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Green TM, Santos MF, Barsky SH, Rappa G, Lorico A. Analogies Between Cancer-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Enveloped Viruses with an Emphasis on Human Breast Cancer. CURRENT PATHOBIOLOGY REPORTS 2016; 4:169-179. [PMID: 32226654 PMCID: PMC7099913 DOI: 10.1007/s40139-016-0116-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Purpose of Review Cancer cells utilize extracellular vesicles (EVs) as a means of transferring oncogenic proteins and nucleic acids to other cells to enhance the growth and spread of the tumor. There is an unexpected amount of similarities between these small, membrane-bound particles and enveloped virions, including protein content, physical characteristics (i.e., size and morphology), and mechanisms of entry and exit into target cells. Recent Findings This review describes the attributes shared by both cancer-derived EVs, with an emphasis on breast cancer-derived EVs, and enveloped viral particles and discusses the methods by which virions can utilize the EV pathway as a means of transferring viral material and oncogenes to host cells. Additionally, the possible links between human papilloma virus and its influence on the miRNA content of breast cancer-derived EVs are examined. Summary The rapidly growing field of EVs is allowing investigators from different disciplines to enter uncharted territory. The study of the emerging similarities between cancer-derived EVs and enveloped virions may lead to novel important scientific discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni M Green
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences and The Roseman Comprehensive Community Cancer Center, Las Vegas, NV 89135 USA
| | - Mark F Santos
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences and The Roseman Comprehensive Community Cancer Center, Las Vegas, NV 89135 USA
| | - Sanford H Barsky
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences and The Roseman Comprehensive Community Cancer Center, Las Vegas, NV 89135 USA
| | - Germana Rappa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences and The Roseman Comprehensive Community Cancer Center, Las Vegas, NV 89135 USA
| | - Aurelio Lorico
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences and The Roseman Comprehensive Community Cancer Center, Las Vegas, NV 89135 USA
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252
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Pocsfalvi G, Stanly C, Vilasi A, Fiume I, Capasso G, Turiák L, Buzas EI, Vékey K. Mass spectrometry of extracellular vesicles. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2016; 35:3-21. [PMID: 25705034 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The review briefly summaries main features of extracellular vesicles, a joint terminology for exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic vesicles. These vesicles are in the center of interest in biology and medical sciences, and form a very active field of research. Mass spectrometry (MS), with its specificity and sensitivity, has the potential to identify and characterize molecular composition of these vesicles; but as yet there are only a limited, but fast-growing, number of publications that use MS workflows in this field. MS is the major tool to assess protein composition of extracellular vesicles: qualitative and quantitative proteomics approaches are both reviewed. Beside proteins, lipid and metabolite composition of vesicles might also be best assessed by MS techniques; however there are few applications as yet in this respect. The role of alternative analytical approaches, like gel-based proteomics and antibody-based immunoassays, are also mentioned. The objective of the review is to give an overview of this fast-growing field to help orient MS-based research on extracellular vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Pocsfalvi
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Christopher Stanly
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Annalisa Vilasi
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Immacolata Fiume
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Giovambattista Capasso
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Cardio-Vascular Sciences, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Lilla Turiák
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Edit I Buzas
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Károly Vékey
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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253
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Carrière J, Barnich N, Nguyen HTT. Exosomes: From Functions in Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity to Diagnostic and Therapeutic Opportunities. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 2016; 172:39-75. [PMID: 27600934 DOI: 10.1007/112_2016_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Since their first description in the 1980s, exosomes, small endosomal-derived extracellular vesicles, have been involved in innate and adaptive immunity through modulating immune responses and mediating antigen presentation. Increasing evidence has reported the role of exosomes in host-pathogen interactions and particularly in the activation of antimicrobial immune responses. The growing interest concerning exosomes in infectious diseases, their accessibility in various body fluids, and their capacity to convey a rich content (e.g., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) to distant recipient cells led the scientific community to consider the use of exosomes as potential new diagnostic and therapeutic tools. In this review, we summarize current understandings of exosome biogenesis and their composition and highlight the function of exosomes as immunomodulators in pathological states such as in infectious disorders. The potential of using exosomes as diagnostic and therapeutic tools is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Carrière
- University of Clermont Auvergne, M2iSH, UMR 1071 INSERM/University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France.,INRA USC 2018, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France
| | - Nicolas Barnich
- University of Clermont Auvergne, M2iSH, UMR 1071 INSERM/University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France.,INRA USC 2018, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France
| | - Hang Thi Thu Nguyen
- University of Clermont Auvergne, M2iSH, UMR 1071 INSERM/University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France. .,INRA USC 2018, Clermont-Ferrand, 63001, France.
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Abstract
Almost exactly twenty years after the discovery of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), the latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) entered the EBV stage, and soon thereafter, it was recognized as the primary transforming gene product of the virus. LMP1 is expressed in most EBV-associated lymphoproliferative diseases and malignancies, and it critically contributes to pathogenesis and disease phenotypes. Thirty years of LMP1 research revealed its high potential as a deregulator of cellular signal transduction pathways leading to target cell proliferation and the simultaneous subversion of cell death programs. However, LMP1 has multiple roles beyond cell transformation and immortalization, ranging from cytokine and chemokine induction, immune modulation, the global alteration of gene and microRNA expression patterns to the regulation of tumor angiogenesis, cell-cell contact, cell migration, and invasive growth of tumor cells. By acting like a constitutively active receptor, LMP1 recruits cellular signaling molecules associated with tumor necrosis factor receptors such as tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor (TRAF) proteins and TRADD to mimic signals of the costimulatory CD40 receptor in the EBV-infected B lymphocyte. LMP1 activates NF-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K), IRF7, and STAT pathways. Here, we review LMP1's molecular and biological functions, highlighting the interface between LMP1 and the cellular signal transduction network as an important factor of virus-host interaction and a potential therapeutic target.
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255
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Abstract
EBV expresses a number of viral noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) during latent infection, many of which have known regulatory functions and can post-transcriptionally regulate viral and/or cellular gene expression. With recent advances in RNA sequencing technologies, the list of identified EBV ncRNAs continues to grow. EBV-encoded RNAs (EBERs) , the BamHI-A rightward transcripts (BARTs) , a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) , and viral microRNAs (miRNAs) are all expressed during EBV infection in a variety of cell types and tumors. Recently, additional novel EBV ncRNAs have been identified. Viral miRNAs, in particular, have been under extensive investigation since their initial identification over ten years ago. High-throughput studies to capture miRNA targets have revealed a number of miRNA-regulated viral and cellular transcripts that tie into important biological networks. Functions for many EBV ncRNAs are still unknown; however, roles for many EBV miRNAs in latency and in tumorigenesis have begun to emerge. Ongoing mechanistic studies to elucidate the functions of EBV ncRNAs should unravel additional roles for ncRNAs in the viral life cycle. In this chapter, we will discuss our current knowledge of the types of ncRNAs expressed by EBV, their potential roles in viral latency, and their potential involvement in viral pathogenesis.
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256
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Kim J, Yun SJ, Kim WJ. Virus encoded circulatory miRNAs for early detection of prostate cancer. BMC Urol 2015; 15:116. [PMID: 26612689 PMCID: PMC4662007 DOI: 10.1186/s12894-015-0111-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and kills about 28,000 American men annually. Although progress has been made in understanding the molecular features of different forms of the disease, PCa is considered incurable when it becomes resistant to standard therapies. Prostate specific antigen (PSA) test has been a gold standard of diagnosis for PCa, however, it can result in lead to the unnecessary biopsies and treatment of indolent cancers due to the low specificity. Thus, the limitations of PSA screening for PCa have prompted much focus on strategies how to enhance the accuracy of PSA for distinction between aggressive and indolent cancers. DISCUSSION Studies of miRNAs in PCa patients have suggested differentially expressed miRNAs between healthy controls and those with PCa, providing potential biomarker candidates using body fluids including urine and blood. Virus infection has been considered to associate with PCa incidence. Virus infected PCa cells may shed extracellular vesicles and communicate with neighboring cells, which were not infected yet, however, no mechanistic approaches were performed to understand the biology. The miRNAs composition in the shedding extracellular vesicles, and its role in PCa are completely undefined. In the near future, new insights to connect between the viral derived miRNAs and PCa progression might provide an opportunity to diagnose, risk prediction and therapeutic strategies. The goal of this debate article is to provide a short review on miRNAs, virus infection and viral encoded miRNAs in PCa, with a primary focus on circulating miRNAs as potential non-invasive biomarkers for PCa patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayoung Kim
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Davis Room 5071, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
- Departments of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Seok Joong Yun
- Department of Urology, Chungbuk National University College of Medicine, 62 Kaeshin-dong, Heungduk-gu, Cheongju, 361-763, Republic of Korea.
| | - Wun-Jae Kim
- Department of Urology, Chungbuk National University College of Medicine, 62 Kaeshin-dong, Heungduk-gu, Cheongju, 361-763, Republic of Korea.
