ability of GBS to avoid host defenses and replicate in vivo. In contrast, increased susceptibility to infection was observed under conditions in which signaling by all endosomal TLRs was abolished, i.e., in mice with a loss-of-function mutation in the chaperone protein UNC93B1. Our data lend support to the conclusion that TLR13 participates in GBS recognition, although blockade of the function of this receptor can be compensated for by other endosomal TLRs. Lack of selective pressure by bacterial infections might explain the evolutionary loss of TLR13 in humans. However, further studies using different bacterial species are needed to prove this hypothesis.
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240
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Kaiser S, Rimbach K, Eigenbrod T, Dalpke AH, Helm M. A modified dinucleotide motif specifies tRNA recognition by TLR7. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2014; 20:1351-5. [PMID: 25051971 PMCID: PMC4138318 DOI: 10.1261/rna.044024.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
RNA can function as a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) whose recognition by the innate immune system alerts the body to an impending microbial infection. The recognition of tRNA as either self or nonself RNA by TLR7 depends on its modification patterns. In particular, it is known that the presence of a ribose methylated guanosine at position 18, which is overrepresented in self-RNA, antagonizes an immune response. Here, we report that recognition extends to the next downstream nucleotide and the effectively recognized molecular detail is actually a methylated dinucleotide. The most efficient nucleobases combination of this motif includes two purines, while pyrimidines diminish the effect of ribose methylation. The constraints of this motif stay intact when transposed to other parts of the tRNA. The results argue against a fixed orientation of the tRNA during interaction with TLR7 and, rather, suggest a processive type of inspection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Kaiser
- Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Katharina Rimbach
- Department of Infectious Diseases-Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Ruprecht-Karls University Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tatjana Eigenbrod
- Department of Infectious Diseases-Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Ruprecht-Karls University Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alexander H Dalpke
- Department of Infectious Diseases-Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Ruprecht-Karls University Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mark Helm
- Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, 55128 Mainz, Germany
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241
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Patel MC, Shirey KA, Pletneva LM, Boukhvalova MS, Garzino-Demo A, Vogel SN, Blanco JC. Novel drugs targeting Toll-like receptors for antiviral therapy. Future Virol 2014; 9:811-829. [PMID: 25620999 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.14.70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are sentinel receptors of the host innate immune system that recognize conserved 'pathogen-associated molecular patterns' of invading microbes, including viruses. The activation of TLRs establishes antiviral innate immune responses and coordinates the development of long-lasting adaptive immunity in order to control viral pathogenesis. However, microbe-induced damage to host tissues may release 'danger-associated molecular patterns' that also activate TLRs, leading to an overexuberant inflammatory response and, ultimately, to tissue damage. Thus, TLRs have proven to be promising targets as therapeutics for the treatment of viral infections that result in inflammatory damage or as adjuvants in order to enhance the efficacy of vaccines. Here, we explore recent advances in TLR biology with a focus on novel drugs that target TLRs (agonists and antagonists) for antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira C Patel
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Kari Ann Shirey
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | | | | | - Alfredo Garzino-Demo
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA ; Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Stefanie N Vogel
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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242
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Aranda F, Vacchelli E, Obrist F, Eggermont A, Galon J, Sautès-Fridman C, Cremer I, Henrik ter Meulen J, Zitvogel L, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. Trial Watch: Toll-like receptor agonists in oncological indications. Oncoimmunology 2014; 3:e29179. [PMID: 25083332 PMCID: PMC4091055 DOI: 10.4161/onci.29179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are an evolutionarily conserved group of enzymatically inactive, single membrane-spanning proteins that recognize a wide panel of exogenous and endogenous danger signals. Besides constituting a crucial component of the innate immune response to bacterial and viral pathogens, TLRs appear to play a major role in anticancer immunosurveillance. In line with this notion, several natural and synthetic TLR ligands have been intensively investigated for their ability to boost tumor-targeting immune responses elicited by a variety of immunotherapeutic and chemotherapeutic interventions. Three of these agents are currently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or equivalent regulatory agencies for use in cancer patients: the so-called bacillus Calmette-Guérin, monophosphoryl lipid A, and imiquimod. However, the number of clinical trials testing the therapeutic potential of both FDA-approved and experimental TLR agonists in cancer patients is stably decreasing, suggesting that drug developers and oncologists are refocusing their interest on alternative immunostimulatory agents. Here, we summarize recent findings on the use of TLR agonists in cancer patients and discuss how the clinical evaluation of FDA-approved and experimental TLR ligands has evolved since the publication of our first Trial Watch dealing with this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Aranda
- Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France
- INSERM, UMRS1138; Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
- Université Paris-Sud/Paris XI; Paris, France
| | - Erika Vacchelli
- Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France
- INSERM, UMRS1138; Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
- Université Paris-Sud/Paris XI; Paris, France
| | - Florine Obrist
- Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France
- INSERM, UMRS1138; Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
- Université Paris-Sud/Paris XI; Paris, France
| | | | - Jérôme Galon
- INSERM, UMRS1138; Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité; Paris, France
- Laboratory of Integrative Cancer Immunology, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
| | - Catherine Sautès-Fridman
- INSERM, UMRS1138; Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité; Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI; Paris, France
- Equipe 13, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Cremer
- INSERM, UMRS1138; Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité; Paris, France
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI; Paris, France
- Equipe 13, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
| | | | - Laurence Zitvogel
- Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France
- INSERM, U1015; CICBT507; Villejuif, France
| | - Guido Kroemer
- INSERM, UMRS1138; Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité; Paris, France
- Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP; Villejuif, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers; Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité; Paris, France
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243
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Tam JCH, Jacques DA. Intracellular immunity: finding the enemy within--how cells recognize and respond to intracellular pathogens. J Leukoc Biol 2014; 96:233-44. [PMID: 24899588 PMCID: PMC4192899 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.4ri0214-090r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, once a cell became infected, it was considered to be beyond all help. By this stage, the invading pathogen had breached the innate defenses and was beyond the reach of the humoral arm of the adaptive immune response. The pathogen could still be removed by cell-mediated immunity (e.g., by NK cells or cytotoxic T lymphocytes), but these mechanisms necessitated the destruction of the infected cell. However, in recent years, it has become increasingly clear that many cells possess sensor and effector mechanisms for dealing with intracellular pathogens. Most of these mechanisms are not restricted to professional immune cells nor do they all necessitate the destruction of the host. In this review, we examine the strategies that cells use to detect and destroy pathogens once the cell membrane has been penetrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry C H Tam
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David A Jacques
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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244
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Dar AA, Patil RS, Chiplunkar SV. Insights into the Relationship between Toll Like Receptors and Gamma Delta T Cell Responses. Front Immunol 2014; 5:366. [PMID: 25132835 PMCID: PMC4116803 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is an important aspect of cancer biology that contributes to tumor initiation, tumor progression and responses to therapy. The composition and characteristics of the tumor microenvironment vary widely and are important in determining the anti-tumor immune response. Successful immunization requires activation of both innate and adaptive immunity. Generally, immune system is compromised in patients with cancer due to immune suppression, loss of tumor antigen expression and dysfunction of antigen presenting cells (APC). Thus, therapeutic immunization leading to cancer regression remains a significant challenge. Certain cells of the immune system, including dendritic cells (DCs) and gamma delta (γδ) T cells are capable of driving potent anti-tumor responses. The property of MHC-unrestricted cytotoxicity, high potential of cytokine release, tissue tropism and early activation in infections and malignant disease makes γδ T cells as an emerging candidate for immunotherapy. Various strategies are being developed to enhance anti-tumor immune responses of γδ T cells and DCs one of them is the use of novel adjuvants like toll like receptors (TLR) agonists, which enhance γδ T cell function directly or through DC activation, which has ability to prime γδ T cells. TLR agonists are being used clinically either alone or in combination with tumor antigens and has shown initial success in both enhancing immune responses and eliciting anti-tumor activity. TLR activated γδ T cells and DCs nurture each other's activation. This provides a potent base for first line of defense and manipulation of the adaptive response against pathogens and cancer. The available data provides a strong rationale for initiating combinatorial therapy for the treatment of diseases and this review will summarize the application of adjuvants (TLRs) for boosting immune response of γδ T cells to treat cancer and infectious diseases and their use in combinatorial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asif Amin Dar
