NF-κB in the regulation of epithelial homeostasis and inflammation

The topical application of low-temperature argon plasma enhances the anti-inflammatory effect of Jaun-ointment on DNCB-induced NC/Nga mice

BACKGROUND

Jaun-ointment (JO), also known as Shiunko in Japan, is one of the most popular medicinal formulae used in Korean traditional medicine for the external treatment of skin wound and inflammatory skin conditions. Since JO is composed of crude mixture of two herbal extracts (radix of Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc and Angelica gigas Nakai), those been proved its anti-inflammatory activities in-vitro and in-vivo, JO has been expected as a good alternative treatment option for atopic dermatitis (AD). However, due to the lack of strategies for the penetrating methods of JO's various anti-inflammatory elements into the skin, an effective and safe transdermal drug delivery system needs to be determined. Here, low-temperature argon plasma (LTAP) was adopted as an ancillary partner of topically applied JO in a mice model of AD and the effectiveness was examined.

METHODS

Dorsal skins of NC/Nga mice were challenged with DNCB (2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene) to induce AD. AD-like skin lesions were treated with JO alone, or in combination with LTAP. Inflammatory activity in the skin tissues was evaluated by histological analysis and several molecular biological tests.

RESULTS

LTAP enhanced the effect of JO on AD-like skin lesion. Topical application of JO partially inhibited the development of DNCB-induced AD, shown by the moderate reduction of eosinophil homing and pro-inflammatory cytokine level. Combined treatment of JO and LTAP dramatically inhibited AD phenotypes. Interestingly, treatment with JO alone did not affect the activity of nuclear factor (NF)κB/RelA in the skin, but combined treatment of LTAP-JO blocked DCNB-mediated NFκB/RelA activation.

CONCLUSIONS

LTAP markedly enhanced the anti-inflammatory activity of JO on AD-like skin lesions. The effect of LTAP may be attributed to enhancement of drug penetration and regulation of NFκB activity. Therefore, the combination treatment of JO and LTAP could be a potential strategy for the treatment of AD.

ROS in gastrointestinal inflammation: Rescue Or Sabotage?

The intestine is composed of many distinct cell types that respond to commensal microbiota or pathogens with immune tolerance and proinflammatory signals respectively. ROS produced by mucosa-resident cells or by newly recruited innate immune cells are essential for antimicrobial responses and regulation of signalling pathways including processes involved in wound healing. Impaired ROS production due to inactivating patient variants in genes encoding NADPH oxidases as ROS source has been associated with Crohn's disease and pancolitis, whereas overproduction of ROS due to up-regulation of oxidases or altered mitochondrial function was linked to ileitis and ulcerative colitis. Here, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of how maintaining a redox balance is crucial to preserve gut homeostasis.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Redox Biology and Oxidative Stress in Health and Disease. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.12/issuetoc.

Kanglaite sensitizes colorectal cancer cells to Taxol via NF-κΒ inhibition and connexin 43 upregulation

Taxol, a first-line anti-tumour drug, has low effectiveness against colorectal cancer. Combination with other agents is an effective strategy to enhance Taxol cytotoxicity. Kanglaite injection is an extract from Coix lacryma-jobi seed and is usually combined with other agents to treat cancer. The aim of this study was to investigate the treatment effect of Taxol combined with Kanglaite on colorectal cancer cell lines. Kanglaite pretreatment followed by Taxol treatment was found to show the best synergism among all combination strategies. This combination also resulted in the smallest tumour volume in a Balb/c mice model. Kanglaite inhibited the expression of nuclear factor (NF)-κΒ and upregulated that of connexin 43, both of which sensitized cancer cells to Taxol. Moreover, Kanglaite increased many cellular variations caused by Taxol, including tubulin polymerization, caspase-3 cleavage, and upregulated expression of survivin and cyclin B1. These results suggest that Kanglaite pretreatment may increase the effect of Taxol on colorectal cancer.

A Systems Pharmacology Approach to Determine Active Compounds and Action Mechanisms of Xipayi KuiJie'an enema for Treatment of Ulcerative colitis

Xipayi Kui Jie’an (KJA), a type of traditional Uygur medicine (TUM), has shown promising therapeutic effects in Ulcerative colitis (UC). Owing to the complexity of TUM, the pharmacological mechanism of KJA remains vague. Therefore, the identification of complex molecular mechanisms is a major challenge and a new method is urgently needed to address this problem. In this study, we established a feasible pharmacological model based on systems pharmacology to identify potential compounds and targets. We also applied compound-target and target-diseases network analysis to evaluate the action mechanisms. According to the predicted results, 12 active compounds were selected and these compounds were also identified by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis. The main components were tannins, this result is consistent with the prediction. The active compounds interacted with 22 targets. Two targets including PTGS2 and PPARG were demonstrated to be the main targets associated with UC. Systematic analysis of the constructed networks revealed that these targets were mainly involved in NF-κB signaling pathway. Furthermore, KJA could also regulate the CD4 + CD25 + Foxp3 + Treg cells. In conclusion, this systems pharmacology-based approach not only explained that KJA could alleviate the UC by regulating its candidate targets, but also gave new insights into the potential novel therapeutic strategies for UC.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Titrated Extract of Centella asiatica in Phthalic Anhydride-Induced Allergic Dermatitis Animal Model

Centella asiatica has potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, its anti-dermatitic effect has not yet been reported. In this study, we investigated the anti-dermatitic effects of titrated extract of Centella asiatica (TECA) in a phthalic anhydride (PA)-induced atopic dermatitis (AD) animal model as well as in vitro model. An AD-like lesion was induced by the topical application of five percent PA to the dorsal skin or ear of Hos:HR-1 mouse. After AD induction, 100 μL of 0.2% and 0.4% of TECA (40 μg or 80 μg/cm²) was spread on the dorsum of the ear or back skin three times a week for four weeks. We evaluated dermatitis severity, histopathological changes and changes in protein expression by Western blotting for inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and NF-κB activity, which were determined by electromobility shift assay (EMSA). We also measured TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IgE concentration in the blood of AD mice by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). TECA treatment attenuated the development of PA-induced atopic dermatitis. Histological analysis showed that TECA inhibited hyperkeratosis, mast cells and infiltration of inflammatory cells. TECA treatment inhibited expression of iNOS and COX-2, and NF-κB activity as well as the release of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IgE. In addition, TECA (1, 2, 5 μg/mL) potently inhibited Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (1 μg/mL)-induced NO production, expression of iNOS and COX-2, and NF-κB DNA binding activities in RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Our data demonstrated that TECA could be a promising agent for AD by inhibition of NF-κB signaling.