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257
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Possible contributing role of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as a cofactor in human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cervical carcinogenesis. J Clin Virol 2015; 73:70-76. [PMID: 26551071 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2015.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Persistent infection with EBV has been linked to the development of malignancies including HPV-associated cervical carcinoma. However, the role of EBV in HPV-associated cervical cancer is still poorly understood. OBJECTIVE To determine the possible contributing role of EBV in HPV-associated cervical carcinogenesis according to HPV genotypes, HPV genome status and EBV localization. STUDY DESIGN Cervical tissues, including 82 with no squamous intraepithelial lesions (noSILs), 85 low-grade SILs (LSILs), 85 high grade SILs (HSILs) and 40 squamous cell carcinoma samples (SCC) were investigated using PCR and dot blot hybridization for EBV detection and PCR and reverse line blot hybridization for HPV genotyping. The amplification of papillomavirus oncogene transcripts assay and in situ hybridization were used to determine HPV physical status and EBV EBER localization, respectively. RESULTS EBV was detected increasingly from noSIL (13.4%), LSIL (29.4%) to HSIL (49.4%) samples. The prevalence of HPV-EBV co-infection was significantly higher in any grade of lesion than in noSIL samples (p<0.05) including noSIL (1.2%; 95% confidence intervals [CI]=0.0-3.6%, relative risk [RR]=1), LSIL (18.8%, 95% CI=10.5-27.1%, RR=15.4), HSIL (41.2%, 95% CI=30.7-51.6%, RR=33.8) and SCC (30.0%, 95% CI=15.8-44.2%, RR=24.6). Interestingly, HPV-EBV co-infection was more common in cases with episomal forms of high-risk (HR) HPV whereas HPV alone was more common in cases with integrated HR-HPV. In addition, EBER staining demonstrated that EBV was mainly present in infiltrating lymphocytes. CONCLUSION Infiltrating EBV-infected lymphocytes may play a role in cancer progression of cervical lesion containing episomal HR-HPV.
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258
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Schwab A, Meyering SS, Lepene B, Iordanskiy S, van Hoek ML, Hakami RM, Kashanchi F. Extracellular vesicles from infected cells: potential for direct pathogenesis. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1132. [PMID: 26539170 PMCID: PMC4611157 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections that result in natural or manmade spread of lethal biological agents are a concern and require national and focused preparedness. In this manuscript, as part of an early diagnostics and pathogen treatment strategy, we have focused on extracellular vesicles (EVs) that arise following infections. Although the field of biodefense does not currently have a rich resource in EVs literature, none the less, similar pathogens belonging to the more classical emerging and non-emerging diseases have been studied in their EV/exosomal contents and function. These exosomes are formed in late endosomes and released from the cell membrane in almost every cell type in vivo. These vesicles contain proteins, RNA, and lipids from the cells they originate from and function in development, signal transduction, cell survival, and transfer of infectious material. The current review focuses on how different forms of infection exploit the exosomal pathway and how exosomes can be exploited artificially to treat infection and disease and potentially also be used as a source of vaccine. Virally-infected cells can secrete viral as well as cellular proteins and RNA in exosomes, allowing viruses to cause latent infection and spread of miRNA to nearby cells prior to a subsequent infection. In addition to virally-infected host cells, bacteria, protozoa, and fungi can all release small vesicles that contain pathogen-associated molecular patterns, regulating the neighboring uninfected cells. Examples of exosomes from both virally and bacterially infected cells point toward a re-programming network of pathways in the recipient cells. Finally, many of these exosomes contain cytokines and miRNAs that in turn can effect gene expression in the recipient cells through the classical toll-like receptor and NFκB pathway. Therefore, although exosomes do not replicate as an independent entity, they however facilitate movement of infectious material through tissues and may be the cause of many pathologies seen in infected hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Schwab
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University , Manassas, VA, USA
| | - Shabana S Meyering
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University , Manassas, VA, USA ; School of Nursing and Health Studies, Georgetown University , Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ben Lepene
- Ceres Nanosciences, Inc. , Manassas, VA, USA
| | - Sergey Iordanskiy
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University , Manassas, VA, USA
| | - Monique L van Hoek
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University , Manassas, VA, USA
| | - Ramin M Hakami
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University , Manassas, VA, USA
| | - Fatah Kashanchi
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University , Manassas, VA, USA
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259
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Ahmed W, Philip PS, Attoub S, Khan G. Epstein-Barr virus-infected cells release Fas ligand in exosomal fractions and induce apoptosis in recipient cells via the extrinsic pathway. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:3646-3659. [PMID: 26467838 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV; human herpesvirus 4) is an oncogenic herpesvirus implicated in the pathogenesis of several human malignancies. A number of recent studies indicate that EBV can manipulate the local microenvironment by excreting viral and cellular components in nanovesicles called exosomes. In this study, we investigated the impact of EBV-derived exosomes on apoptosis of recipient cells and the molecular pathway involved in this process. Exosomes from EBV-infected but not from non-infected cells induced apoptosis in a number of different cell types, including B-cells, T-cells and epithelial cells. However, this phenomenon was not universal and the Burkitt's lymphoma-derived B-cell line BJAB was found to be resistant to apoptosis. Exosomes from both type I and type III EBV latently infected cells induced apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Moreover, cells exposed to EBV exosomes did not form colonies in soft agar assays. We further show that fluorescently labelled exosomes derived from EBV-infected cells are taken up by non-infected cells and induce apoptosis via the extrinsic pathway. Inhibition of caspase-3/7/8 blocks EBV exosome-mediated apoptosis. Furthermore, our data indicate that EBV exosomes trigger apoptosis through the Fas ligand (FasL)-mediated extrinsic pathway, as FasL was present in EBV exosomal fractions and anti-FasL antibodies could block EBV exosome-mediated apoptosis. Together, these data support the notion that EBV hijacks the exosome pathway to excrete viral and cellular components that can modulate its microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waqar Ahmed
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Pretty S Philip
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Samir Attoub
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Gulfaraz Khan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
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260
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Paracrine tumor signaling induces transdifferentiation of surrounding fibroblasts. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2015; 97:303-11. [PMID: 26467073 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth stimuli in cancer growth resemble those exhibited in wound healing. However, the process of nemosis is absent in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), which remain constitutively active. CAFs are present in almost all solid tumors but are most abundant in breast, prostate and pancreatic cancers. TGF-β1, TGF-β2, PDGF, IL-6, bFGF, reactive oxide species and protein kinase C are considered the key players in tumor-induced transdifferentiation of surrounding fibroblasts. Full-extent transdifferentiation was obtained only when the medium contained TGF-β1 or TGF-β2 (with or without other factors), whereas PDGF, bFGF or IL-6 (each alone) induced only partial transdifferentiation. Recent evidence suggests that the fibroblasts associated with primary cancers differ from those associated with metastases. The metastases-associated fibroblasts are converted by a metastasis-specific spectrum of factors. A large portion of paracrine tumor signaling is mediated by cancer cell-derived vesicles termed exosomes and microvesicles. The cancer cell-derived exosomes contain abundant and diverse proteomes and a number of signaling factors (TGF-ß1, TGF-ß2, IL-6, MMP2 and MMP9), particularly under hypoxic conditions. In contrast to the traditional view, the clonal expansion and selection of neoplastic cells should not be viewed outside the host body context. It is vital for a neoplastic cell to achieve the ability to re-program host body cells into CAFs and by this influence to modulate its microenvironment and receive positive feedback for growth and drug resistance. Neoplastic cells, which fail to develop such capacity, do not pass critical barriers in tumorigenesis and remain dormant and benign.
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261
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Alenquer M, Amorim MJ. Exosome Biogenesis, Regulation, and Function in Viral Infection. Viruses 2015; 7:5066-83. [PMID: 26393640 PMCID: PMC4584306 DOI: 10.3390/v7092862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles released upon fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the cellular plasma membrane. They originate as intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) during the process of MVB formation. Exosomes were shown to contain selectively sorted functional proteins, lipids, and RNAs, mediating cell-to-cell communications and hence playing a role in the physiology of the healthy and diseased organism. Challenges in the field include the identification of mechanisms sustaining packaging of membrane-bound and soluble material to these vesicles and the understanding of the underlying processes directing MVBs for degradation or fusion with the plasma membrane. The investigation into the formation and roles of exosomes in viral infection is in its early years. Although still controversial, exosomes can, in principle, incorporate any functional factor, provided they have an appropriate sorting signal, and thus are prone to viral exploitation. This review initially focuses on the composition and biogenesis of exosomes. It then explores the regulatory mechanisms underlying their biogenesis. Exosomes are part of the endocytic system, which is tightly regulated and able to respond to several stimuli that lead to alterations in the composition of its sub-compartments. We discuss the current knowledge of how these changes affect exosomal release. We then summarize how different viruses exploit specific proteins of endocytic sub-compartments and speculate that it could interfere with exosome function, although no direct link between viral usage of the endocytic system and exosome release has yet been reported. Many recent reports have ascribed functions to exosomes released from cells infected with a variety of animal viruses, including viral spread, host immunity, and manipulation of the microenvironment, which are discussed. Given the ever-growing roles and importance of exosomes in viral infections, understanding what regulates their composition and levels, and defining their functions will ultimately provide additional insights into the virulence and persistence of infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Alenquer
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande, 6, 2778-156 Oeiras, Portugal.
| | - Maria João Amorim
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande, 6, 2778-156 Oeiras, Portugal.
