Graphene in the aquatic environment: adsorption, dispersion, toxicity and transformation

Recent advances in nanomaterials for water protection and monitoring

Nanomaterials (NMs) for adsorption, catalysis, separation, and disinfection are scrutinized. NMs-based sensor technologies and environmental transformations of NMs are highlighted.

Rapid and efficient treatment of wastewater with high-concentration heavy metals using a new type of hydrogel-based adsorption process

In this study, a new type of double-network hydrogel sorbent was developed to remove heavy metals in wastewater. The amino-functionalized Starch/PAA hydrogel (NH2-Starch/PAA) could be conducted in a wide pH and the adsorption process could rapidly achieve the equilibrium. The adsorption capacity got to 256.4mg/g for Cd(II). Resultantly, even though Cd(II) concentration was as high as 180mg/L, the Cd(II) could be entirely removed using 1g/L sorbent. Furthermore, the desirable mechanical durability of the adsorbent allowed easy separation and reusability. In the fixed-bed column experiments, the treatment volume of the effluent with a high Cd(II) concentration of 200mg/L reached 2400BV (27.1L) after eight times cycle. The NH2-Starch/PAA overcame the deficiency of conventional sorbents that could not effectively treat the wastewater with relatively high metal concentrations. This work provides a new insight into omnidirectional enhancement of sorbents for removing high-concentration heavy metals in wastewater.

Facilitated Bioaccumulation of Perfluorooctanesulfonate in Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) by Graphene Oxide and Remission Mechanism of Fulvic Acid

As one of the most popular carbon-based nanomaterials, graphene oxide (GO) has the potential to be released in aquatic environment and interact with some coexistent organic pollutants, such as perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), which is an emerging persistent organic pollutant. In this study, the adsorption of PFOS on GO in the presence of fulvic acid (FA), the impacts of GO and FA on PFOS toxicokinetics in carp (Cyprinus carpio), and in vitro digestion behaviors were examined. The results indicated that PFOS could be strongly adsorbed on GO with a Freundlich affinity coefficient K_F of 580 ± 205 (mg/g)/(mg/L)ⁿ, while the adsorption was suppressed by FA due to competitive adsorption. GO significantly enhanced the bioaccumulation of PFOS in blood, kidney, liver, gill, intestine, and muscle of carp, and the corresponding bioaccumulation factor (BAF) was in the range of 2026-53513 L/kg. The enhancement was greatest for liver and intestine, which was 10.3 and 9.33 times of that without GO, respectively. In vivo toxicokinetic and in vitro digestion-absorption experiments indicated that GO could carry PFOS to penetrate the intestine cells. There herein, PFOS absorption, especially via intestine, and the uptake rate coefficient (k_u) were greatly enhanced, leading to distinctly promoted bioaccumulation of PFOS in fish. However, FA could facilitate the flocculation of GO in the intestine and also accelerate excretion of GO-PFOS complex. Thus, in the presence of FA, PFOS absorption was reduced and the promotion effect of GO on PFOS accumulation was remitted.

Graphene oxide as a scaffold for bone regeneration

Graphene oxide (GO), the oxidized form of graphene, holds great potential as a component of biomedical devices, deriving utility from its ability to support a broad range of chemical functionalities and its exceptional mechanical, electronic, and thermal properties. GO composites can be tuned chemically to be biomimetic, and mechanically to be stiff yet strong. These unique properties make GO-based materials promising candidates as a scaffold for bone regeneration. However, questions still exist as to the compatibility and long-term toxicity of nanocarbon materials. Unlike other nanocarbons, GO is meta-stable, water dispersible, and autodegrades in water on the timescale of months to humic acid-like materials, the degradation products of all organic matter. Thus, GO offers better prospects for biological compatibility over other nanocarbons. Recently, many publications have demonstrated enhanced osteogenic performance of GO-containing composites. Ongoing work toward surface modification or coating strategies could be useful to minimize the inflammatory response and improve compatibility of GO as a component of medical devices. Furthermore, biomimetic modifications could offer mechanical and chemical environments that encourage osteogenesis. So long as care is given to assure their safety, GO-based materials may be poised to become the next generation scaffold for bone regeneration. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 2017, 9:e1437. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1437 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Retention and Release of Graphene Oxide in Structured Heterogeneous Porous Media under Saturated and Unsaturated Conditions

In this work, saturated and unsaturated structured heterogeneous sand columns were used to examine the fate of graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles in heterogeneous porous media under various conditions. A two-domain model considering mass exchange between zones was applied to describe GO retention and transport in structured, heterogeneous porous media, which matched the transport experimental breakthroughs well. Experimental and model results showed that GO retention and transport in all the heterogeneous columns were dominated by the preferential flow phenomena. Under saturated conditions, the coarse sand with higher hydraulic conductivity was the fast-flow domain (FFD), and the fine sand was the slow-flow domain (SFD), and both FFD and SFD affected GO particles fate in structured heterogeneous media. When the heterogeneous columns were drained, the fine sand with higher moisture content became the FFD, and the coarse sand was the SFD, however, preferential flows in the FFD dominated GO retention and transport processes. For all the columns, the mobility of GO decreased with the increasing ionic strength (IS), and the previous retained particles were released by reducing solution IS, indicating part of the retained particles were trapped in the secondary minimum energy well.