Discovering sparse transcription factor codes for cell states and state transitions during development

Computational analysis of gene expression to determine both the sequence of lineage choices made by multipotent cells and to identify the genes influencing these decisions is challenging. Here we discover a pattern in the expression levels of a sparse subset of genes among cell types in B- and T-cell developmental lineages that correlates with developmental topologies. We develop a statistical framework using this pattern to simultaneously infer lineage transitions and the genes that determine these relationships. We use this technique to reconstruct the early hematopoietic and intestinal developmental trees. We extend this framework to analyze single-cell RNA-seq data from early human cortical development, inferring a neocortical-hindbrain split in early progenitor cells and the key genes that could control this lineage decision. Our work allows us to simultaneously infer both the identity and lineage of cell types as well as a small set of key genes whose expression patterns reflect these relationships.

Mucosal immune tolerance at the ocular surface in health and disease

The ocular surface is constantly exposed to environmental irritants, allergens and pathogens, against which it can mount a prompt immune response to preserve its integrity. But to avoid unnecessary inflammation, the ocular surface's mucosal immune system must also discriminate between harmless and potentially dangerous antigens, a seemingly complicated task. Despite its unique features, the ocular surface is a mucosal lining, and as such, it shares some homeostatic and pathophysiological mechanisms with other mucosal surfaces. The purpose of this review is to explore the mucosal homeostatic immune function of the ocular surface in both the healthy and diseased states, with a special focus on mucosal immunology concepts. The information discussed in this review has been retrieved by PubMed searches for literature published from January 1981 to October 2016.

Antenatal Suppression of IL-1 Protects against Inflammation-Induced Fetal Injury and Improves Neonatal and Developmental Outcomes in Mice

Preterm birth (PTB) is commonly accompanied by in utero fetal inflammation, and existing tocolytic drugs do not target fetal inflammatory injury. Of the candidate proinflammatory mediators, IL-1 appears central and is sufficient to trigger fetal loss. Therefore, we elucidated the effects of antenatal IL-1 exposure on postnatal development and investigated two IL-1 receptor antagonists, the competitive inhibitor anakinra (Kineret) and a potent noncompetitive inhibitor 101.10, for efficacy in blocking IL-1 actions. Antenatal exposure to IL-1β induced Tnfa, Il6, Ccl2, Pghs2, and Mpges1 expression in placenta and fetal membranes, and it elevated amniotic fluid IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and PGF_2α, resulting in PTB and marked neonatal mortality. Surviving neonates had increased Il1b, Il6, Il8, Il10, Pghs2, Tnfa, and Crp expression in WBCs, elevated plasma levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8, increased IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 in fetal lung, intestine, and brain, and morphological abnormalities: e.g., disrupted lung alveolarization, atrophy of intestinal villus and colon-resident lymphoid follicle, and degeneration and atrophy of brain microvasculature with visual evoked potential anomalies. Late gestation treatment with 101.10 abolished these adverse outcomes, whereas Kineret exerted only modest effects and no benefit for gestation length, neonatal mortality, or placental inflammation. In a LPS-induced model of infection-associated PTB, 101.10 prevented PTB, neonatal mortality, and fetal brain inflammation. There was no substantive deviation in postnatal growth trajectory or adult body morphometry after antenatal 101.10 treatment. The results implicate IL-1 as an important driver of neonatal morbidity in PTB and identify 101.10 as a safe and effective candidate therapeutic.

Targeting the Canonical Nuclear Factor-κB Pathway with a High-Potency IKK2 Inhibitor Improves Outcomes in a Mouse Model of Idiopathic Pneumonia Syndrome

Idiopathic pneumonia syndrome (IPS) is a noninfectious inflammatory disorder of the lungs that occurs most often after fully myeloablative allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). IPS can be severe and is associated with high 1-year mortality rates despite existing therapies. The canonical nuclear factor-(NF) κB signaling pathway has previously been linked to several inflammatory disorders of the lung, including asthma and lung allograft rejection. It has never been specifically targeted as a novel IPS treatment approach, however. Here, we report that the IκB kinase 2 (IKK2) antagonist BAY 65-5811 or "compound A," a highly potent and specific inhibitor of the NF-κB pathway, was able to improve median survival times and recipient oxygenation in a well-described mouse model of IPS. Compound A impaired the production of the proinflammatory chemokines CCL2 and CCL5 within the host lung after transplantation. This resulted in significantly lower numbers of donor lung infiltrating CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells and reduced pulmonary inflammatory cytokine production after allograft. Compound A's beneficial effects appeared to be specific for limiting pulmonary injury, as the drug was unable to improve outcomes in a B6 into B6D2 haplotype-matched murine HSCT model in which recipient mice succumb to lethal acute graft-versus-host disease of the gastrointestinal tract. Collectively, our data suggest that the targeting of the canonical NF-κB pathway with a small molecule IKK2 antagonist may represent an effective and novel therapy for the specific management of acute lung injury that can occur after allogeneic HSCT.

Curcumin Mediates a Protective Effect Via TLR-4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway in Rat Model of Severe Acute Pancreatitis

Severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) is a common acute abdominal disease. This study was designed to investigate the preventive effects of curcumin on SAP and its possible mechanism of action. We observed increased volume of ascites, serum AMY, IL-6, and TNF-α levels, and expression of TLR-4 and NF-κB mRNA and protein in a rat model of SAP. Application of curcumin resulted in lower ascites volume and serum AMY. The levels of serum cytokines IL-10 and TNF-α were also significantly reduced after curcumin treatment, as evident from ELISA analysis. RT-PCR analysis showed down-regulation of TLR4 and NF-κB expressions as a function of curcumin treatment. Our results demonstrate the protective effect of curcumin in a rat model of SAP via the involvement of TLR-4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Protective effect and mechanistic evaluation of linalool against acute myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury in rats

Linalool causes attenuation of IR induced cell death and apoptosis eitherin vitroorin vivo.