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262
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Lee HH, Wang YN, Hung MC. Non-canonical signaling mode of the epidermal growth factor receptor family. Am J Cancer Res 2015; 5:2944-58. [PMID: 26693051 PMCID: PMC4656722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its family members are key players in both physiological and pathological settings for which they are well recognized as models for investigating the functions and regulations of other membrane receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and serve as therapeutic targets critical to clinical need and fundamental research. The canonical view of the pivotal functions in the EGFR family has been well documented as being an initiator of signaling amplification cascades from the plasma membrane to different subcellular compartments via receptor endocytic trafficking, intermolecular interaction, and kinase-substrate reaction in a temporalspatial manner. However, several lines of evidence have identified non-canonical roles of the EGFR family, acting as a transcriptional factor and a chromatin regulator in the nucleus to regulate gene expression, DNA replication, and DNA damage repair. Moreover, the EGFR family can even exert its impact outside the host cell through exosomal vesicle secretion. The emerging concept of the non-canonical roles of the EGFR family reveals an astonishing and elaborate scheme on the molecular functions of membrane RTKs, offering new insights into the receptor biology as well as the development of comprehensive therapeutic strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng-Huan Lee
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer CenterHouston 77030, TX, USA
| | - Ying-Nai Wang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer CenterHouston 77030, TX, USA
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology, China Medical UniversityTaichung 404, Taiwan
| | - Mien-Chie Hung
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer CenterHouston 77030, TX, USA
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology, China Medical UniversityTaichung 404, Taiwan
- The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at HoustonHouston 77030, TX, USA
- Department of Biotechnology, Asia UniversityTaichung 413, Taiwan
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263
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Abe H, Kaneda A, Fukayama M. Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Gastric Carcinoma: Use of Host Cell Machineries and Somatic Gene Mutations. Pathobiology 2015; 82:212-23. [DOI: 10.1159/000434683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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264
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Assil S, Webster B, Dreux M. Regulation of the Host Antiviral State by Intercellular Communications. Viruses 2015; 7:4707-33. [PMID: 26295405 PMCID: PMC4576201 DOI: 10.3390/v7082840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses usually induce a profound remodeling of host cells, including the usurpation of host machinery to support their replication and production of virions to invade new cells. Nonetheless, recognition of viruses by the host often triggers innate immune signaling, preventing viral spread and modulating the function of immune cells. It conventionally occurs through production of antiviral factors and cytokines by infected cells. Virtually all viruses have evolved mechanisms to blunt such responses. Importantly, it is becoming increasingly recognized that infected cells also transmit signals to regulate innate immunity in uninfected neighboring cells. These alternative pathways are notably mediated by vesicular secretion of various virus- and host-derived products (miRNAs, RNAs, and proteins) and non-infectious viral particles. In this review, we focus on these newly-described modes of cell-to-cell communications and their impact on neighboring cell functions. The reception of these signals can have anti- and pro-viral impacts, as well as more complex effects in the host such as oncogenesis and inflammation. Therefore, these “broadcasting” functions, which might be tuned by an arms race involving selective evolution driven by either the host or the virus, constitute novel and original regulations of viral infection, either highly localized or systemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Assil
- CIRI, Université de Lyon, Inserm, U1111, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, LabEx Ecofect, Université de Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France.
| | - Brian Webster
- CIRI, Université de Lyon, Inserm, U1111, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, LabEx Ecofect, Université de Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France.
| | - Marlène Dreux
- CIRI, Université de Lyon, Inserm, U1111, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, LabEx Ecofect, Université de Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France.
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265
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Iwakiri D. Multifunctional non-coding Epstein-Barr virus encoded RNAs (EBERs) contribute to viral pathogenesis. Virus Res 2015; 212:30-8. [PMID: 26292159 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 08/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is known as an oncogenic herpesvirus implicated in the pathogenesis of various malignancies. It has been reported that EBV non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including EBV-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) and EBV-miRNAs contribute to viral pathogenesis. EBERs that are expressed abundantly in latently EBV-infected cells have been reported to play significant roles in tumorigenesis by EBV. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the modulation of host innate immune signals by EBERs contributes to EBV-mediated pathogenesis including oncogenesis. Recently it was demonstrated that EBERs are secreted via exosomes by EBV-infected cells. It was also demonstrated that exosomes contain a number of EBV-encoded miRNAs. Various mRNAs have been identified as targets for regulation by EBV-miRNAs in host cells, therefore, EBERs and EBV-miRNAs might function through the transfer of exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai Iwakiri
- Institute for Genetic Medicine, Hokkaido University, N15 W7 Kita-Ku, Sapporo 060-0815, Japan.
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266
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Exosomes and Their Role in the Life Cycle and Pathogenesis of RNA Viruses. Viruses 2015; 7:3204-25. [PMID: 26102580 PMCID: PMC4488737 DOI: 10.3390/v7062770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles actively released into the extracellular space, whose content reflect the physiological/pathological state of the cells they originate from. These vesicles participate in cell-to-cell communication and transfer of biologically active proteins, lipids, and RNAs. Their role in viral infections is just beginning to be appreciated. RNA viruses are an important class of pathogens and affect millions of people worldwide. Recent studies on Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV), and Dengue Virus (DENV) have demonstrated that exosomes released from infected cells harbor and deliver many regulatory factors including viral RNA and proteins, viral and cellular miRNA, and other host functional genetic elements to neighboring cells, helping to establish productive infections and modulating cellular responses. Exosomes can either spread or limit an infection depending on the type of pathogen and target cells, and can be exploited as candidates for development of antiviral or vaccine treatments. This review summarizes recent progress made in understanding the role of exosomes in RNA virus infections with an emphasis on their potential contribution to pathogenesis.
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267
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Wu TS, Wang LC, Liu SC, Hsu TY, Lin CY, Feng GJ, Chen JM, Liu HP, Chung IC, Yen TC, Chang YS, Liao SK, Chang C, Chow KPN. EBV oncogene N-LMP1 induces CD4 T cell-mediated angiogenic blockade in the murine tumor model. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:4577-87. [PMID: 25847974 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Antivascular immunity may provide long-term protection by preventing neovascularization that precedes tumor progression. Although the tumorigenesis promoted by EBV-encoded oncogene latent membrane protein 1 derived from Taiwanese nasopharyngeal carcinoma (N-LMP1) has been demonstrated, the potential of N-LMP1 for inducing immune surveillance remains elusive. In this article, we describe the immunogenicity of N-LMP1 (1510) and its induction of antivascular immunity in a transplantable tumor model in immunocompetent BALB/c mice. The immunogenicity of N-LMP1 was evaluated on the basis of tumor rejection following immunization. The impact of the immunization on the dynamics of tumor angiogenesis was assessed by temporal noninvasive dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and was further confirmed by histologic study and vascular count. Through the experiments of in vivo depletion and adoptive transfer, CD4 T cells were identified as effectors that depend on IFN-γ for tumor prevention. The response was further verified by the identification of an MHC H-2 I-E(d)-restricted peptide derived from N-LMP1 and by the immunization of mice with N-LMP1 peptide-loaded dendritic cells. These studies provide insight into N-LMP1-specific immunity in vivo, which suggests that CD4 T cells may play an important role in angiogenic surveillance against LMP1-associated cancer via tumor stroma targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzong-Shoon Wu
- Exploratory Research Laboratory, Development Center for Biotechnology, New Taipei City 221, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Lian-Chen Wang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China; Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Shu-Chen Liu
- Molecular Medical Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China; Institute of Systems Biology and Bioinformatics, National Central University, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ting-Yu Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chun-Yen Lin
- Department of Hepatogastroenterology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Gou-Jin Feng
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jian-Ming Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Hao-Ping Liu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - I-Che Chung
- Molecular Medical Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Tzu-Chen Yen
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Center for Advanced Molecular Imaging and Translation, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yu-Sun Chang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China; Molecular Medical Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Shuen-Kuei Liao
- Ph.D. Program for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chen Chang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan, Republic of China; and
| | - Kai-Ping N Chow
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
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268
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Human Cytomegalovirus UL135 and UL136 Genes Are Required for Postentry Tropism in Endothelial Cells. J Virol 2015; 89:6536-50. [PMID: 25878111 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00284-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Endothelial cells (ECs) are a critical target of viruses, and infection of the endothelium represents a defining point in viral pathogenesis. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), the prototypical betaherpesvirus, encodes proteins specialized for entry into ECs and delivery of the genome to the nuclei of ECs. Virus strains competent to enter ECs replicate with differing efficiencies, suggesting that the virus encodes genes for postentry tropism in ECs. We previously reported a specific requirement for the UL133/8 locus of HCMV for replication in ECs. The UL133/8 locus harbors four genes: UL133, UL135, UL136, and UL138. In this study, we find that while UL133 and UL138 are dispensable for replication in ECs, both UL135 and UL136 are important. These genes are not required for virus entry or the expression of viral genes. The phenotypes associated with disruption of either gene reflect phenotypes observed for the UL133/8NULL virus, which lacks the entire UL133/8 locus, but are largely distinct from one another. Viruses lacking UL135 fail to properly envelop capsids in the cytoplasm, produce fewer dense bodies (DB) than the wild-type (WT) virus, and are unable to incorporate viral products into multivesicular bodies (MVB). Viruses lacking UL136 also fail to properly envelop virions and produce larger dense bodies than the WT virus. Our results indicate roles for the UL135 and UL136 proteins in commandeering host membrane-trafficking pathways for virus maturation. UL135 and UL136 represent the first HCMV genes crucial for early- to late-stage tropism in ECs. IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) persists in the majority of the world's population. While typically asymptomatic in healthy hosts, HCMV can cause significant morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised or naïve individuals, particularly transplant patients and patients with congenital infections, respectively. Lifelong persistence of the virus may also contribute to age-related pathologies, such as vascular disease. One aspect of HCMV infection contributing to complex and varied pathogenesis is the diverse array of cell types that this virus infects in the host. The vascular endothelium is a particularly important target of infection, contributing to viral dissemination and likely leading to CMV complications following transplantation. In this work, we identify two viral gene products required for postentry tropism in endothelial cells. Identifying tropism factors required for replication in critical cell targets of infection is important for the development of strategies to restrict virus replication.