Effect of co-existing kaolinite and goethite on the aggregation of graphene oxide in the aquatic environment

Broad applications of graphene oxide (GO) will result in the release of GO into aquatic environments, where clay minerals and metal (hydr)oxides are commonly present. Thereby the interactions between GO and a binary system containing clay minerals and metal (hydr)oxides can occur. We investigated the aggregation of GO with kaolinite and kaolinite-goethite associations (KGAs) in aquatic systems under different pHs, ionic strengths, and GO concentrations. GO suspension was unstable at low pHs, and the aggregation of GO occurred in the presence of KGA-4% and KGA-10% until pH 5 and 6, respectively. Kaolinite decreased the critical coagulation concentration (CCC) of GO at pH 5.5 from around 50 to 20 mM NaCl due to the reduced energy barrier. Heteroaggregation of GO with KGAs was extremely sensitive to ionic strength at pH 5.5, and the CCC of GO in the presence of KGA-10% increased from less than 1 mM NaCl to 5 mM NaCl with the increase of pH from 5.5 to 9. The heteroaggregation extent of GO with KGAs was enhanced firstly, then reduced with the increase of GO concentrations at pH 5.0, which is likely because KGA plates were more efficiently wrapped by large-size GO sheets with increasing GO concentrations. These findings are useful for understanding and predicting the fate of GO in the relatively complicated aquatic and soil environments where binary minerals co-exist.

A 3-dimensional micro- and nanoparticle transport and filtration model (MNM3D) applied to the migration of carbon-based nanomaterials in porous media

Engineered nanoparticles (NPs) in the environment can act both as contaminants, when they are unintentionally released, and as remediation agents when injected on purpose at contaminated sites. In this work two carbon-based NPs are considered, namely CARBO-IRON®, a new material developed for contaminated site remediation, and single layer graphene oxide (SLGO), a potential contaminant of the next future. Understanding and modeling the transport and deposition of such NPs in aquifer systems is a key aspect in both cases, and numerical models capable to simulate NP transport in groundwater in complex 3D scenarios are necessary. To this aim, this work proposes a modeling approach based on modified advection-dispersion-deposition equations accounting for the coupled influence of flow velocity and ionic strength on particle transport. A new modeling tool (MNM3D - Micro and Nanoparticle transport Model in 3D geometries) is presented for the simulation of NPs injection and transport in 3D scenarios. MNM3D is the result of the integration of the numerical code MNMs (Micro and Nanoparticle transport, filtration and clogging Model - Suite) in the well-known transport model RT3D (Clement et al., 1998). The injection in field-like conditions of CARBO-IRON® (20g/l) amended by CMC (4g/l) in a 2D vertical tank (0.7×1.0×0.12m) was simulated using MNM3D, and compared to experimental results under the same conditions. Column transport tests of SLGO at a concentration (10mg/l) representative of a possible spill of SLGO-containing waste water were performed at different values of ionic strength (0.1 to 35mM), evidencing a strong dependence of SLGO transport on IS, and a reversible blocking deposition. The experimental data were fitted using the numerical code MNMs and the ionic strength-dependent transport was up-scaled for a full scale 3D simulation of SLGO release and long-term transport in a heterogeneous aquifer. MNM3D showed to potentially represent a valid tool for the prediction of the long-term behavior of engineered nanoparticles released in the environment (e.g. from landfills), and the preliminary design of in situ aquifer remediation through injection of suspensions of reactive NPs.

Graphene oxide alleviates the ecotoxicity of copper on the freshwater microalga Scenedesmus obliquus

The extensive industrial application of graphene oxide (GO), has increased its exposure risk to various aquatic organisms and its potential to affect the toxicity of other environmental pollutants. In this study, we investigated the combined toxicity of GO and copper on the freshwater microalga Scenedesmus obliquus, using the MIXTOX model. The effects of low concentration (1mg/L) exposure to GO were investigated with environmentally relevant concentrations of copper by using a 12-d subacute toxicity test, with pre- and post-GO treatment. Results showed that there were significant antagonistic effects between GO and copper on S. obliquus, and GO was found to reduce ecotoxicity of copper even at low and environmentally relevant concentrations (1mg/L).

Toxicology of graphene-based nanomaterials

Graphene based nanomaterials possess remarkable physiochemical properties suitable for diverse applications in electronics, telecommunications, energy and healthcare. The human and environmental exposure to graphene-based nanomaterials is increasing due to advancements in the synthesis, characterization and large-scale production of graphene and the subsequent development of graphene based biomedical and consumer products. A large number of in vitro and in vivo toxicological studies have evaluated the interactions of graphene-based nanomaterials with various living systems such as microbes, mammalian cells, and animal models. A significant number of studies have examined the short- and long-term in vivo toxicity and biodistribution of graphene synthesized by variety of methods and starting materials. A key focus of these examinations is to properly associate the biological responses with chemical and morphological properties of graphene. Several studies also report the environmental and genotoxicity response of pristine and functionalized graphene. This review summarizes these in vitro and in vivo studies and critically examines the methodologies used to perform these evaluations. Our overarching goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of the complex interplay of biological responses of graphene as a function of their physiochemical properties.