A high-sensitivity bi-directional reporter to monitor NF-κB activity in cell culture and zebrafish in real time

Nuclear factor (NF)-κB transcription factors play major roles in numerous biological processes including development and immunity. Here, we engineered a novel bi-directional NF-κB-responsive reporter, pSGNluc, in which a high-affinity NF-κB promoter fragment simultaneously drives expression of luciferase and GFP. Treatment with TNFα (also known as TNF) induced a strong, dose-dependent luciferase signal in cell culture. The degree of induction over background was comparable to that of other NF-κB-driven luciferase reporters, but the absolute level of expression was at least 20-fold higher. This extends the sensitivity range of otherwise difficult assays mediated exclusively by endogenously expressed receptors, as we show for Nod1 signaling in HEK293 cells. To measure NF-κB activity in the living organism, we established a transgenic zebrafish line carrying the pSGNluc construct. Live in toto imaging of transgenic embryos revealed the activation patterns of NF-κB signaling during embryonic development and as responses to inflammatory stimuli. Taken together, by integrating qualitative and quantitative NF-κB reporter activity, pSGNluc is a valuable tool for studying NF-κB signaling at high spatiotemporal resolution in cultured cells and living animals that goes beyond the possibilities provided by currently available reporters.

Effects of ω-3 fatty acids on toll-like receptor 4 and nuclear factor-κB p56 in lungs of rats with severe acute pancreatitis

AIM

To determine the effects of ω-3 fatty acids (ω-3FA) on the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor κB p56 (NF-κBp56) signal pathway in the lungs of rats with severe acute pancreatitis (SAP).

METHODS

A total of 56 Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: control group, SAP-saline group, SAP-soybean oil group and SAP-ω-3FA group. SAP was induced by the retrograde infusion of sodium taurocholate into the pancreatic duct. The expression of TLR4 and NF-κBp56 in the lungs was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. The levels of inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in the lungs were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

The expression of TLR4 and NF-κBp56 in lungs and of inflammatory cytokines in serum significantly increased in the SAP group compared with the control group (P < 0.05), but was significantly decreased in the ω-3FA group compared with the soybean oil group at 12 and 24 h (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

During the initial stage of SAP, ω-3FA can efficiently lower the inflammatory response and reduce lung injury by triggering the TLR4/NF-κBp56 signal pathway.

Ameliorative effects of Artemisia argyi Folium extract on 2,4‑dinitrochlorobenzene‑induced atopic dermatitis‑like lesions in BALB/c mice

Artemisia argyi Folium has been used to treat skin diseases, including eczema and dermatitis, in South Korean medicine. The present study investigated the curative effects of Artemisia argyi Folium extract (AAFE) on 2,4‑dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)‑induced atopic dermatitis (AD)‑like skin lesions in a BALB/c mouse model. Briefly, the dorsal skin of the BALB/c mice was sensitized three times with DNCB, whereas the ears were challenged twice. Repeated treatment with DNCB induced AD‑like lesions. The effects of AAFE on AD‑like lesions were evaluated by clinical observation, histopathological analysis, immunohistochemistry and enzyme‑linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, reverse transcription‑polymerase chain reaction and western blotting were performed. Treatment with AAFE reduced AD‑like lesions, as determined by clinical observation, histopathological analysis, and detection of the serum levels of histamine, immunoglobulin E and cytokines. With regards to its mechanism of action, AAFE inhibited the phosphorylation of Lck/yes‑related novel tyrosine kinase (Lyn), spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk), mitogen‑activated protein kinases (MAPKs), phosphoinositide 3‑kinase (PI3K)/Akt and IκBα, which have essential roles in the production of various cytokines in lymph nodes. The suppressive activity of AAFE may be due to the inhibition of a series of immunopathological events, including the release of proinflammatory cytokines. The results of the present study strongly suggest that AAFE exerts an anti‑AD effect by inhibiting the Lyn, Syk, MAPKs, PI3K/Akt and IκBα pathways. Therefore, AAFE may be considered an effective herbal remedy for the treatment of AD.

Eupafolin ameliorates COX-2 expression and PGE2 production in particulate pollutants-exposed human keratinocytes through ROS/MAPKs pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Eupafolin is a major bioactive compound derived from the methanolic extract of the medicinal herb Phyla nodiflora, which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat various inflammatory diseases. Recently, particulate air pollutants have been shown to induce inflammation of the skin. In this study, we seek to determine whether eupafolin can inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators in a human skin keratinocyte cell line exposed to particulate air pollutants (particulate matter, PM), and determine the molecular mechanisms involved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human keratinocyte HaCaT cells were treated with PM in the presence or absence of eupafolin. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein and gene expression levels were determined by Western blotting, RT-PCR and luciferase activity assay. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production was evaluated by the enzyme immunoassay method. Generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured by the dichlorofluorescin (DCFH) oxidation assay, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase activity was determined by a chemiluminescence assay. For in vivo studies, COX-2 expression in the skin of BALB/c nude mice was analyzed by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Eupafolin inhibited PM-induced COX-2 protein and gene expression and PGE2 production in HaCaT cells. In addition, eupafolin suppressed PM-induced intracellular ROS generation, NADPH oxidase activity, MAPK (ERK, JNK and p38) activation and NK-κB activation. In vivo studies showed that topical treatment with eupafolin inhibited COX-2 expression in the epidermal keratinocytes of PM-treated mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Eupafolin exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects on skin keratinocytes exposed to particulate air pollutants, and may have potential use in the treatment or prevention of air pollutant-induced inflammatory skin diseases in the future.