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269
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Verweij FJ, de Heus C, Kroeze S, Cai H, Kieff E, Piersma SR, Jimenez CR, Middeldorp JM, Pegtel DM. Exosomal sorting of the viral oncoprotein LMP1 is restrained by TRAF2 association at signalling endosomes. J Extracell Vesicles 2015; 4:26334. [PMID: 25865256 PMCID: PMC4394166 DOI: 10.3402/jev.v4.26334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)-encoded oncoprotein latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) constitutively activates nuclear factor κB (NFκB) from intracellular membranes to promote cell growth and survival. LMP1 associates with CD63 in intracellular membranes and is released via exosomes. Whether tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factors (TRAFs) mediate LMP1 NFκB signalling from endosomes and modulate exosomal sorting is unknown. In this article, we show that LMP1–TRAF2 signalling complexes accumulate at endosomes in a palmitoylation-dependent manner, thereby driving LMP1-dependent oncogenicity. Palmitoylation is a reversible post-translational modification and is considered to function as a membrane anchor for proteins. Mutagenesis studies showed that LMP1–TRAF2 trafficking to endosomes is dependent on one single cysteine residue (C78), a known palmitoylation site of LMP1. Notably, growth assays in soft agar revealed that oncogenic properties of the palmitoylation-deficient LMP1 mutant C78A were diminished compared to wild-type LMP1. Since LMP1 recruitment of TRAF2 and downstream NFκB signalling were not affected by a disturbance in palmitoylation, the specific localization of LMP1 at endosomal membranes appears crucial for its transforming potential. The importance of palmitoylation for trafficking to and signalling from endosomal membranes was not restricted to LMP1, as similar observations were made for the cellular oncoproteins Src and Fyn. Despite abundant LMP1–TRAF2 association at endosomal membranes TRAF2 could not be detected in exosomes by Western blotting or proteomics. Interestingly, point mutations that prevented TRAF binding strongly promoted the sorting and release of LMP1 via exosomes. These observations reveal that LMP1–TRAF2 complexes at endosomes support oncogenic NFκB activation and suggest that LMP1 dissociates from the activated signalling complexes upon sorting into intraluminal vesicles. We propose that “signalling endosomes” in EBV-infected tumour cells can fuse with the plasma membrane, explaining LMP1 release via exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik J Verweij
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cecilia de Heus
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stefanie Kroeze
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Houjian Cai
- Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Elliott Kieff
- Channing Laboratory, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sander R Piersma
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Connie R Jimenez
- Department of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M Middeldorp
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk Michiel Pegtel
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
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270
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The role of Merkel cell polyomavirus and other human polyomaviruses in emerging hallmarks of cancer. Viruses 2015; 7:1871-901. [PMID: 25866902 PMCID: PMC4411681 DOI: 10.3390/v7041871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyomaviruses are non-enveloped, dsDNA viruses that are common in mammals, including humans. All polyomaviruses encode the large T-antigen and small t-antigen proteins that share conserved functional domains, comprising binding motifs for the tumor suppressors pRb and p53, and for protein phosphatase 2A, respectively. At present, 13 different human polyomaviruses are known, and for some of them their large T-antigen and small t-antigen have been shown to possess oncogenic properties in cell culture and animal models, while similar functions are assumed for the large T- and small t-antigen of other human polyomaviruses. However, so far the Merkel cell polyomavirus seems to be the only human polyomavirus associated with cancer. The large T- and small t-antigen exert their tumorigenic effects through classical hallmarks of cancer: inhibiting tumor suppressors, activating tumor promoters, preventing apoptosis, inducing angiogenesis and stimulating metastasis. This review elaborates on the putative roles of human polyomaviruses in some of the emerging hallmarks of cancer. The reciprocal interactions between human polyomaviruses and the immune system response are discussed, a plausible role of polyomavirus-encoded and polyomavirus-induced microRNA in cancer is described, and the effect of polyomaviruses on energy homeostasis and exosomes is explored. Therapeutic strategies against these emerging hallmarks of cancer are also suggested.
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271
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Smith JA, Leonardi T, Huang B, Iraci N, Vega B, Pluchino S. Extracellular vesicles and their synthetic analogues in aging and age-associated brain diseases. Biogerontology 2015; 16:147-85. [PMID: 24973266 PMCID: PMC4578234 DOI: 10.1007/s10522-014-9510-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Multicellular organisms rely upon diverse and complex intercellular communications networks for a myriad of physiological processes. Disruption of these processes is implicated in the onset and propagation of disease and disorder, including the mechanisms of senescence at both cellular and organismal levels. In recent years, secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been identified as a particularly novel vector by which cell-to-cell communications are enacted. EVs actively and specifically traffic bioactive proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites between cells at local and systemic levels, modulating cellular responses in a bidirectional manner under both homeostatic and pathological conditions. EVs are being implicated not only in the generic aging process, but also as vehicles of pathology in a number of age-related diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative and disease. Thus, circulating EVs-or specific EV cargoes-are being utilised as putative biomarkers of disease. On the other hand, EVs, as targeted intercellular shuttles of multipotent bioactive payloads, have demonstrated promising therapeutic properties, which can potentially be modulated and enhanced through cellular engineering. Furthermore, there is considerable interest in employing nanomedicinal approaches to mimic the putative therapeutic properties of EVs by employing synthetic analogues for targeted drug delivery. Herein we describe what is known about the origin and nature of EVs and subsequently review their putative roles in biology and medicine (including the use of synthetic EV analogues), with a particular focus on their role in aging and age-related brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Smith
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
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272
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Abstract
Exosomes are small vesicles secreted from cells that participate in intercellular communication events. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that host exosome pathways are hijacked by viruses and that virally modified exosomes contribute to virus spread and immune evasion. In the case of tumor viruses, recent findings suggest that alterations in normal exosome biology may promote the development and progression of cancer. These studies will be discussed in the context of our current knowledge of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-modified exosomes.