The Antibacterial Applications of Graphene and Its Derivatives

Graphene materials have unique structures and outstanding thermal, optical, mechanical and electronic properties. In the last decade, these materials have attracted substantial interest in the field of nanomaterials, with applications ranging from biosensors to biomedicine. Among these applications, great advances have been made in the field of antibacterial agents. Here, recent advancements in the use of graphene and its derivatives as antibacterial agents are reviewed. Graphene is used in three forms: the pristine form; mixed with other antibacterial agents, such as Ag and chitosan; or with a base material, such as poly (N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) and poly (lactic acid) (PLA). The main mechanisms proposed to explain the antibacterial behaviors of graphene and its derivatives are the membrane stress hypothesis, the oxidative stress hypothesis, the entrapment hypothesis, the electron transfer hypothesis and the photothermal hypothesis. This review describes contributions to improving these promising materials for antibacterial applications.

Adsorption Behavior of Extracellular Polymeric Substances on Graphene Materials Explored by Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform Infrared Correlation Spectroscopy

Adsorption isotherms of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) on graphene oxide (GO) and reduced GO (rGO) were studied using fluorescence excitation-emission matrix-parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC) and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS) combined with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Chemical reduction of GO resulted in a greater extent of carbon adsorption with a higher degree of isotherm nonlinearity, suggesting that heterogeneous adsorption sites were additionally created by GO reduction. Two protein-like and two humic-like components were identified from EPS by EEM-PARAFAC. Adsorption of protein-like components was greater than that of humic-like components, and the preferential adsorption was more pronounced for GO versus rGO. Adsorption of protein-like components was more governed by site-limiting mechanisms than humic-like components as shown by the higher isotherm nonlinearity. 2D-COS provided further information on the adsorption of secondary protein structures. Adsorption of the EPS structures related to amide I and aromatic C-C bands was greater for rGO versus GO. Protein structures of EPS were more favorable for adsorption in the order of α-helix → amide II → β-sheet structures with increasing site limitation. Our results revealed successful applicability of EEM-PARAFAC and 2D-COS in examining the adsorption behavior of heterogeneous biological materials on graphene materials.

Graphene Oxides in Water: Correlating Morphology and Surface Chemistry with Aggregation Behavior

Aqueous aggregation processes can significantly impact function, effective toxicity, environmental transport, and ultimate fate of advanced nanoscale materials, including graphene and graphene oxide (GO). In this work, we have synthesized flat graphene oxide (GO) and five physically crumpled GOs (CGO, with different degrees of thermal reduction, and thus oxygen functionality) using an aerosol method, and characterized the evolution of surface chemistry and morphology using a suite of spectroscopic (UV-vis, FTIR, XPS) and microscopic (AFM, SEM, and TEM) techniques. For each of these materials, critical coagulation concentrations (CCC) were determined for NaCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2 electrolytes. The CCCs were correlated with material ζ-potentials (R(2) = 0.94-0.99), which were observed to be mathematically consistent with classic DLVO theory. We further correlated CCC values with CGO chemical properties including C/O ratios, carboxyl group concentrations, and C-C fractions. For all cases, edge-based carboxyl functional groups are highly correlated to observed CCC values (R(2) = 0.89-0.95). Observations support the deprotonation of carboxyl groups with low acid dissociation constants (pKa) as the main contributors to ζ-potentials and thus material aqueous stability. We also observe CCC values to significantly increase (by 18-80%) when GO is physically crumpled as CGO. Taken together, the findings from both physical and chemical analyses clearly indicate that both GO shape and surface functionality are critical to consider with regard to understanding fundamental material behavior in water.

Enhanced dehydrochlorination of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane by graphene-based nanomaterials

Graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) materials contain a variety of surface O-functional groups that are chemically reactive. When released into the environment these materials may significantly affect the abiotic transformation of organic contaminants, and therefore, may alter their fate and risks. We found that two GO and five RGO materials that varied in C/O ratio, hydrophobicity, and type/distribution of surface O-functionality all had catalytic effects on the dehydrochlorination of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane (TeCA). Even though the catalytic effects of the materials originated from their deprotonated surface O-functional groups, which served as conjugated bases to catalyze the reaction, the catalytic efficiencies of the materials did not correlate strongly with their surface O contents. The spectroscopic evidence (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), surface charge data, and adsorption experiments demonstrated that the catalytic efficiencies of the GO/RGO materials were controlled by a complex interplay of the type and distribution of surface O-functionality, as well as adsorption affinity of the materials. Both Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) inhibited the catalytic efficiency of the materials by binding to the surface O-functional groups, and consequently, decreasing the basicity of the functional groups. At an environmentally relevant concentration of 10 mg/L, Suwannee River humic acid (used as a model dissolved organic matter) alone had little effect on the dehydrochlorination of TeCA. However, it could inhibit the catalytic efficiency of the GO/RGO materials by coating on their surface and thus, decreasing the adsorption affinity of these materials for TeCA. The findings further underline the potentially important impacts of nanomaterials on contaminant fate and effects in the environment.

Mitigation in the toxicity of graphene oxide nanosheets towards Escherichia coli in the presence of humic acid

GO nanosheets have been reported to show strong cytotoxicity towards Escherichia coli (E. coli) in aqueous solution. Natural organic matters (NOMs) in water may probably coat on the surface of GO nanosheets, which possibly influence its cytotoxicity. In this study, we illustrated how humic acid (HA), a ubiquitous NOM, mitigated the toxicity of GO nanosheets towards E. coli based on the cytotoxicity mechanism of GO nanosheets. Adsorption and cell viability tests proved that HA was adsorbed by GO nanosheets and decreased the toxicity of GO nanosheets towards E. coli. It was found that HA was adsorbed on the surface of GO nanosheets by polar groups, which prevented E. coli from contacting with GO nanosheets and weakened the toxicity of GO nanosheets. Besides, HA exerted an antioxidant role in maintaining the activity of the antioxidant enzyme and decreasing the ROS generation according to the results of oxidative stress experiments. The work revealed that HA relieved the toxicity of GO nanosheets and decreased the ecological risks induced by GO nanosheets.