MicroRNA-16 is putatively involved in the NF-κB pathway regulation in ulcerative colitis through adenosine A2a receptor (A2aAR) mRNA targeting

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) act as important post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression by targeting the 3′-untranslated region of their target genes. Altered expression of miR-16 is reported in human ulcerative colitis (UC), but its role in the development of the disease remains unclear. Adenosine through adenosine A2a receptor (A2aAR) could inhibit nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in inflammation. Here we identified overexpression of miR-16 and down-regulation of A2aAR in the colonic mucosa of active UC patients. We demonstrated that miR-16 negatively regulated the expression of the A2aAR at the post-transcriptional level. Furthermore, transfection of miR-16 mimics promoted nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 protein and expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IFN-γ and IL-8 in colonic epithelial cells. Treatment with miR-16 inhibitor could reverse these effects in cells. The A2aAR-mediated effects of miR-16 on the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway were confirmed by the A2aAR knockdown assay. Our results suggest that miR-16 regulated the immune and inflammatory responses, at least in part, by suppressing the expression of the A2aAR to control the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway.

The dichloromethane fraction from Mahonia bealei (Fort.) Carr. leaves exerts an anti-inflammatory effect both in vitro and in vivo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mahonia bealei has a long history of medical use in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of inflammatory-associated diseases. Despite numerous phytochemical and pharmacological studies, there is a lack of systematic studies to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory activity of this plant.

AIM OF STUDY

This study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of the dichloromethane fraction from M. bealei leaves (MBL-CH).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with different concentrations of MBL-CH for 30min prior to treatment with 1μg/ml of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway and subsequent production of inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α were investigated. Furthermore, the in vivo mouse model of LPS-induced acute lung injury (ALI) was employed to study the anti-inflammatory effects of MBL-CH.

RESULTS

Pre-treatment with MBL-CH significantly inhibited the LPS-stimulated secretion of NO, PGE2, and TNF-α into the culture medium, as well as the mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and TNF-α, which were associated with a reduction in the phosphorylation of IκBα, Akt, and PI3K and inhibition of the transcriptional activity of NF-κB. Furthermore, in vivo experiments revealed that MBL-CH attenuated LPS-stimulated lung inflammation in mice.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our findings indicate that MBL-CH attenuates LPS-stimulated inflammatory responses in macrophages by blocking NF-κB activation through interference with activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, providing scientific evidence that the plant can be employed in traditional remedies.

Mucosal tolerance disruption favors disease progression in an extraorbital lacrimal gland excision model of murine dry eye

Dry eye is a highly prevalent immune disorder characterized by a dysfunctional tear film and a Th1/Th17 T cell response at the ocular surface. The specificity of these pathogenic effector T cells remains to be determined, but auto-reactivity is considered likely. However, we have previously shown that ocular mucosal tolerance to an exogenous antigen is disrupted in a scopolamine-induced murine dry eye model and that it is actually responsible for disease progression. Here we report comparable findings in an entirely different murine model of dry eye that involves resection of the extraorbital lacrimal glands but no systemic muscarinic receptor blockade. Upon ocular instillation of ovalbumin, a delayed breakdown in mucosal tolerance to this antigen was observed in excised but not in sham-operated mice, which was mediated by interferon γ- and interleukin 17-producing antigen-specific T cells. Consistently, antigen-specific regulatory T cells were detectable in sham-operated but not in excised mice. As for other models of ocular surface disorders, epithelial activation of the NF-κB pathway by desiccating stress was determinant in the mucosal immune outcome. Underscoring the role of mucosal tolerance disruption in dry eye pathogenesis, its prevention by a topical NF-κB inhibitor led to reduced corneal damage in excised mice. Altogether these results show that surgically originated desiccating stress also initiates an abnormal Th1/Th17 T cell response to harmless exogenous antigens that reach the ocular surface. This event might actually contribute to corneal damage and challenges the conception of dry eye as a strictly autoimmune disease.

Doses Lactobacillus reuteri depend on adhesive ability to modulate the intestinal immune response and metabolism in mice challenged with lipopolysaccharide

The objective of this study was to evaluate the modulatory effects of Lactobacillus reuteri ZJ617 and ZJ615, which have high and low adhesive abilities, respectively, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) on immune responses and metabolism in mice stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Six C57BL/6 mice per group were orally inoculated with ZJ617, ZJ615 or LGG for one week (1 × 10(8) CFU/mouse) and i.p. injected with LPS (10 mg/kg) for 24 h. Compared with the LPS stimulation group, ZJ615, ZJ617 and LGG significantly decreased TNF-α levels in the sera of mice stimulated by LPS. ZJ615 and LGG significantly down-regulated mRNA levels of cytokines and Toll-like receptors, and suppressed activation of MAPK and NF-κB signaling, while ZJ617 up-regulated anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 mRNA levels in the ilea of mice stimulated by LPS. Correlation analysis confirmed that adhesive ability is relative with the immunomodulation in the ilea of mice. There were 24, 7 and 10 metabolites and 10, 9 and 8 major metabolic pathways with significant differences (VIP > 1, P < 0.05) between the LPS and ZJ617 + LPS groups, the LPS and ZJ615 + LPS groups, and the ZJ617 + LPS and ZJ615 + LPS groups, respectively. The results indicated that both ZJ617 and ZJ615 could modulate the intestinal immune responses and metabolism in LPS-stimulated mice.

Inhibition of inflammatory reactions in 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene induced Nc/Nga atopic dermatitis mice by non-thermal plasma

Non-thermal plasma (NTP) has recently been introduced and reported as a novel tool with a range of medicinal and biological roles. Although many studies using NTP have been performed, none has investigated the direct relationship between NTP and immune responses yet. Especially, the effects of NTP on atopic dermatitis (AD) were not been explored. Here, NTP was tested whether it controls immune reactions of AD. NTP treatment was administered to pro-inflammatory cytokine-stimulated keratinocytes and DNCB (2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene)-induced atopic dermatitis mice, then the immune reactions of cells and skin tissues were monitored. Cells treated with NTP showed decreased expression levels of CCL11, CCL13, and CCL17 along with down-regulation of NF-κB activity. Repeated administration of NTP to AD-induced mice reduced the numbers of mast cells and eosinophils, IgE, CCL17, IFNγ levels, and inhibited NF-κB activity in the skin lesion. Furthermore, combined treatment with NTP and 1% hydrocortisone cream significantly decreased the immune responses of AD than that with either of these two treatments individually. Overall, this study revealed that NTP significantly inhibits several immune reactions of AD by regulating NF-κB activity. Therefore, NTP could be useful to suppress the exaggerated immune reactions in severe skin inflammatory diseases such as AD.