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre , Navi Mumbai , India
| | - Rushikesh Sudam Patil
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre , Navi Mumbai , India
| | - Shubhada Vivek Chiplunkar
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre , Navi Mumbai , India
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245
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Yesudhas D, Gosu V, Anwar MA, Choi S. Multiple roles of toll-like receptor 4 in colorectal cancer. Front Immunol 2014; 5:334. [PMID: 25076949 PMCID: PMC4097957 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling has been implicated in the inflammatory responses in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). Such inflammatory signals mediate complex interactions between commensal bacteria and TLRs and are required for IEC proliferation, immune response, repair, and homeostasis. The upregulation of certain TLRs in colorectal cancer (CRC) tissues suggests that TLRs may play an essential role in the prognosis of chronic and inflammatory diseases that ultimately culminate in CRC. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the literature on the involvement of the TLR pathway in the initiation, progression, and metastasis of CRC, as well as inherited genetic variation and epigenetic regulation. The differential expression of TLRs in epithelial cells has also been discussed. In particular, we emphasize the physiological role of TLR4 in CRC development and pathogenesis, and propose novel and promising approaches for CRC therapeutics with the aid of TLR ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhanusha Yesudhas
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University , Suwon , South Korea
| | - Vijayakumar Gosu
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University , Suwon , South Korea
| | - Muhammad Ayaz Anwar
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University , Suwon , South Korea
| | - Sangdun Choi
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University , Suwon , South Korea
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246
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Gaurav R, Agrawal DK. Clinical view on the importance of dendritic cells in asthma. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014; 9:899-919. [PMID: 24128155 DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.2013.837260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Allergic asthma is characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation and may lead to airway remodeling in uncontrolled cases. Genetic predisposition to an atopic phenotype plays a major component in the pathophysiology of asthma. However, with tremendous role of epigenetic factors and environmental stimuli in precipitating an immune response, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are complicated. Dendritic cells are principal antigen-presenting cells and initiators of the immune response in allergic asthma. Their phenotype, guided by multiple factors may dictate the immune reaction to an allergic or tolerogenic response. Involvement of the local cytokine milieu, microbiome and interplay between immune cells add dimension to the fate of immune response. In addition to allergen exposure, these factors modulate DC phenotype and function. In this article, integration of many factors and pathways associated with the recruitment and activation of DCs in the pathophysiology of allergic asthma is presented in a clinical and translational manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Gaurav
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Creighton University School of Medicine, CRISS II Room 510, 2500 California Plaza Omaha, NE 68178, USA
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247
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Tyrosine phosphorylation in Toll-like receptor signaling. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2014; 25:533-41. [PMID: 25022196 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
There is a wealth of knowledge about how different Ser/Thr protein kinases participate in Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. In many cases, we know the identities of the Ser/Thr residues of various components of the TLR-signaling pathways that are phosphorylated, the functional consequences of the phosphorylation and the responsible protein kinases. In contrast, the analysis of Tyr-phosphorylation of TLRs and their signaling proteins is currently incomplete, because several existing analyses are not systematic or they do not rely on robust experimental data. Nevertheless, it is clear that many TLRs require, for signaling, ligand-dependent phosphorylation of specific Tyr residues in their cytoplasmic domains; the list includes TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, TLR8 and TLR9. In this article, we discuss the current status of knowledge of the effect of Tyr-phosphorylation of TLRs and their signaling proteins on their biochemical and biological functions, the possible identities of the relevant protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) and the nature of regulations of PTK-mediated activation of TLR signaling pathways.