An efficient and environment-friendly method of removing graphene oxide in wastewater and its degradation mechanisms

Graphene and graphene oxide (GO) have already existed in air, water and soil due to their popular application in functional materials. However, degradation of graphene and GO in wastewater has not been reported. Degradation of GO plays a key role in the elimination of graphene and GO in wastewater due to graphene being easily oxidized to GO. In this paper, GO was completely degraded to give CO2 by Photo-Fenton. The degradation intermediates were determined by UV-vis absorption spectra, elemental analysis (EA), fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Experimental results showed that graphene oxide was completely degraded to give CO2 after 28 days. Based on UV, FT-IR, LC-MS spectra and EA data of these degradation intermediates, the degradation mechanisms of GO were supposed. This paper suggests an efficient and environment-friendly method to degrade GO and graphene.

Impacts of low-molecular-weight organic acids on aquatic behavior of graphene nanoplatelets and their induced algal toxicity and antioxidant capacity

Knowledge of the interaction between graphene-based materials and low-molecular-weight organic acids (LOAs) is essential to understand fate and effects of graphene-based materials in the aquatic environment, but this interaction remains poorly elucidated. In this study, the effects of LOAs on the physicochemical properties of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) in an aqueous medium and on the GNP toxicity to algae were studied. The unicellular green alga Scenedesmus obliquus was exposed to GNP suspensions in the presence of benzoic acid or gallic acid at various concentrations. The GNPs had smaller hydrodynamic sizes and the GNP suspensions were more stable and had higher or lower surface zeta potentials in the presence of LOAs than when LOAs were not present. The toxic effects in S. obliquus cultures incubated with GNP suspensions containing LOAs were related to the LOA concentration, and the presence of LOAs caused three effects: stimulation, alleviation, and synergistic inhibition. The intensities of the effects mainly correlated with the LOA concentration, the extent of agglomeration, and particle-induced oxidative stress. The results indicate that the environmental fates and toxicities of GNPs are strongly affected by the binding of GNPs to LOAs.

Impeded repair of abasic site damaged lesions in DNA adsorbed over functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotube and graphene oxide

The processing of abasic site DNA damage lesions in extracellular DNA in the presence of engineered carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) is demonstrated. The efficacy of the apurinic-apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1) in the cleavage of abasic site lesions in the presence of carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT-COOH) and graphene oxide (GO) are compared. The CNMs were found to perturb the incision activity of APE1. The reason for such perturbation process was anticipated to take place either by the non-specific adsorption of APE1 over the free surface of the CNMs or steric hindrance offered by the CNM-DNA complex. Accordingly, bovine serum albumin (BSA) was selectively utilized to block the free surface of the CNM-DNA hybrid material. Further treatment of the CNM-DNA-BSA complex with APE1 resulted in a marginal increase in APE1 efficiency. This indicates that APE1 in solution is unable to process the abasic sites on DNA adsorbed over the CNMs. However, the cleavage activity of APE1 was restored in the presence of non-ionic surfactant (Tween 20) that inhibits adsorption of the DNA on the surface of the CNMs. The conformational deformation of the DNA, along with steric hindrance induced by the CNMs resulted in the inhibition of abasic site DNA repair by APE1. Moreover, appreciable changes in the secondary structure of APE1 adsorbed over the CNMs were observed that contribute further to the repair refractivity of the abasic sites. From a toxicological viewpoint, these findings can be extended to the study of the effect of engineered nanoparticles in the intracellular DNA repair process.

Preparation of graphene oxide-manganese dioxide for highly efficient adsorption and separation of Th(IV)/U(VI)

Manganese dioxide decorated graphene oxide (GOM) was prepared via fixation of crystallographic MnO2 (α, γ) on the surface of graphene oxide (GO) and was explored as an adsorbent material for simultaneous removal of thorium/uranium ions from aqueous solutions. In single component systems (Th(IV) or U(VI)), the α-GOM2 (the weight ratio of GO/α-MnO2 of 2) exhibited higher maximum adsorption capacities toward both Th(IV) (497.5mg/g) and U(VI) (185.2 mg/g) than those of GO. In the binary component system (Th(IV)/U(VI)), the saturated adsorption capacity of Th(IV) (408.8 mg/g)/U(VI) (66.8 mg/g) on α-GOM2 was also higher than those on GO. Based on the analysis of various data, it was proposed that the adsorption process may involve four types of molecular interactions including coordination, electrostatic interaction, cation-pi interaction, and Lewis acid-base interaction between Th(IV)/U(VI) and α-GOM2. Finally, the Th(IV)/U(VI) ions on α-GOM2 can be separated by a two-stage desorption process with Na2CO3/EDTA. Those results displayed that the α-GOM2 may be utilized as an potential adsorbent for removing and separating Th(IV)/U(VI) ions from aqueous solutions.