Discovery of Novel Orally Active Tetrahydro-Naphthyl-N-Acylhydrazones with In Vivo Anti-TNF-α Effect and Remarkable Anti-Inflammatory Properties

LASSBio-1524 was designed as inhibitor of the IKK-β (kappa β kinase inhibitor) enzyme, which participates in the activation of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) canonical pathway, and its three N-acylhydrazone new analogues, LASSBio-1760, LASSBio-1763 and LASSBio-1764 are now being tested on their anti-inflammatory potential. The activity of these compounds was evaluated with the subcutaneous air pouch induced by carrageenan and by subsequent measurement of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the acute inflammation model, the oral pretreatment with doses from 0.3 to 30 mg/kg of N-acylhydrazone derivatives was able to significantly reduce leukocyte migration to the cavity. Pretreatment with LASSBio-1524 and its analogues also decreased NO, TNF-α and ROS biosynthesis an events closely involved with NF-kB pathway. The tetrahydronaphthyl-N-acylhydrazone derivative LASSBio-1764 was the most promising compound from this series, surpassing even LASSBio-1524. Additionally, none of the compounds demonstrated myelotoxicity or cytotoxicity. Cell viability was assayed and these compounds demonstrated to be safe at different concentrations. Western blot analysis demonstrated that LASSBio-1524 and LASSBio-1760 inhibited NF-κB expression in RAW 264.7 cell lineage. Our data indicate that the tested compounds have anti-inflammatory activity, which may be related to inhibition of leukocyte migration, reducing the production of NO, TNF-α and ROS. LASSBio-1524 and LASSBio-1760, in addition to these features, also reduced p65 nuclear expression assessed by western blot in RAW 264.7 murine cells.

The effect of hypothermia on influx of leukocytes in the digital lamellae of horses with oligofructose-induced laminitis

Sepsis-related laminitis (SRL) is a common complication in the septic/endotoxemic critically-ill equine patient, in which lamellar injury and failure commonly lead to crippling distal displacement of the distal phalanx. Similar to organ injury in human sepsis, lamellar injury in SRL has been associated with inflammatory events, including the influx of leukocytes into the lamellar tissue and markedly increased expression of a wide array of inflammatory mediators at the onset of Obel grade 1 (OG1) laminitis. The only treatment reported both clinically and experimentally to protect the lamellae in SRL, local hypothermia ("cryotherapy"), has been demonstrated to effectively inhibit lamellar expression of multiple inflammatory mediators when initiated at the time of administration of a carbohydrate overload in experimental models of SRL. However, the effect of hypothermia on leukocyte influx into affected tissue has not been assessed. We hypothesized that cryotherapy inhibits leukocyte emigration into the digital lamellae in SRL. Immunohistochemical staining using leukocyte markers MAC387 (marker of neutrophils, activated monocytes) and CD163 (monocyte/macrophage-specific marker) was performed on archived lamellar tissue samples from an experimental model of SRL in which one forelimb was maintained at ambient temperature (AMB) and one forelimb was immersed in ice water (ICE) immediately following enteral oligofructose administration (10g/kg, n=14 horses). Lamellae were harvested at 24h post-oligofructose administration (DEV, n=7) or at the onset of OG1 laminitis (OG1, n=7). Both MAC387-positive and CD163-positive cells were counted by a single blinded investigator on images [n=10 (40× fields/digit for MAC387 and 20x fields/digit for CD163)] obtained using Aperio microscopy imaging analysis software. Data were assessed for normality and analyzed with a paired t-test and one-way ANOVA with significance set at p<0.05. MAC387-positive cells were present in low numbers in the lamellar tissue and were decreased in the hypothermic limbs (vs. AMB limbs, p<0.05) in the OG1 group; no change in CD163-positive cell numbers was noted across the conditions of the model. This study demonstrated that hypothermia of the distal limbs instituted early in the disease process in the horse at risk of SRL significantly attenuates the increase of MAC387-positive leukocytes in the digital lamellae, but has minimal effect on increases in lamellar concentrations of the major leukocyte cell type present in that tissue, CD163-positive mononuclear cells.

Phospholipase Cϵ Activates Nuclear Factor-κB Signaling by Causing Cytoplasmic Localization of Ribosomal S6 Kinase and Facilitating Its Phosphorylation of Inhibitor κB in Colon Epithelial Cells

Phospholipase Cϵ (PLCϵ), an effector of Ras and Rap small GTPases, plays a crucial role in inflammation by augmenting proinflammatory cytokine expression. This proinflammatory function of PLCϵ is implicated in its facilitative role in tumor promotion and progression during skin and colorectal carcinogenesis, although their direct link remains to be established. Moreover, the molecular mechanism underlying these functions of PLCϵ remains unknown except that PKD works downstream of PLCϵ. Here we show by employing the colitis-induced colorectal carcinogenesis model, where Apc(Min) (/+) mice are administered with dextran sulfate sodium, that PLCϵ knock-out alleviates the colitis and suppresses the following tumorigenesis concomitant with marked attenuation of proinflammatory cytokine expression. In human colon epithelial Caco2 cells, TNF-α induces sustained expression of proinflammatory molecules and sustained activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and PKD, the late phases of which are suppressed by not only siRNA-mediated PLCϵ knockdown but also treatment with a lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor antagonist. Also, LPA stimulation induces these events in an early time course, suggesting that LPA mediates TNF-α signaling in an autocrine manner. Moreover, PLCϵ knockdown results in inhibition of phosphorylation of IκB by ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK) but not by IκB kinases. Subcellular fractionation suggests that enhanced phosphorylation of a scaffolding protein, PEA15 (phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes 15), downstream of the PLCϵ-PKD axis causes sustained cytoplasmic localization of phosphorylated RSK, thereby facilitating IκB phosphorylation in the cytoplasm. These results suggest the crucial role of the TNF-α-LPA-LPA receptor-PLCϵ-PKD-PEA15-RSK-IκB-NF-κB pathway in facilitating inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis in the colon.