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248
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Robinson KM, Dunning Hotopp JC. Mobile elements and viral integrations prompt considerations for bacterial DNA integration as a novel carcinogen. Cancer Lett 2014; 352:137-44. [PMID: 24956175 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2014.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Insertional mutagenesis has been repeatedly demonstrated in cancer genomes and has a role in oncogenesis. Mobile genetic elements can induce cancer development by random insertion into cancer related genes or by inducing translocations. L1s are typically implicated in cancers of an epithelial cell origin, while Alu elements have been implicated in leukemia as well as epithelial cell cancers. Likewise, viral infections have a significant role in cancer development predominantly through integration into the human genome and mutating or deregulating cancer related genes. Human papilloma virus is the best-known example of viral integrations contributing to carcinogenesis. However, hepatitis B virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and Merkel cell polyomavirus also integrate into the human genome and disrupt cancer related genes. Thus far, the role of microbes in cancer has primarily been attributed to mutations induced through chronic inflammation or toxins, as is the case with Helicobacter pylori and enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis. We hypothesize that like mobile elements and viral DNA, bacterial and parasitic DNA may also integrate into the human somatic genome and be oncogenic. Until recently it was believed that bacterial DNA could not integrate into the human genome, but new evidence demonstrates that bacterial insertional mutagenesis may occur in cancer cells. Although this work does not show causation between bacterial insertions and cancer, it prompts more research in this area. Promising new sequencing technologies may reduce the risk of artifactual chimeric sequences, thus diminishing some of the challenges of identifying novel insertions in the somatic human genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M Robinson
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Julie C Dunning Hotopp
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Shaik-Dasthagirisaheb YB, Huang N, Weinberg EO, Shen SS, Genco CA, Gibson FC. Aging and contribution of MyD88 and TRIF to expression of TLR pathway-associated genes following stimulation with Porphyromonas gingivalis. J Periodontal Res 2014; 50:89-102. [PMID: 24862405 DOI: 10.1111/jre.12185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Periodontal disease is a highly complex chronic inflammatory disease of the oral cavity. Multiple factors influence periodontal disease, including socio-economic status, genetics and age; however, inflammation elicited by the presence of specific bacteria in the subgingival space is thought to drive the majority of soft- and hard-tissue destruction. Porphyromonas gingivalis is closely associated with periodontal disease. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their intracellular signaling pathways play roles in the host response to P. gingivalis. The focus of the current study was to use microarray analysis to define the contributions of the TLR adaptor molecules myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon-beta (TRIF), and aging, on the expression of TLR pathway-associated mRNAs in response to P. gingivalis. MATERIAL AND METHODS Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMØ) from wild-type (Wt), MyD88 knockout (MyD88-KO) and Trif(Lps2) [i.e. containing a point mutation in the lipopolysaccharide 2 (Lps2) gene rendering the Toll/interleukin (IL)-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon-beta (TRIF) protein nonfunctional] mice, at 2-and 12-mo of age, were cultured with P. gingivalis. Expression of genes in BMØ cultured with P. gingivalis was determined in comparison with expression of genes in BMØ cultured in medium only. RESULTS Using, as criteria, a twofold increase or decrease in mRNA expression, differential expression of 32 genes was observed when Wt BMØ from 2-mo-old mice were cultured with P. gingivalis compared with the medium-only control. When compared with 2-mo-old Wt mice, 21 and 12 genes were differentially expressed (p < 0.05) as a result of the mutations in MyD88 or TRIF, respectively. The expression of five genes was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in Wt BMØ from 12-mo-old mice compared with those from 2-mo-old mice following culture with P. gingivalis. Age also influenced the expression of genes in MyD88-KO and Trif(Lps2) mice challenged with P. gingivalis. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that P. gingivalis induces differential expression of TLR pathway-associated genes, and both MyD88 and TRIF play roles in the expression of these genes. Age also played a role in the expression of TLR-associated genes following stimulation of BMØ with P. gingivalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y B Shaik-Dasthagirisaheb
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
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Bekeredjian-Ding I, Greil J, Ammann S, Parcina M. Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells: Neglected Regulators of the Immune Response to Staphylococcus aureus. Front Immunol 2014; 5:238. [PMID: 24904586 PMCID: PMC4033153 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are a rare subset of leukocytes equipped with Fcγ and Fcε receptors, which exert contrary effects on sensing of microbial nucleic acids by endosomal Toll-like receptors. In this article, we explain how pDC contribute to the immune response to Staphylococcus aureus. Under normal circumstances the pDC participates in the memory response to the pathogen: pDC activation is initiated by uptake of staphylococcal immune complexes with IgG or IgE. However, protein A-expressing S. aureus strains additionally trigger pDC activation in the absence of immunoglobulin. In this context, staphylococci exploit the pDC to induce antigen-independent differentiation of IL-10 producing plasmablasts, an elegant means to propagate immune evasion. We further discuss the role of type I interferons in infection with S. aureus and the implications of these findings for the development of immune based therapies and vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Johann Greil
- Institute for Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Hospital Bonn , Bonn , Germany ; Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Heidelberg , Heidelberg , Germany
| | - Sandra Ammann
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Heidelberg , Heidelberg , Germany
| | - Marijo Parcina
- Institute for Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Hospital Bonn , Bonn , Germany
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