Toxicity of graphene oxide to white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium

With the wide production and applications of graphene and its derivatives, their toxicity to the environment has received much attention nowadays. In this study, we investigated the toxicity of graphene oxide (GO) to white rot fungus (Phanerochaete chrysosporium). GO was prepared by modified Hummers method and well characterized before use. P. chrysosporium was exposed to GO at the concentrations of 0-4 mg/mL for 7 d. The fresh and dry weights, pH values of culture media, structures, ultrastructures, IR spectra and activities of the decomposition of pollutants were measured to reveal the hazards of GO to P. chrysosporium. Our results indicated that low concentrations of GO stimulated the growth of P. chrysosporium. The exposure to GO induced more acidic pH values of the culture media after 7 d. GO induced the disruption of the fiber structure of P. chrysosporium, while at 4 mg/mL some very long and thick fibers were formed. Such changes were reflected in the scanning electron microscopy investigations, where the disruption of fibers was observed. In the ultrastructural investigations, the shape of P. chrysosporium cells changed and more vesicles were found upon the exposure to GO. The infrared spectroscopy analyses suggested that the chemical compositions of mycelia were not changed qualitatively. Beyond the toxicity, GO did not alter the activities of P. chrysosporium at low concentrations, but led to the complete loss of activity at high concentrations. The implication to the ecological safety of graphene is discussed.

Physicochemical properties and ecotoxicological effects of yttrium oxide nanoparticles in aquatic media: Role of low molecular weight natural organic acids

Understanding how engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) interact with natural organic acids is important to ecological risk assessment of ENPs, but this interaction remains poorly studied. Here, we investigate the dispersion stability, ion release, and toxicity of yttrium oxide nanoparticles (nY2O3) suspensions after exposure to two low molecular weight natural organic acids (LOAs), namely benzoic acid and gallic acid. We find that in the presence of LOAs the nY2O3 suspensions become more stable with surface zeta potential more positive or negative, accompanied by small agglomerated size. LOA interaction with nY2O3 is shown to promote the release of dissolved yttrium from the nanoparticles, depending on the concentrations of LOAs. Toxic effects of the nY2O3 suspensions incubated with LOAs on Scenedesmus obliquus as a function of their mixture levels show three types of signs: stimulation, inhibition, and alleviation. The mechanism of the effects of LOAs on the nY2O3 toxicity may be mainly associated with the degree of agglomeration, particle-induced oxidative stress, and dissolved yttrium. Our results stressed the importance of LOA impacts on the fate and toxicity of ENPs in the aquatic environment.

Long-Term Effects of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene on Microbial Communities in Dry Soil

Little is known about the long-term effects of engineered carbonaceous nanomaterials (ECNMs) on soil microbial communities, especially when compared to possible effects of natural or industrial carbonaceous materials. To address these issues, we exposed dry grassland soil for 1 year to 1 mg g(-1) of either natural nanostructured material (biochar), industrial carbon black, three types of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), or graphene. Soil microbial biomass was assessed by substrate induced respiration and by extractable DNA. Bacterial and fungal communities were examined by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP). Microbial activity was assessed by soil basal respiration. At day 0, there was no treatment effect on soil DNA or T-RFLP profiles, indicating negligible interference between the amended materials and the methods for DNA extraction, quantification, and community analysis. After a 1-year exposure, compared to the no amendment control, some treatments reduced soil DNA (e.g., biochar, all three MWCNT types, and graphene; P < 0.05) and altered bacterial communities (e.g., biochar, carbon black, narrow MWCNTs, and graphene); however, there were no significant differences across the amended treatments. These findings suggest that ECNMs may moderately affect dry soil microbial communities but that the effects are similar to those from natural and industrial carbonaceous materials, even after 1-year exposure.

Wrinkles and Folds of Activated Graphene Nanosheets as Fast and Efficient Adsorptive Sites for Hydrophobic Organic Contaminants

To create more wrinkles and folds as available adsorption sites, graphene nanosheets (GNS) were thermally treated with KOH for morphological alteration. The surface structures and properties of the activated graphene nanosheets (AGN) were characterized by BET-N2, SEM, TEM, Raman, XRD, XPS, and FTIR. After KOH etching, the highly crystal structure was altered, self-aggregation of graphene layers were evidently relieved, and more single to few layer graphene nanosheets were created with wrinkles and folds. Also both specific surface area and micropore volume of AGN increased relative to GNS. The adsorption of AGN toward p-nitrotoluene, naphthalene and phenanthrene were greatly enhanced in comparison with GNS, and gradually promoted with increasing degree of KOH etching. Adsorption rate of organic contaminants on AGN was very fast and efficient, whereas small molecules showed higher adsorption rates due to the more porous surface of graphene. In addition to π-π interaction, the high affinities of p-nitrotoluene to AGN are suggested from strong electron charge transfer interactions between nitro groups on p-nitrotoluene and defect sites of AGN. A positively linear correlation between organic molecule uptake and the micropore volume of AGN indicated that pore-filling mechanism may play an important role in adsorption. Morphological wrinkles and folds of graphene nanosheets can be regulated to enhance the adsorption capability and kinetics for efficient pollutant removal and to selectively preconcentrate adsorbates with different sizes for detection.