Elevated O-GlcNAcylation promotes colonic inflammation and tumorigenesis by modulating NF-κB signaling

O-GlcNAcylation is a reversible post-translational modification. O-GlcNAc addition and removal is catalyzed by O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) and O-GlcNAcase (OGA), respectively. More recent evidence indicates that regulation of O-GlcNAcylation is important for inflammatory diseases and tumorigenesis. In this study, we revealed that O-GlcNAcylation was increased in the colonic tissues of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis and azoxymethane (AOM)/DSS-induced colitis-associated cancer (CAC) animal models. Moreover, the O-GlcNAcylation level was elevated in human CAC tissues compared with matched normal counterparts. To investigate the functional role of O-GlcNAcylation in colitis, we used OGA heterozygote mice, which have an increased level of O-GlcNAcylation. OGA(+/-) mice have higher susceptibility to DSS-induced colitis than OGA(+/+) mice. OGA(+/-) mice exhibited a higher incidence of colon tumors than OGA(+/+) mice. In molecular studies, elevated O-GlcNAc levels were shown to enhance the activation of NF-κB signaling through increasing the binding of RelA/p65 to its target promoters. We also found that Thr-322 and Thr352 in the p65-O-GlcNAcylation sites are critical for p65 promoter binding. These results suggest that the elevated O-GlcNAcylation level in colonic tissues contributes to the development of colitis and CAC by disrupting regulation of NF-κB-dependent transcriptional activity.

The Innate Immune Receptor NLRX1 Functions as a Tumor Suppressor by Reducing Colon Tumorigenesis and Key Tumor-Promoting Signals

NOD-like receptor (NLR) proteins are intracellular innate immune sensors/receptors that regulate immunity. This work shows that NLRX1 serves as a tumor suppressor in colitis-associated cancer (CAC) and sporadic colon cancer by keeping key tumor promoting pathways in check. Nlrx1^−/− mice were highly susceptible to CAC, showing increases in key cancer-promoting pathways including nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and interleukin 6 (IL-6). The tumor-suppressive function of NLRX1 originated primarily from the non-hematopoietic compartment. This prompted an analysis of NLRX1 function in the Apc^min/+ genetic model of sporadic gastrointestinal cancer. NLRX1 attenuated Apc^min/+ colon tumorigenesis, cellular proliferation, NF-κB, MAPK, STAT3 activation, and IL-6 levels. Application of anti-interleukin 6 receptor (IL6R) antibody therapy reduced tumor burden, increased survival, and reduced STAT3 activation in Nlrx1^−/−Apc^min/+ mice. As an important clinical correlate, human colon cancer samples expressed lower levels of NLRX1 than healthy controls in multiple patient cohorts. These data implicate anti-IL6R as a potential personalized therapy for colon cancers with reduced NLRX1.

Crosstalk between microbiota, pathogens and the innate immune responses

Research in the last decade has convincingly demonstrated that the microbiota is crucial in order to prime and orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses of their host and influence barrier function as well as multiple developmental and metabolic parameters of the host. Reciprocally, host reactions and immune responses instruct the composition of the microbiota. This review summarizes recent evidence from experimental and human studies which supports these arms of mutual relationship and crosstalk between host and resident microbiota, with a focus on innate immune responses in the gut, the role of cell death pathways and antimicrobial peptides. We also provide some recent examples on how dysbiosis and pathogens can act in concert to promote intestinal infection, inflammatory pathologies and cancer. The future perspectives of these combined research efforts include the discovery of protective species within the microbiota and specific traits and factors of microbes that weaken or enforce host intestinal homeostasis.

Oroxyloside prevents dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis in mice by inhibiting NF-κB pathway through PPARγ activation

Oroxyloside, as a metabolite of oroxylin A, may harbor various beneficial bioactivities which have rarely been reported in the previous studies. Here we established the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced experimental colitis and evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of oroxyloside in vivo. As a result, oroxyloside attenuated DSS-induced body weight loss, colon length shortening and colonic pathological damage. Furthermore, oroxyloside inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration and decreased myeloperoxidase (MPO) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activities as well. The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum and colon was also significantly reduced by oroxyloside. We unraveled the underlying mechanisms that oroxyloside inhibited NF-κB pathway by activating Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ (PPARγ) to attenuate DSS-induced colitis. Moreover, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect and mechanisms of oroxyloside in the mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 and bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM). Oroxyloside decreased several LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in RAW264.7 and BMDM. We also found that oroxyloside inhibited LPS-induced activation of NF-κB signaling pathway via activating PPARγ in RAW 264.7 and BMDM. Docking study showed that oroxyloside could bind with PPARγ. GW9662, the inhibitor of PPARγ, and PPARγ siRNA transfection blocked the effect of oroxyloside on PPARγ activation. Our study suggested that oroxyloside prevented DSS-induced colitis by inhibiting NF-κB pathway through PPARγ activation. Therefore, oroxyloside may be a promising and effective agent for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Negative regulatory roles of ORMDL3 in the FcεRI-triggered expression of proinflammatory mediators and chemotactic response in murine mast cells

Single-nucleotide polymorphism studies have linked the chromosome 17q12-q21 region, where the human orosomucoid-like (ORMDL)3 gene is localized, to the risk of asthma and several other inflammatory diseases. Although mast cells are involved in the development of these diseases, the contribution of ORMDL3 to the mast cell physiology is unknown. In this study, we examined the role of ORMDL3 in antigen-induced activation of murine mast cells with reduced or enhanced ORMDL3 expression. Our data show that in antigen-activated mast cells, reduced expression of the ORMDL3 protein had no effect on degranulation and calcium response, but significantly enhanced phosphorylation of AKT kinase at Ser 473 followed by enhanced phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα and translocation of the NF-κB p65 subunit into the nucleus. These events were associated with an increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-13), chemokines (CCL3 and CCL4), and cyclooxygenase-2 dependent synthesis of prostaglandin D2. Antigen-mediated chemotaxis was also enhanced in ORMDL3-deficient cells, whereas spreading on fibronectin was decreased. On the other hand, increased expression of ORMDL3 had no significant effect on the studied signaling events, except for reduced antigen-mediated chemotaxis. These data were corroborated by increased IgE-antigen-dependent passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in mice with locally silenced ORMDL3 using short interfering RNAs. Our data also show that antigen triggers suppression of ORMDL3 expression in the mast cells. In summary, we provide evidence that downregulation of ORMDL3 expression in mast cells enhances AKT and NF-κB-directed signaling pathways and chemotaxis and contributes to the development of mast cell-mediated local inflammation in vivo.