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273
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Honegger A, Schilling D, Bastian S, Sponagel J, Kuryshev V, Sültmann H, Scheffner M, Hoppe-Seyler K, Hoppe-Seyler F. Dependence of intracellular and exosomal microRNAs on viral E6/E7 oncogene expression in HPV-positive tumor cells. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004712. [PMID: 25760330 PMCID: PMC4356518 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Specific types of human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause cervical cancer. Cervical cancers exhibit aberrant cellular microRNA (miRNA) expression patterns. By genome-wide analyses, we investigate whether the intracellular and exosomal miRNA compositions of HPV-positive cancer cells are dependent on endogenous E6/E7 oncogene expression. Deep sequencing studies combined with qRT-PCR analyses show that E6/E7 silencing significantly affects ten of the 52 most abundant intracellular miRNAs in HPV18-positive HeLa cells, downregulating miR-17-5p, miR-186-5p, miR-378a-3p, miR-378f, miR-629-5p and miR-7-5p, and upregulating miR-143-3p, miR-23a-3p, miR-23b-3p and miR-27b-3p. The effects of E6/E7 silencing on miRNA levels are mainly not dependent on p53 and similarly observed in HPV16-positive SiHa cells. The E6/E7-regulated miRNAs are enriched for species involved in the control of cell proliferation, senescence and apoptosis, suggesting that they contribute to the growth of HPV-positive cancer cells. Consistently, we show that sustained E6/E7 expression is required to maintain the intracellular levels of members of the miR-17~92 cluster, which reduce expression of the anti-proliferative p21 gene in HPV-positive cancer cells. In exosomes secreted by HeLa cells, a distinct seven-miRNA-signature was identified among the most abundant miRNAs, with significant downregulation of let-7d-5p, miR-20a-5p, miR-378a-3p, miR-423-3p, miR-7-5p, miR-92a-3p and upregulation of miR-21-5p, upon E6/E7 silencing. Several of the E6/E7-dependent exosomal miRNAs have also been linked to the control of cell proliferation and apoptosis. This study represents the first global analysis of intracellular and exosomal miRNAs and shows that viral oncogene expression affects the abundance of multiple miRNAs likely contributing to the E6/E7-dependent growth of HPV-positive cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Honegger
- Molecular Therapy of Virus-Associated Cancers (F065), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Daniela Schilling
- Cancer Genome Research (B063), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sandra Bastian
- Molecular Therapy of Virus-Associated Cancers (F065), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jasmin Sponagel
- Molecular Therapy of Virus-Associated Cancers (F065), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Vladimir Kuryshev
- Cancer Genome Research (B063), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Holger Sültmann
- Cancer Genome Research (B063), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Martin Scheffner
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Karin Hoppe-Seyler
- Molecular Therapy of Virus-Associated Cancers (F065), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Felix Hoppe-Seyler
- Molecular Therapy of Virus-Associated Cancers (F065), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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274
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Exosomes and their roles in immune regulation and cancer. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2015; 40:72-81. [PMID: 25724562 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 441] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes, a subset of extracellular vesicles (EVs), function as a mode of intercellular communication and molecular transfer. Exosomes facilitate the direct extracellular transfer of proteins, lipids, and miRNA/mRNA/DNAs between cells in vitro and in vivo. The immunological activities of exosomes affect immunoregulation mechanisms including modulating antigen presentation, immune activation, immune suppression, immune surveillance, and intercellular communication. Besides immune cells, cancer cells secrete immunologically active exosomes that influence both physiological and pathological processes. The observation that exosomes isolated from immune cells such as dendritic cells (DCs) modulate the immune response has enforced the way these membranous vesicles are being considered as potential immunotherapeutic reagents. Indeed, tumour- and immune cell-derived exosomes have been shown to carry tumour antigens and promote immunity, leading to eradication of established tumours by CD8(+) T cells and CD4(+) T cells, as well as directly suppressing tumour growth and resistance to malignant tumour development. Further understanding of these areas of exosome biology, and especially of molecular mechanisms involved in immune cell targeting, interaction and manipulation, is likely to provide significant insights into immunorecognition and therapeutic intervention. Here, we review the emerging roles of exosomes in immune regulation and the therapeutic potential in cancer.
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275
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Zhang J, Li S, Li L, Li M, Guo C, Yao J, Mi S. Exosome and exosomal microRNA: trafficking, sorting, and function. GENOMICS, PROTEOMICS & BIOINFORMATICS 2015; 13:17-24. [PMID: 25724326 PMCID: PMC4411500 DOI: 10.1016/j.gpb.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1373] [Impact Index Per Article: 152.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are 40-100 nm nano-sized vesicles that are released from many cell types into the extracellular space. Such vesicles are widely distributed in various body fluids. Recently, mRNAs and microRNAs (miRNAs) have been identified in exosomes, which can be taken up by neighboring or distant cells and subsequently modulate recipient cells. This suggests an active sorting mechanism of exosomal miRNAs, since the miRNA profiles of exosomes may differ from those of the parent cells. Exosomal miRNAs play an important role in disease progression, and can stimulate angiogenesis and facilitate metastasis in cancers. In this review, we will introduce the origin and the trafficking of exosomes between cells, display current research on the sorting mechanism of exosomal miRNAs, and briefly describe how exosomes and their miRNAs function in recipient cells. Finally, we will discuss the potential applications of these miRNA-containing vesicles in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Genomics and Precision Medicine, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Sha Li
- Key Laboratory of Genomics and Precision Medicine, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lu Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong University, Shandong 250013, China
| | - Meng Li
- Key Laboratory of Genomics and Precision Medicine, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chongye Guo
- Key Laboratory of Genomics and Precision Medicine, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jun Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuangli Mi
- Key Laboratory of Genomics and Precision Medicine, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
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276
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Xie YJ, Long ZF, He XS. Involvement of EBV-encoded BART-miRNAs and dysregulated cellular miRNAs in nasopharyngeal carcinoma genesis. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 14:5637-44. [PMID: 24289555 DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.10.5637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The definite molecular mechanisms underlying the genesis of nasopharyngeal carcinomas (NPCs) remain to be completely elucidated. miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs which are implicated in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and even carcinogenesis through negatively regulating gene expression post-transcriptionally. EBV was the first human virus found to express miRNAs. EBV-encoded BART-miRNAs and dysregulated cellular miRNAs are involved in carcinogenesis of NPC by interfering in the expression of viral and host cell genes related to immune responses and perturbing signal pathways of proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis and even radio-chemo-therapy sensitivity. Additional studies on the roles of EBV-encoded miRNAs and cellular miRNAs will provide new insights concerning the complicated gene regulated network and shed light on novel strategies for the diagnosis, therapy and prognosis of NPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Jie Xie
- Cancer Research Institute, University of South China, Hengyang, China E-mail :
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277
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Raab-Traub N. Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: An Evolving Role for the Epstein-Barr Virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2015; 390:339-63. [PMID: 26424653 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-22822-8_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr herpesvirus (EBV) is an important human pathogen that is closely linked to several major malignancies including the major epithelial tumor, undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). This important tumor occurs with elevated incidence in specific areas, particularly in southern China but also in Mediterranean Africa and some regions of the Middle East. Regardless of tumor prevalence, undifferentiated NPC is consistently associated with EBV. The consistent detection of EBV in all cases of NPC, the maintenance of the viral genome in every cell, and the continued expression of viral gene products suggest that EBV is a necessary factor for the malignant growth in vivo. However, the molecular characterization of the infection and identification of critical events have been hampered by the difficulty in developing in vitro models of NPC. Epithelial cell infection is difficult in vitro and in contrast to B-cell infection does not result in immortalization and transformation. Cell lines established from NPC usually do not retain the genome, and the successful establishment of tumor xenografts is difficult. However, critical genetic changes that contribute to the onset and progression of NPC and key molecular properties of the viral genes expressed in NPC have been identified. In some cases, viral expression becomes increasingly restricted during tumor progression and tumor cells may express only the viral nuclear antigen EBNA1 and viral noncoding RNAs. As NPC develops in the immunocompetent, the continued progression of deregulated growth likely reflects the combination of expression of viral oncogenes in some cells and viral noncoding RNAs that likely function synergistically with changes in cellular RNA and miRNA expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Raab-Traub
- Department of Microbiology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, CB#7295, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7295, USA.
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278
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Ressing ME, van Gent M, Gram AM, Hooykaas MJG, Piersma SJ, Wiertz EJHJ. Immune Evasion by Epstein-Barr Virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2015; 391:355-81. [PMID: 26428381 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-22834-1_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Bar virus (EBV) is widespread within the human population with over 90% of adults being infected. In response to primary EBV infection, the host mounts an antiviral immune response comprising both innate and adaptive effector functions. Although the immune system can control EBV infection to a large extent, the virus is not cleared. Instead, EBV establishes a latent infection in B lymphocytes characterized by limited viral gene expression. For the production of new viral progeny, EBV reactivates from these latently infected cells. During the productive phase of infection, a repertoire of over 80 EBV gene products is expressed, presenting a vast number of viral antigens to the primed immune system. In particular the EBV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ memory T lymphocytes can respond within hours, potentially destroying the virus-producing cells before viral replication is completed and viral particles have been released. Preceding the adaptive immune response, potent innate immune mechanisms provide a first line of defense during primary and recurrent infections. In spite of this broad range of antiviral immune effector mechanisms, EBV persists for life and continues to replicate. Studies performed over the past decades have revealed a wide array of viral gene products interfering with both innate and adaptive immunity. These include EBV-encoded proteins as well as small noncoding RNAs with immune-evasive properties. The current review presents an overview of the evasion strategies that are employed by EBV to facilitate immune escape during latency and productive infection. These evasion mechanisms may also compromise the elimination of EBV-transformed cells, and thus contribute to malignancies associated with EBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maaike E Ressing
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Michiel van Gent
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anna M Gram
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolein J G Hooykaas
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sytse J Piersma
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Emmanuel J H J Wiertz
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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279