Coagulation Behavior of Graphene Oxide on Nanocrystallined Mg/Al Layered Double Hydroxides: Batch Experimental and Theoretical Calculation Study

Graphene oxide (GO) has attracted considerable attention because of its remarkable enhanced adsorption and multifunctional properties. However, the toxic properties of GO nanosheets released into the environment could lead to the instability of biological system. In aqueous phase, GO may interact with fine mineral particles, such as chloridion intercalated nanocrystallined Mg/Al layered double hydroxides (LDH-Cl) and nanocrystallined Mg/Al LDHs (LDH-CO3), which are considered as coagulant molecules for the coagulation and removal of GO from aqueous solutions. Herein the coagulation of GO on LDHs were studied as a function of solution pH, ionic strength, contact time, temperature and coagulant concentration. The presence of LDH-Cl and LDH-CO3 improved the coagulation of GO in solution efficiently, which was mainly attributed to the surface oxygen-containing functional groups of LDH-Cl and LDH-CO3 occupying the binding sites of GO. The coagulation of GO by LDH-Cl and LDH-CO3 was strongly dependent on pH and ionic strength. Results of theoretical DFT calculations indicated that the coagulation of GO on LDHs was energetically favored by electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds, which was further evidenced by FTIR and XPS analysis. By integrating the experimental results, it was clear that LDH-Cl could be potentially used as a cost-effective coagulant for the elimination of GO from aqueous solutions, which could efficiently decrease the potential toxicity of GO in the natural environment.

Biological and environmental interactions of emerging two-dimensional nanomaterials

Two-dimensional materials have become a major focus in materials chemistry research worldwide with substantial efforts centered on synthesis, property characterization, and technological application. These high-aspect ratio sheet-like solids come in a wide array of chemical compositions, crystal phases, and physical forms, and are anticipated to enable a host of future technologies in areas that include electronics, sensors, coatings, barriers, energy storage and conversion, and biomedicine. A parallel effort has begun to understand the biological and environmental interactions of synthetic nanosheets, both to enable the biomedical developments and to ensure human health and safety for all application fields. This review covers the most recent literature on the biological responses to 2D materials and also draws from older literature on natural lamellar minerals to provide additional insight into the essential chemical behaviors. The article proposes a framework for more systematic investigation of biological behavior in the future, rooted in fundamental materials chemistry and physics. That framework considers three fundamental interaction modes: (i) chemical interactions and phase transformations, (ii) electronic and surface redox interactions, and (iii) physical and mechanical interactions that are unique to near-atomically-thin, high-aspect-ratio solids. Two-dimensional materials are shown to exhibit a wide range of behaviors, which reflect the diversity in their chemical compositions, and many are expected to undergo reactive dissolution processes that will be key to understanding their behaviors and interpreting biological response data. The review concludes with a series of recommendations for high-priority research subtopics at the "bio-nanosheet" interface that we hope will enable safe and successful development of technologies related to two-dimensional nanomaterials.

Applications and toxicity of graphene family nanomaterials and their composites

Graphene has attracted much attention of scientific community due to its enormous potential in different fields, including medical sciences, agriculture, food safety, cancer research, and tissue engineering. The potential for widespread human exposure raises safety concerns about graphene and its derivatives, referred to as graphene family nanomaterials (GFNs). Due to their unique chemical and physical properties, graphene and its derivatives have found important places in their respective application fields, yet they are being found to have cytotoxic and genotoxic effects too. Since the discovery of graphene, a number of researches are being conducted to find out the toxic potential of GFNs to different cell and animal models, finding their suitability for being used in new and varied innovative fields. This paper presents a systematic review of the research done on GFNs and gives an insight into the mode and action of these nanosized moieties. The paper also emphasizes on the recent and up-to-date developments in research on GFNs and their nanocomposites for their toxic effects.

Graphene Oxide Attenuates the Cytotoxicity and Mutagenicity of PCB 52 via Activation of Genuine Autophagy

Graphene oxide (GO), owing to its large surface area and abundance of oxygen-containing functional groups, is emerging as a potential adsorbent for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which accumulate over time and are harmful to both natural ecosystems and human health. However, the effect of GO against PCB-induced toxicity remains largely unexplored. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of GO against PCB 52 induced cytotoxic and genotoxic response in mammalian cells at various exposure conditions and clarify the protective role of autophagy. Pretreatment with GO dramatically decreased PCB 52 induced cytotoxicity and CD59 gene mutation in human-hamster hybrid (AL) cells. The toxic response in cells either pretreated with PCB 52 and then treated with GO or concurrently treated with GO and PCB 52 did not differ significantly from the toxic response in the cells treated with PCB 52 alone. Using autophagy inhibitors (3-methyladenine and wortmannin) and inducers (trehalose and rapamycin), we found that genuine autophagy induced by GO was involved in decreasing PCB 52 induced toxicity. These findings suggested that GO has an antagonistic effect against the toxicity of PCB 52 mainly by triggering a genuine autophagic process, which might provide new insights into the potential application of GO in PCB disposal and environmental and health risk assessment.