Candida albicans infection leads to barrier breakdown and a MAPK/NF-κB mediated stress response in the intestinal epithelial cell line C2BBe1

Intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) form a tight barrier to the gut lumen. Paracellular permeability of the intestinal barrier is regulated by tight junction proteins and can be modulated by microorganisms and other stimuli. The polymorphic fungus Candida albicans, a frequent commensal of the human mucosa, has the capacity of traversing this barrier and establishing systemic disease within the host. Infection of polarized C2BBe1 IEC with wild-type C. albicans led to a transient increase of transepithelial electric resistance (TEER) before subsequent barrier disruption, accompanied by a strong decline of junctional protein levels and substantial, but considerably delayed cytotoxicity. Time-resolved microarray-based transcriptome analysis of C. albicans challenged IEC revealed a prominent role of NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways in the response to infection. Hence, we inferred a gene regulatory network based on differentially expressed NF-κB and MAPK pathway components and their predicted transcriptional targets. The network model predicted activation of GDF15 by NF-κB was experimentally validated. Furthermore, inhibition of NF-κB activation in C. albicans infected C2BBe1 cells led to enhanced cytotoxicity in the epithelial cells. Taken together our study identifies NF-κB activation as an important protective signalling pathway in the response of epithelial cells to C. albicans.

Oxidative Stress in Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic pruritic skin disorder affecting many people especially young children. It is a disease caused by the combination of genetic predisposition, immune dysregulation, and skin barrier defect. In recent years, emerging evidence suggests oxidative stress may play an important role in many skin diseases and skin aging, possibly including AD. In this review, we give an update on scientific progress linking oxidative stress to AD and discuss future treatment strategies for better disease control and improved quality of life for AD patients.

Intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of the seeds of Raphanus sativus L. in experimental ulcerative colitis models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Water extract of Raphanus sativus L. (RSL) seeds was traditionally used to treat digestive inflammatory complaints in Korean culture. RSL seeds exerted antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-septic functions, suggesting their pharmacological potential for the treatment of inflammatory pathologies associated with oxidative stress such as inflammatory bowel disease.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

We evaluated the intestinal anti-inflammatory effects of RSL seed water extract (RWE) in experimental rat models of trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid (TNBS)- or dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RWE was characterized by determining the content of sinapic acid as a reference material and then assayed in the DSS and TNBS models of rat colitis. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 10 groups (n=7/group): non-colitic control, DSS or TNBS control, DSS colitis groups treated with RWE (100mg/kg) or mesalazine (25mg/kg), and TNBS colitis groups treated with various doses (10, 40, 70, and 100mg/kg) of RWE or mesalazine (25mg/kg). RWE or mesalazine treatment started the same day of colitis induction and rats were sacrificed 24h after the last treatment followed by histological and biochemical analyses.

RESULTS

Oral administration with RWE suppressed intestinal inflammatory damages in both DSS- and TNBS-induced colitic rats. The treatment with 100mg/kg RWE recovered intestinal damages caused by TNBS or DSS to levels similar to that of mesalazine, decreasing the activity of myeloperoxidase activity and the secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β. RWE treatment inhibited malondialdehyde production and glutathione reduction in colon of colitis rats. The administration of RWE at dose of 100mg/kg also suppressed the TNBS- or DSS-stimulated expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, inducible nitric oxide, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1. Furthermore, RWE inhibited p38 kinase and DNA-nuclear factor-κB binding activities, both of which were stimulated in the colitic rats.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings show that RWE ameliorates intestinal oxidative and inflammatory damages in DSS and TNBS models of rat colitis, suggesting its beneficial use for the treatment of intestinal inflammatory disorders.

Desiccating stress-induced disruption of ocular surface immune tolerance drives dry eye disease

Dry eye is an allegedly autoimmune disorder for which the initiating mechanisms and the targeted antigens in the ocular surface are not known, yet there is extensive evidence that a localized T helper type 1 (Th1)/Th17 effector T cell response is responsible for its pathogenesis. In this work, we explore the reconciling hypothesis that desiccating stress, which is usually considered an exacerbating factor, could actually be sufficient to skew the ocular surface's mucosal response to any antigen and therefore drive the disease. Using a mouse model of dry eye, we found that desiccating stress causes a nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)- and time-dependent disruption of the ocular surface's immune tolerance to exogenous ovalbumin. This pathogenic event is mediated by increased Th1 and Th17 T cells and reduced regulatory T cells in the draining lymph nodes. Conversely, topical NF-κB inhibitors reduced corneal epithelial damage and interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 levels in the ocular surface of mice under desiccating stress. The observed effect was mediated by an augmented regulatory T cell response, a finding that highlights the role of mucosal tolerance disruption in dry eye pathogenesis. Remarkably, the NF-κB pathway is also involved in mucosal tolerance disruption in other ocular surface disorders. Together, these results suggest that targeting of mucosal NF-κB activation could have therapeutic potential in dry eye.

Tubular Epithelial NF-κB Activity Regulates Ischemic AKI

NF-κB is a key regulator of innate and adaptive immunity and is implicated in the pathogenesis of AKI. The cell type-specific functions of NF-κB in the kidney are unknown; however, the pathway serves distinct functions in immune and tissue parenchymal cells. We analyzed tubular epithelial-specific NF-κB signaling in a mouse model of ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI)-induced AKI. NF-κB reporter activity and nuclear localization of phosphorylated NF-κB subunit p65 analyses in mice revealed that IRI induced widespread NF-κB activation in renal tubular epithelia and in interstitial cells that peaked 2-3 days after injury. To genetically antagonize tubular epithelial NF-κB activity, we generated mice expressing the human NF-κB super-repressor IκBαΔN in renal proximal, distal, and collecting duct epithelial cells. Compared with control mice, these mice exhibited improved renal function, reduced tubular apoptosis, and attenuated neutrophil and macrophage infiltration after IRI-induced AKI. Furthermore, tubular NF-κB-dependent gene expression profiles revealed temporally distinct functional gene clusters for apoptosis, chemotaxis, and morphogenesis. Primary proximal tubular cells isolated from IκBαΔN-expressing mice and exposed to hypoxia-mimetic agent cobalt chloride exhibited less apoptosis and expressed lower levels of chemokines than cells from control mice did. Our results indicate that postischemic NF-κB activation in renal tubular epithelia aggravates tubular injury and exacerbates a maladaptive inflammatory response.