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Gangoda L, Boukouris S, Liem M, Kalra H, Mathivanan S. Extracellular vesicles including exosomes are mediators of signal transduction: Are they protective or pathogenic? Proteomics 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400234 and 21=21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lahiru Gangoda
- Department of Biochemistry; La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science; La Trobe University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - Stephanie Boukouris
- Department of Biochemistry; La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science; La Trobe University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - Michael Liem
- Department of Biochemistry; La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science; La Trobe University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - Hina Kalra
- Department of Biochemistry; La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science; La Trobe University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - Suresh Mathivanan
- Department of Biochemistry; La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science; La Trobe University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
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280
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Gangoda L, Boukouris S, Liem M, Kalra H, Mathivanan S. Extracellular vesicles including exosomes are mediators of signal transduction: are they protective or pathogenic? Proteomics 2014; 15:260-71. [PMID: 25307053 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2014] [Revised: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are signaling organelles that are released by many cell types and is highly conserved in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Based on the mechanism of biogenesis, these membranous vesicles can be classified as exosomes, shedding microvesicles, and apoptotic blebs. It is becoming clearer that these EVs mediate signal transduction in both autocrine and paracrine fashion by the transfer of proteins and RNA. While the role of EVs including exosomes in pathogenesis is well established, very little is known about their function in normal physiological conditions. Recent evidences allude that EVs can mediate both protective and pathogenic effects depending on the precise state. In this review, we discuss the involvement of EVs as mediators of signal transduction in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. In addition, the role of EVs in mediating Wnt and PI3K signaling pathways is also discussed. Additional findings on the involvement of EVs in homeostasis and disease progression will promote a better biological understanding, advance future therapeutic, and diagnostic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lahiru Gangoda
- Department of Biochemistry, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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281
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Lai FW, Lichty BD, Bowdish DME. Microvesicles: ubiquitous contributors to infection and immunity. J Leukoc Biol 2014; 97:237-45. [PMID: 25473096 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.3ru0513-292rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MVs, which can be subgrouped into exosomes, SVs, and OMVs, are secreted by eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Many previously inexplicable phenomena can be explained by the existence of these vesicles, as they appear to be important in a wide range of biologic processes, such as intercellular communication and transfer of functional genetic information. In this review, we discuss the immunologic roles of MVs during sterile insult and infectious disease. MVs contribute to clotting initiation, cell recruitment, and neovascularization during wound healing. In the context of pathogen infection, both the host and the pathogen use MVs for communication and defense. MVs are exploited by various viruses to evade the host immune response and contribute to viral spread. Bacteria produce MVs that contain virulence factors that contribute to disease pathology and antibiotic resistance. This review summarizes the role of MVs in the pathology and resolution of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances W Lai
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brian D Lichty
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dawn M E Bowdish
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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282
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Abstract
Since its discovery 50 years ago, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has been linked to the development of cancers originating from both lymphoid and epithelial cells. Approximately 95% of the world's population sustains an asymptomatic, life-long infection with EBV. The virus persists in the memory B-cell pool of normal healthy individuals, and any disruption of this interaction results in virus-associated B-cell tumors. The association of EBV with epithelial cell tumors, specifically nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and EBV-positive gastric carcinoma (EBV-GC), is less clear and is currently thought to be caused by the aberrant establishment of virus latency in epithelial cells that display premalignant genetic changes. Although the precise role of EBV in the carcinogenic process is currently poorly understood, the presence of the virus in all tumor cells provides opportunities for developing novel therapeutic and diagnostic approaches. The study of EBV and its role in carcinomas continues to provide insight into the carcinogenic process that is relevant to a broader understanding of tumor pathogenesis and to the development of targeted cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence S Young
- Warwick Medical School, The University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
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283
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Cells infected with herpes simplex virus 1 export to uninfected cells exosomes containing STING, viral mRNAs, and microRNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E4991-6. [PMID: 25368198 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1419338111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
STING (stimulator of IFN genes) activates the IFN-dependent innate immune response to infection on sensing the presence of DNA in cytosol. The quantity of STING accumulating in cultured cells varies; it is relatively high in some cell lines [e.g., HEp-2, human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HEL), and HeLa] and low in others (e.g., Vero cells). In a preceding publication we reported that STING was stable in four cell lines infected with herpes simplex virus 1 and that it was actively stabilized in at least two cell lines derived from human cancers. In this report we show that STING is exported from HEp-2 cells to Vero cells along with virions, viral mRNAs, microRNAs, and the exosome marker protein CD9. The virions and exosomes copurified. The quantity of STING and CD9 exported from one cell line to another was inoculum-size-dependent and reflected the levels of STING and CD9 accumulating in the cells in which the virus inoculum was made. The export of STING, an innate immune sensor, and of viral mRNAs whose major role may be in silencing viral genes in latently infected neurons, suggests that the virus has evolved mechanisms that curtail rather than foster the spread of infection under certain conditions.
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284
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OWEN CHRISTOPHERB, HUGHES DAVIDJ, BAQUERO-PEREZ BELINDA, BERNDT ANJA, SCHUMANN SOPHIE, JACKSON BRIANR, WHITEHOUSE ADRIAN. Utilising proteomic approaches to understand oncogenic human herpesviruses (Review). Mol Clin Oncol 2014; 2:891-903. [PMID: 25279171 PMCID: PMC4179824 DOI: 10.3892/mco.2014.341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The γ-herpesviruses Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus are successful pathogens, each infecting a large proportion of the human population. These viruses persist for the life of the host and may each contribute to a number of malignancies, for which there are currently no cures. Large-scale proteomic-based approaches provide an excellent means of increasing the collective understanding of the proteomes of these complex viruses and elucidating their numerous interactions within the infected host cell. These large-scale studies are important for the identification of the intricacies of viral infection and the development of novel therapeutics against these two important pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- CHRISTOPHER B. OWEN
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - DAVID J. HUGHES
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - BELINDA BAQUERO-PEREZ
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - ANJA BERNDT
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - SOPHIE SCHUMANN
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - BRIAN R. JACKSON
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - ADRIAN WHITEHOUSE
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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285
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Ariza ME, Glaser R, Williams MV. Human herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases: a family of proteins that modulate dendritic cell function and innate immunity. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:504. [PMID: 25309527 PMCID: PMC4176148 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded dUTPase can modulate innate immune responses through the activation of TLR2 and NF-κB signaling. However, whether this novel immune function of the dUTPase is specific for EBV or a common property of the Herpesviridae family is not known. In this study, we demonstrate that the purified viral dUTPases encoded by herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), human herpesvirus-6A (HHV-6A), human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV) differentially activate NF-κB through ligation of TLR2/TLR1 heterodimers. Furthermore, activation of NF-κB by the viral dUTPases was inhibited by anti-TLR2 blocking antibodies (Abs) and the over-expression of dominant-negative constructs of TLR2, lacking the TIR domain, and MyD88 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing TLR2/TLR1. In addition, treatment of human dendritic cells and PBMCs with the herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases from HSV-2, HHV-6A, HHV-8, and VZV resulted in the secretion of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α, IL-10, and IFN-γ. Interestingly, blocking experiments revealed that the anti-TLR2 Ab significantly reduced the secretion of cytokines by the various herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases (p < 0.05). To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that a non-structural protein encoded by herpesviruses HHV-6A, HHV-8, VZV and to a lesser extent HSV-2 is a pathogen-associated molecular pattern. Our results reveal a novel function of the virus-encoded dUTPases, which may be important to the pathophysiology of diseases caused by these viruses. More importantly, this study demonstrates that the immunomodulatory functions of dUTPases are a common property of the Herpesviridae family and thus, the dUTPase could be a potential target for the development of novel therapeutic agents against infections caused by these herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Eugenia Ariza
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Ronald Glaser
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA ; Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Marshall V Williams
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA
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286
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Lack of presence of the human cytomegalovirus in human glioblastoma. Mod Pathol 2014; 27:922-9. [PMID: 24336154 DOI: 10.1038/modpathol.2013.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 11/02/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent reports have indicated human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) to be associated with human glioblastoma carcinogenesis. In established examples of viral carcinogenesis, viral DNA and one or more of its products have been detected in most tumor cells of biopsies in the majority of cases. To test whether HCMV is associated with human glioblastoma based on this criterion, we measured the number of viral DNA molecules per cell in both frozen and paraffin-embedded tumor biopsies from 58 patients using real-time quantitative PCR (QPCR). Immunohistochemical and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to detect HCMV proteins and genome was performed in 10 cases using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded glioblastoma tissues. Southern blotting using DNA extracted from four glioblastoma cell lines together with immunoblotting using the four cell lines and five glioblastoma tissue samples were also performed. We further confirmed the immunoblot bands using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay. As a result, HCMV DNA was not detected in the tumor cells from any of the glioblastoma cases by QPCR detecting two different HCMV genes, in clear contrast to samples from patients with HCMV infection. Southern blotting and immunoblotting of cell lines and FISH using paraffin sections were all negative. However, immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry using tissue samples were partly positive, but HCMV proteins were not detected by proteomic analysis, suggesting false positivity of the analyses. As our QPCR analysis could detect 10 copies of HCMV DNA mixed with DNA extracted from 10(4) HCMV-negative cells, we conclude that HCMV is not persistent, at least in the tumor cells, of developed human glioblastoma.