Adsorption of sulfonamides on reduced graphene oxides as affected by pH and dissolved organic matter

With the significant increase in use and application of graphene and the frequent presence of sulfonamides (SAs) in water environments, their interactions have attracted extensive attention. In this study, adsorption of two selected SAs (sulfapyridine and sulfathiazole) by two reduced graphene oxides (rGO1 and rGO2) was examined as affected by pH and dissolved organic matter (DOM). Adsorption of SAs by rGOs was highly pH-dependent, and adsorption affinity of different SAs species followed the order of SA(0) > SA(+) > SA(-). The contribution of SA(0) to the overall adsorption was greater than its species fraction, implying the importance of the neutral species to adsorption. SAs adsorption isotherms at three selected pHs were in the order of pH 5.0 > pH 1.0 > pH 11.0, which was in accordance with the variation of site energy distribution analysis. Hydrophobic interaction, π-π EDA interaction and electrostatic interaction were the main mechanisms responsible for SAs adsorption by rGOs. Three representative natural DOMs including humic acid (HA), bovine serum albumin (BSA), and sodium alginate together with sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS) as a synthetic DOM were used to investigate their effect on SAs adsorption. The inhibition impact of DOM on SAs adsorption was lower for rGOs compared with carbon nanotubes and graphite, which might be attributed to the higher oxygen contents of rGOs. Also, the suppression effect of DOM generally followed an order of SDBS > HA ≥ BSA > alginate, indicating the importance role of DOM compositions. These results should be important for assessing the fate and transport of graphene and antibiotics in the environment.

A highly efficient polyampholyte hydrogel sorbent based fixed-bed process for heavy metal removal in actual industrial effluent

High sorption capacity, high sorption rate, and fast separation and regeneration for qualified sorbents used in removing heavy metals from wastewater are urgently needed. In this study, a polyampholyte hydrogel was well designed and prepared via a simple radical polymerization procedure. Due to the remarkable mechanical strength, the three-dimensional polyampholyte hydrogel could be fast separated, easily regenerated and highly reused. The sorption capacities were as high as 216.1 mg/g for Pb(II) and 153.8 mg/g for Cd(II) owing to the existence of the large number of active groups. The adsorption could be conducted in a wide pH range of 3-6 and the equilibrium fast reached in 30 min due to its excellent water penetration for highly accessible to metal ions. The fixed-bed column sorption results indicated that the polyampholyte hydrogel was particularly effective in removing Pb(II) and Cd(II) from actual industrial effluent to meet the regulatory requirements. The treatment volumes of actual smelting effluent using one fixed bed column were as high as 684 bed volumes (BV) (7736 mL) for Pb(II) and 200 BV (2262 mL) for Cd(II). Furthermore, the treatment volumes of actual smelting effluent using tandem three columns reached 924 BV (31,351 mL) for Pb(II) and 250 BV (8483 mL) for Cd(II), producing only 4 BV (136 mL) eluent. Compared with the traditional high density slurry (HDS) process with large amount of sludge, the proposed process would be expected to produce only a small amount of sludge. When the treatment volume was controlled below 209.3 BV (7103 mL), all metal ions in the actual industrial effluent could be effectively removed (<0.01 mg/L). This wok develops a highly practical process based on polyampholyte hydrogel sorbents for the removal of heavy metal ions from practical wastewater.

Influences of graphene on microbial community and antibiotic resistance genes in mouse gut as determined by high-throughput sequencing

Graphene is a promising candidate as an antibacterial material owning to its bacterial toxicity. However, little information on influence of graphene on gut microbiota is available. In this study, mice were exposed to graphene for 4 weeks, and high-throughput sequencing was applied to characterize the changes in microbial community and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in mouse gut. The results showed that graphene exposure increased biodiversity of gut microbiota, and changed their community. The 1 μg/d graphene exposure had higher influences on the gut microbiota than 10 μg/d and 100 μg/d graphene exposures, which might be due to higher aggregation of high-level graphene. The influence of graphene on gut microbiota might attribute to that graphene could induce oxidative stress and damage of cell membrane integrity. The results were verified by the increase of ratio of Gram-negative bacteria. Outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria could reduce the membrane damage induced by graphene and make them more tolerance to graphene. Further, we found that graphene exposure significantly increased the abundance and types of ARGs, indicating a potential health risk of graphene. This study firstly provides new insight to the health effects of graphene on gut microbiota.

Dispersal of pristine graphene for biological studies

Herein, we address the conflicting behaviour of different pristine graphene dispersions through their careful preparation and characterization in aqueous media.

Aggregation of TiO2-graphene nanocomposites in aqueous environment: Influence of environmental factors and UV irradiation

The aggregation kinetics of TiO2-graphene nanocomposites in aqueous solution affected by solution pH, salt types (NaCl, CaCl2) and concentrations of electrolytes, and stability induced by UV irradiation was investigated in this study. The zeta potentials and hydrodynamic diameter of the nanoparticles were used as bases to assess the aggregation behavior, and stability of nanocomposites exposed to UV irradiation was expressed in terms of supernatant concentration. The aggregation of TiO2-graphene nanoparticles in aqueous media followed the colloidal theory. TiO2-graphene nanoparticles were significantly aggregated in the presence of a diavalent cation compared with monovalent cation because the former was more capable of effective charge screening and neutralization. The calculated Hamaker constant of the TiO2-graphene nanocomposites in aqueous solution prepared in the lab was 2.31×10(-20)J. The stability of this composite nanoparticles was between those of pure TiO2 and graphene. A known intensity of UV irradiation was beneficial in the formation of TiO2-graphene nanoparticle aggregates. However, prolonged UV irradiation may stabilize the nanoparticles. These results provided critical information about the colloidal properties of the new TiO2-graphene nanocomposites and were useful in predicting the fate and transport of TiO2-graphene nanocomposites in natural water environments.