Celastrol Ameliorates Ulcerative Colitis-Related Colorectal Cancer in Mice via Suppressing Inflammatory Responses and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

Celastrol, also named as tripterine, is a pharmacologically active ingredient extracted from the root of traditional Chinese herb Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F with potent anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities. In the present study, we investigated the effects of celastrol on ulcerative colitis-related colorectal cancer (UC-CRC) as well as CRC in vivo and in vitro and explored its underlying mechanisms. UC-CRC model was induced in C57BL/6 mice by administration of azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sodium sulfate (DSS). Colonic tumor xenograft models were developed in BALB/c-nu mice by subcutaneous injection with HCT116 and HT-29 cells. Intragastric administration of celastrol (2 mg/kg/d) for 14 weeks significantly increased the survival ratio and reduced the multiplicity of colonic neoplasms compared with AOM/DSS model mice. Mechanically, celastrol treatment significantly prevented AOM/DSS-induced up-regulation of expression levels of oncologic markers including mutated p53 and phospho-p53, β-catenin and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). In addition, treatment with celastrol inhibited inflammatory responses, as indicated by the decrease of serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6, down-regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and inactivation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Moreover, celastrol obviously suppressed epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) through up-regulating E-cadherin and down-regulating N-cadherin, Vimentin and Snail. Additionally, we also demonstrated that celastrol inhibited human CRC cell proliferation and attenuated colonic xenograft tumor growth via reversing EMT. Taken together, celastrol could effectively ameliorate UC-CRC by suppressing inflammatory responses and EMT, suggesting a potential drug candidate for UC-CRC therapy.

Modulation of NF-κB Signaling as a Therapeutic Target in Autoimmunity

Autoimmune diseases arise from the loss of tolerance to endogenous self-antigens, resulting in a heterogeneous range of chronic conditions that cause considerable morbidity and mortality worldwide. In Western countries, over 5% of the population is affected by some form of autoimmune disease, with enhanced or inappropriate activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB implicated in a number of these conditions. Although treatment strategies for autoimmunity have improved significantly in recent years, current therapeutics are still not capable of achieving satisfactory disease management in all patients, and as such, the therapeutic modulation of NF-κB is an attractive target in autoimmunity. To date, no NF-κB inhibitors have progressed to the clinic for the treatment of autoimmunity, but a variety of promising approaches targeting multiple stages of the NF-κB pathway are currently being explored. This review focuses on the current strategies being investigated for the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway in autoimmune diseases and considers potential future strategies for the therapeutic targeting of this crucial transcription factor.

Addressing the Global Burden of Trauma in Major Surgery

Despite a technically perfect procedure, surgical stress can determine the success or failure of an operation. Surgical trauma is often referred to as the "neglected step-child" of global health in terms of patient numbers, mortality, morbidity, and costs. A staggering 234 million major surgeries are performed every year, and depending upon country and institution, up to 4% of patients will die before leaving hospital, up to 15% will have serious post-operative morbidity, and 5-15% will be readmitted within 30 days. These percentages equate to around 1000 deaths and 4000 major complications every hour, and it has been estimated that 50% may be preventable. New frontline drugs are urgently required to make major surgery safer for the patient and more predictable for the surgeon. We review the basic physiology of the stress response from neuroendocrine to genomic systems, and discuss the paucity of clinical data supporting the use of statins, beta-adrenergic blockers and calcium-channel blockers. Since cardiac-related complications are the most common, particularly in the elderly, a key strategy would be to improve ventricular-arterial coupling to safeguard the endothelium and maintain tissue oxygenation. Reduced O2 supply is associated with glycocalyx shedding, decreased endothelial barrier function, fluid leakage, inflammation, and coagulopathy. A healthy endothelium may prevent these "secondary hit" complications, including possibly immunosuppression. Thus, the four pillars of whole body resynchronization during surgical trauma, and targets for new therapies, are: (1) the CNS, (2) the heart, (3) arterial supply and venous return functions, and (4) the endothelium. This is termed the Central-Cardio-Vascular-Endothelium (CCVE) coupling hypothesis. Since similar sterile injury cascades exist in critical illness, accidental trauma, hemorrhage, cardiac arrest, infection and burns, new drugs that improve CCVE coupling may find wide utility in civilian and military medicine.

Low-dose UVB irradiation prevents MMP2-induced skin hyperplasia by inhibiting inflammation and ROS

Skin cancer is one of the most common types of malignancy in the world. UV radiation is known as the primary environmental carcinogen responsible for skin cancer development. However, UV radiation is a ubiquitous substance existing in the environment and the physiological effect of UV radiation is consistently ignored. Therefore, in the present study, the physiological effect of UV radiation on inhibition of skin cancer was investigated. Normal mouse skin was processing by no pre-radiation or pre-radiation of low-dose UV before a medium or high dose of UV radiation. We found that the low-dose pre-radiated mouse skin tissue exhibited low skin inflammation, skin ROS production and consequently low skin epithelial hyperplasia after the medium-dose UV radiation compared with the no pre-radiated mouse. However, this inhibition was not indicated in the high-dose UV radiation group after low-dose pre-radiation. Furthermore, western blot analysis and gelatin zymography showed low expression and activation of MMP2 in the skin tissues processed following medium-dose radiation, but not in tissues treated with high-dose radiation after a low-dose pre-radiation. Further investigation of MMP2 inhibitors of TIMP2/TIMP4 showed an upregulated TIMP2 expression, but not TIMP4. Collectively, these data indicate that low-dose pre-radiation attenuates the skin inflammation and ROS production induced by medium-dose UV radiation and also elevates TIMP2 to withstand MMP2, therefore suppressing skin hyperplasia. The present study indicates a novel concept or prophylactic function of moderate UV radiation as a preventative strategy.