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287
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Jaworski E, Narayanan A, Van Duyne R, Shabbeer-Meyering S, Iordanskiy S, Saifuddin M, Das R, Afonso PV, Sampey GC, Chung M, Popratiloff A, Shrestha B, Sehgal M, Jain P, Vertes A, Mahieux R, Kashanchi F. Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1-infected cells secrete exosomes that contain Tax protein. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:22284-305. [PMID: 24939845 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.549659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the causative agent of adult T-cell leukemia and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. The HTLV-1 transactivator protein Tax controls many critical cellular pathways, including host cell DNA damage response mechanisms, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis. Extracellular vesicles called exosomes play critical roles during pathogenic viral infections as delivery vehicles for host and viral components, including proteins, mRNA, and microRNA. We hypothesized that exosomes derived from HTLV-1-infected cells contain unique host and viral proteins that may contribute to HTLV-1-induced pathogenesis. We found exosomes derived from infected cells to contain Tax protein and proinflammatory mediators as well as viral mRNA transcripts, including Tax, HBZ, and Env. Furthermore, we observed that exosomes released from HTLV-1-infected Tax-expressing cells contributed to enhanced survival of exosome-recipient cells when treated with Fas antibody. This survival was cFLIP-dependent, with Tax showing induction of NF-κB in exosome-recipient cells. Finally, IL-2-dependent CTLL-2 cells that received Tax-containing exosomes were protected from apoptosis through activation of AKT. Similar experiments with primary cultures showed protection and survival of peripheral blood mononuclear cells even in the absence of phytohemagglutinin/IL-2. Surviving cells contained more phosphorylated Rb, consistent with the role of Tax in regulation of the cell cycle. Collectively, these results suggest that exosomes may play an important role in extracellular delivery of functional HTLV-1 proteins and mRNA to recipient cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Jaworski
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Aarthi Narayanan
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Rachel Van Duyne
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110, the Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine and
| | - Shabana Shabbeer-Meyering
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Sergey Iordanskiy
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110, the Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine and
| | - Mohammed Saifuddin
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Ravi Das
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Philippe V Afonso
- the Unité d'Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, F-75015 Paris, France, CNRS, UMR3569, F-75015 Paris, France, and
| | - Gavin C Sampey
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Myung Chung
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Anastas Popratiloff
- the Department of Chemistry, George Washington University, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Bindesh Shrestha
- Center for Microscopy and Image Analysis, George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Mohit Sehgal
- the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel Institute for Biotechnology and Virology Research, Drexel University College of Medicine, Doylestown, Pennsylvania 18902
| | - Pooja Jain
- the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel Institute for Biotechnology and Virology Research, Drexel University College of Medicine, Doylestown, Pennsylvania 18902
| | - Akos Vertes
- Center for Microscopy and Image Analysis, George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Renaud Mahieux
- the Equipe Oncogenèse Rétrovirale, Equipe labelisée "Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer," International Center for Research in Infectiology, INSERM U1111-CNRS UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Lyon 69364 Cedex 07, France
| | - Fatah Kashanchi
- From the School of Systems Biology, National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110,
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288
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Ahmed W, Philip PS, Tariq S, Khan G. Epstein-Barr virus-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) are present in fractions related to exosomes released by EBV-transformed cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99163. [PMID: 24896633 PMCID: PMC4045842 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an oncogenic herpesvirus associated with a number of human malignancies of epithelial and lymphoid origin. However, the mechanism of oncogenesis is unclear. A number of viral products, including EBV latent proteins and non-protein coding RNAs have been implicated. Recently it was reported that EBV-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) are released from EBV infected cells and they can induce biological changes in cells via signaling from toll-like receptor 3. Here, we investigated if these abundantly expressed non-protein coding EBV RNAs (EBER-1 and EBER-2) are excreted from infected cells in exosomal fractions. Using differential ultracentrifugation we isolated exosomes from three EBV positive cell lines (B95-8, EBV-LCL, BL30-B95-8), one EBER-1 transfected cell line (293T-pHEBo-E1) and two EBV-negative cell lines (BL30, 293T-pHEBo). The identity of purified exosomes was determined by electron microscopy and western blotting for CD63. The presence of EBERs in cells, culture supernatants and purified exosomal fractions was determined using RT-PCR and confirmed by sequencing. Purified exosomal fractions were also tested for the presence of the EBER-1-binding protein La, using western blotting. Both EBER-1 and EBER-2 were found to be present not only in the culture supernatants, but also in the purified exosome fractions of all EBV-infected cell lines. EBER-1 could also be detected in exosomal fractions from EBER-1 transfected 293T cells whilst the fractions from vector only transfectants were clearly negative. Furthermore, purified exosomal fractions also contained the EBER-binding protein (La), supporting the notion that EBERs are most probably released from EBV infected cells in the form of EBER-La complex in exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waqar Ahmed
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Alin, United Arab Emirates
| | - Pretty S. Philip
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Alin, United Arab Emirates
| | - Saeed Tariq
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Alin, United Arab Emirates
| | - Gulfaraz Khan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Alin, United Arab Emirates
- * E-mail:
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289
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Natasha G, Gundogan B, Tan A, Farhatnia Y, Wu W, Rajadas J, Seifalian AM. Exosomes as Immunotheranostic Nanoparticles. Clin Ther 2014; 36:820-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2014.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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290
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Dutta S, Warshall C, Bandyopadhyay C, Dutta D, Chandran B. Interactions between exosomes from breast cancer cells and primary mammary epithelial cells leads to generation of reactive oxygen species which induce DNA damage response, stabilization of p53 and autophagy in epithelial cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97580. [PMID: 24831807 PMCID: PMC4022578 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are nanovesicles originating from multivesicular bodies and are released by all cell types. They contain proteins, lipids, microRNAs, mRNAs and DNA fragments, which act as mediators of intercellular communications by inducing phenotypic changes in recipient cells. Tumor-derived exosomes have been shown to play critical roles in different stages of tumor development and metastasis of almost all types of cancer. One of the ways by which exosomes affect tumorigenesis is to manipulate the tumor microenvironments to create tumor permissive “niches”. Whether breast cancer cell secreted exosomes manipulate epithelial cells of the mammary duct to facilitate tumor development is not known. To address whether and how breast cancer cell secreted exosomes manipulate ductal epithelial cells we studied the interactions between exosomes isolated from conditioned media of 3 different breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, T47DA18 and MCF7), representing three different types of breast carcinomas, and normal human primary mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). Our studies show that exosomes released by breast cancer cell lines are taken up by HMECs, resulting in the induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and autophagy. Inhibition of ROS by N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) led to abrogation of autophagy. HMEC-exosome interactions also induced the phosphorylation of ATM, H2AX and Chk1 indicating the induction of DNA damage repair (DDR) responses. Under these conditions, phosphorylation of p53 at serine 15 was also observed. Both DDR responses and phosphorylation of p53 induced by HMEC-exosome interactions were also inhibited by NAC. Furthermore, exosome induced autophagic HMECs were found to release breast cancer cell growth promoting factors. Taken together, our results suggest novel mechanisms by which breast cancer cell secreted exosomes manipulate HMECs to create a tumor permissive microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujoy Dutta
- H. M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Case Warshall
- H. M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Chirosree Bandyopadhyay
- H. M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Dipanjan Dutta
- H. M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Bala Chandran
- H. M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
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291
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Translational research in nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Oral Oncol 2014; 50:345-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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292
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Extracellular RNA mediates and marks cancer progression. Semin Cancer Biol 2014; 28:14-23. [PMID: 24783980 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2014.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2013] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Different types of RNAs identified thus far represent a diverse group of macromolecules that are involved in the regulation of different biological processes. RNA is generally thought to be localized primarily in the nucleus and cytoplasm; however, some types of RNA have been detected in the extracellular milieu. These extracellular RNA (exRNA) molecules are protected from degradation and it is now widely accepted that extracellular vesicles and ribonucleoprotein particles serve as transport vehicles for exRNA among cells. The functional consequence of this transfer of genetic information probably encompasses a broad range of normal developmental and physiologic processes in many organisms. This review will focus on the role of exRNA communication in cancer. We will focus on different types of RNA species identified and characterized within tumor-derived extracellular vesicles. Further, we will describe the role of exRNAs in cancer progression, as well as their potential for use as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic tools for monitoring and treating cancer, respectively.
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293
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Ziegelbauer JM. Viral microRNA genomics and target validation. Curr Opin Virol 2014; 7:33-9. [PMID: 24763063 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2014.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A subset of viruses express their own microRNAs (miRNAs) and one way to understand the functions of these microRNAs is to identify the targets of these miRNAs. Sequence analysis and mRNA expression profiling were some of the first techniques to identify targets of viral miRNAs. More recently, proteomics and sequencing of RNA by crosslinking and immunoprecipitation (CLIP) methods have been insightful and discovered many miRNA targets that may be missed using other methods. We are now at a point where numerous validated miRNA targets have been described and integration of these genomic datasets will provide a richer understanding of miRNA targeting and viral infection, persistence, and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Ziegelbauer
- HIV and AIDS Malignancy Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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294
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Small RNA as a regulator of hematopoietic development, immune response in infection and tumorigenesis. Int J Hematol 2014; 99:553-60. [PMID: 24687917 DOI: 10.1007/s12185-014-1564-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Posttranscriptional gene regulation by small RNAs (15-40-nucleotide noncoding RNAs) is now established as an important branch of the gene regulatory system. It has recently been revealed that noncoding RNAs can be categorized into different types and that they work through novel mechanisms. In addition, it has been shown that noncoding RNAs mediate intercellular communication and, importantly, that cross talk between coding and noncoding RNAs occurs. In this review, we discuss the recent findings concerning small RNAs. It was originally proposed that microRNAs (miRNAs) work to "fine tune" the determination of cell fate. However, critical functions beyond fine tuning have been revealed. In addition to miRNAs, next-generation sequencing has revealed the existence of various species of non-canonical small RNAs: mirtrons, piRNAs, 21U-RNA, endo-siRNAs, snoRNAs, usRNAs, and Y-RNA-derived small RNAs. Some of these species are involved in response to viral infection. Finally, we highlight the intracellular functions of small RNAs, which involve the exosomes.
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295
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Abstract
Cell-cell communication has proven to be even more complex than previously thought since the discovery that extracellular vesicles serve as containers of biological information on various pathophysiological settings. Extracellular vesicles are classified into exosomes, microvesicles/microparticles, or apoptotic bodies, originating from different subcellular compartments. The cellular machinery controlling their formation and composition, as well as the mechanisms regulating their extracellular release, remain unfortunately much unknown. Extracellular vesicles have been found in plasma, urine, saliva, and inflammatory tissues. Their biomarker potential has raised significant interest in the cardiovascular field because the vesicle composition and microRNA content are specific signatures of cellular activation and injury. More than simply cell dust, extracellular vesicles are capable of transferring biological information to neighboring cells and play an active role in inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis and angiogenesis. The molecular interactions regulating these effects involve specific receptor activation, proteolytic enzymes, reactive oxygen species, or delivery of genetic information to target cells. Unraveling their mechanisms of action will likely open new therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Loyer
- From the INSERM, U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center-PARCC; and Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR-S970, Paris, France
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296
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Aga M, Bentz GL, Raffa S, Torrisi MR, Kondo S, Wakisaka N, Yoshizaki T, Pagano JS, Shackelford J. Exosomal HIF1α supports invasive potential of nasopharyngeal carcinoma-associated LMP1-positive exosomes. Oncogene 2014; 33:4613-22. [PMID: 24662828 PMCID: PMC4162459 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2014.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2013] [Revised: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
It has emerged recently that exosomes are potential carriers of pro-tumorigenic factors that participate in oncogenesis. However, whether oncogenic transcription factors are transduced by exosomes is unknown. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF1α) transcriptionally regulates numerous key aspects of tumor development and progression by promoting a more aggressive tumor phenotype, characterized by increased proliferation and invasiveness coupled with neoangiogenesis. It has been shown that the principal oncoprotein of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), drives oncogenic processes and tumor progression of the highly invasive EBV malignancy, nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). We now demonstrate that endogenous HIF1α is detectable in exosomes and that LMP1 significantly increases levels of HIF1α in exosomes. HIF1 recovered from exosomes retains DNA-binding activity and is transcriptionally active in recipient cells after exosome uptake. We also show that treatment of EBV-negative cells with LMP1-exosomes increases migration and invasiveness of NP cell lines in functional assays, which correlates with the phenotype associated with epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). In addition, we provide evidence that HIF1α itself participates in exosome-mediated pro-metastatic effects in recipient cells, as exosome-mediated delivery of active and inactive forms of HIF1α results in reciprocal changes in the expression of E- and N-cadherins associated with EMT. Further, immunohistochemical analysis of NPC tumor tissues revealed direct correlation between protein levels of LMP1 and of the endosome/exosome marker tetraspanin, CD63, which suggests an increase in exosome formation in this EBV-positive malignancy. We hypothesize that exosome-mediated transfer of functional pro-metastatic factors by LMP1-positive NPC cells to surrounding tumor cells promotes cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Aga
- 1] Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA [2] Division of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - G L Bentz
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - S Raffa
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Molecolare, Università di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - M R Torrisi
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Molecolare, Università di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - S Kondo
- Division of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - N Wakisaka
- Division of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - T Yoshizaki
- Division of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - J S Pagano
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - J Shackelford
- 1] Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA [2] Department of Cell Biology and Physioligy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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297
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Tsao SW, Yip YL, Tsang CM, Pang PS, Lau VMY, Zhang G, Lo KW. Etiological factors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Oral Oncol 2014; 50:330-8. [PMID: 24630258 DOI: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common disease among southern Chinese. The major etiological factors proposed for NPC pathogenesis include genetic susceptibility, environment factors and EBV infection. In the high risk population, genetic susceptibility to NPC has been mapped to the HLA loci and adjacent genes in MHC region on chromosome 6p21. Consumption of preserved food including salted fish has been implicated in its etiology in earlier studies. Its contribution to pathogenesis of NPC remains to be determined. A decreasing trend of NPC incidence was observed in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore in recent years which may be accounted by a change of dietary habits. A comprehensive epidemiological study will help to elucidate the relative importance of various risk factors in the pathogenesis of NPC. Despite the close association of EBV infection with NPC, the etiological role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis remains enigmatic. EBV infection in primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells is uncommon and difficult to achieve. EBV does not transform primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into proliferative clones, which contrasts greatly with the well-documented ability of EBV to transform and immortalize primary B cells. Genetic alterations identified in premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelium may play crucial roles to support stable EBV infection. Subsequently, latent and lytic EBV gene products may drive clonal expansion and transformation of premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into cancer cells. Stromal inflammation in nasopharyngeal mucosa is believed to play an important role in modulating the growth and possibly drive the malignant transformation of EBV-infected nasopharyngeal epithelial cells. Furthermore, there are increasing evidences supporting a role of EBV infection to evade host immune surveillance. EBV-infected cells may have selective growth advantages in vivo by acquiring a stress-resistance phenotype. Understanding the etiological factors and pathogenesis of NPC will contribute effectively to the prevention and treatment of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sai Wah Tsao
- Department of Anatomy and Center for Cancer Research, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
| | - Yim Ling Yip
- Department of Anatomy and Center for Cancer Research, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Chi Man Tsang
- Department of Anatomy and Center for Cancer Research, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Pei Shin Pang
- Department of Anatomy and Center for Cancer Research, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Victoria Ming Yi Lau
- Department of Anatomy and Center for Cancer Research, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Guitao Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Center for Cancer Research, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Kwok Wai Lo
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
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298
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Thuma F, Zöller M. Outsmart tumor exosomes to steal the cancer initiating cell its niche. Semin Cancer Biol 2014; 28:39-50. [PMID: 24631836 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2014.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are small vesicles that derive from endosomes and are delivered by many cells, including tumor cells that are a particular rich source of exosomes. Exosomes are suggested to be the most potent intercellular communicators. Being recovered in all body fluids, they can communicate with neighboring as well as distant cells. The latter was first described for dendritic cell exosomes that can initiate T cell activation. However, tumor exosomes (TEX) may impede this crosstalk. Besides with hematopoietic cells, TEX communicate with the tumor cell itself, but also with host stroma cells and endothelial cells. This crosstalk received much attention as there is strong evidence that TEX account for angiogenesis and premetastatic niche formation, which may proceed directly via binding and uptake of TEX by cells in the premetastatic organ or indirectly via TEX being taken up by hematopoietic progenitors in the bone marrow (BM), which mature toward lineages with immunosuppressive features or are forced toward premature release from the BM and homing into premetastatic organs. Knowing these deleterious activities of TEX, it becomes demanding to search for modes of therapeutic interference. I here introduce our hypothesis that metastasis formation may be hampered by tailored exosomes that outsmart TEX. The essential prerequisites are an in depth knowledge on TEX binding, uptake, binding-initiated signal transduction and uptake-promoted target cell reprogramming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Thuma
- Department of Tumor Cell Biology, University Hospital of Surgery and German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Margot Zöller
- Department of Tumor Cell Biology, University Hospital of Surgery and German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany.
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299
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Sampey GC, Meyering SS, Zadeh MA, Saifuddin M, Hakami RM, Kashanchi F. Exosomes and their role in CNS viral infections. J Neurovirol 2014; 20:199-208. [PMID: 24578033 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0238-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes are small membrane-bound vesicles that carry biological macromolecules from the site of production to target sites either in the microenvironment or at distant sites away from the origin. Exosomal content of cells varies with the cell type that produces them as well as environmental factors that alter the normal state of the cell such as viral infection. Human DNA and RNA viruses alter the composition of host proteins as well as incorporate their own viral proteins and other cargo into the secreted exosomes. While numerous viruses can infect various cell types of the CNS and elicit damaging neuropathologies, few have been studied for their exosomal composition, content, and function on recipient cells. Therefore, there is a pressing need to understand how DNA and RNA viral infections in CNS control exosomal release. Some of the more recent studies including HIV-1, HTLV-1, and EBV-infected B cells indicate that exosomes from these infections contain viral miRNAs, viral transactivators, and a host of cytokines that can control the course of infection. Finally, because exosomes can serve as vehicles for the cellular delivery of proteins and RNA and given that the blood-brain barrier is a formidable challenge in delivering therapeutics to the brain, exosomes may be able to serve as ideal vehicles to deliver protein or RNA-based therapeutics to the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin C Sampey
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Shabana S Meyering
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Mohammad Asad Zadeh
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Mohammed Saifuddin
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Ramin M Hakami
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Fatah Kashanchi
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
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300
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Abstract
In this issue of Blood, Cader et al show that tumor microenvironment promotes Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-driven lymphomagenesis in Hodgkin lymphoma by a novel pathway involving latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) and discoidin domain receptor 1 (DDR1), which is activated by collagen(s) and contributes to the survival of Reed-Sternberg (RS) cells.
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