Synthesis and application of magnetic reduced graphene oxide composites for the removal of bisphenol A in aqueous solution—a mechanistic study

Magnetic reduced graphene oxide composites (MRGO) with different reduction degree for removal of bisphenol A from aqueous solution

Synthesis of a thiacalix[4]arenetetrasulfonate-functionalized reduced graphene oxide adsorbent for the removal of lead(ii) and cadmium(ii) from aqueous solutions

A thiacalix[4]arenetetrasulfonate-functionalized reduced graphene oxide (TCAS–rGO) adsorbent was synthesized and used as an adsorbent for the removal of lead(ii) and cadmium(ii) from aqueous solutions.

Phosphate adsorption on novel hydrogel beads with interpenetrating network (IPN) structure in aqueous solutions: kinetics, isotherms and regeneration

Adsorption has attracted much attention for its effectiveness, low cost and the possibility of regeneration among many phosphorus removal methods.

Heteroaggregation of nanoparticles with biocolloids and geocolloids

The application of nanoparticles has raised concern over the safety of these materials to human health and the ecosystem. After release into an aquatic environment, nanoparticles are likely to experience heteroaggregation with biocolloids, geocolloids, natural organic matter (NOM) and other types of nanoparticles. Heteroaggregation is of vital importance for determining the fate and transport of nanoparticles in aqueous phase and sediments. In this article, we review the typical cases of heteroaggregation between nanoparticles and biocolloids and/or geocolloids, mechanisms, modeling, and important indicators used to determine heteroaggregation in aqueous phase. The major mechanisms of heteroaggregation include electric force, bridging, hydrogen bonding, and chemical bonding. The modeling of heteroaggregation typically considers DLVO, X-DLVO, and fractal dimension. The major indicators for studying heteroaggregation of nanoparticles include surface charge measurements, size measurements, observation of morphology of particles and aggregates, and heteroaggregation rate determination. In the end, we summarize the research challenges and perspective for the heteroaggregation of nanoparticles, such as the determination of αhetero values and heteroaggregation rates; more accurate analytical methods instead of DLS for heteroaggregation measurements; sensitive analytical techniques to measure low concentrations of nanoparticles in heteroaggregation systems; appropriate characterization of NOM at the molecular level to understand the structures and fractionation of NOM; effects of different types, concentrations, and fractions of NOM on the heteroaggregation of nanoparticles; the quantitative adsorption and desorption of NOM onto the surface of nanoparticles and heteroaggregates; and a better understanding of the fundamental mechanisms and modeling of heteroaggregation in natural water which is a complex system containing NOM, nanoparticles, biocolloids and geocolloids.

Interactions of Graphene Oxide with Model Cell Membranes: Probing Nanoparticle Attachment and Lipid Bilayer Disruption

With the rapid growth in the application of graphene oxide (GO) in diverse fields, the toxicity of GO toward bacterial and mammalian cells has recently attracted extensive research attention. While several mechanisms have been proposed for the cytotoxicity of GO, the attachment of GO to cell membranes is expected to be the key initial process that precedes these mechanisms. In this study, we investigate the propensity for GO to attach to and disrupt model cell membranes using supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) and supported vesicular layers (SVLs) that are composed of zwitterionic 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC). The deposition kinetics of GO on SLBs were determined using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring and were observed to increase with increasing electrolyte (NaCl and CaCl2) concentrations, indicating that GO attachment to SLBs was controlled by electrostatic interactions. The GO deposition kinetics measured at elevated electrolyte concentrations were lower than mass-transfer-limited kinetics, likely due to the presence of hydration forces between GO and SLBs. Upon the attachment of GO to supported vesicles that were encapsulated with a fluorescent dye, dye leakage was detected, thus indicating that the lipid vesicles were disrupted. When the exposure of the SVL to the GO suspension was terminated, the leakage of dye decreased significantly, demonstrating that the pores on the lipid bilayers have a self-healing ability.

Response difference of transgenic and conventional rice (Oryza sativa) to nanoparticles (γFe₂O₃)

Nanoparticles (NPs) are an increasingly common contaminant in agro-environments, and their potential effect on genetically modified (GM) crops has been largely unexplored. GM crop exposure to NPs is likely to increase as both technologies develop. To better understand the implications of nanoparticles on GM plants in agriculture, we performed a glasshouse study to quantify the uptake of Fe2O3 NPs on transgenic and non-transgenic rice plants. We measured nutrient concentrations, biomass, enzyme activity, and the concentration of two phytohormones, abscisic acid (ABA) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and malondialdehyde (MDA). Root phytohormone inhibition was positively correlated with Fe2O3 NP concentrations, indicating that Fe2O3 had a significant influence on the production of these hormones. The activities of antioxidant enzymes were significantly higher as a factor of low Fe2O3 NP treatment concentration and significantly lower at high NP concentrations, but only among transgenic plants. There was also a positive correlation between the treatment concentration of Fe2O3 and iron accumulation, and the magnitude of this effect was greatest among non-transgenic plants. The differences in root phytohormone production and antioxidant enzyme activity between transgenic and non-transgenic rice plants in vivo suggests that GM crops may react to NP exposure differently than conventional crops. It is the first study of NPs that may have an impact on GM crops, and a realistic significance for food security and food safety.

Transport of Sulfide-Reduced Graphene Oxide in Saturated Quartz Sand: Cation-Dependent Retention Mechanisms

We describe how the reduction of graphene oxide (GO) via environmentally relevant pathways affects its transport behavior in porous media. A pair of sulfide-reduced GOs (RGOs), prepared by reducing 10 mg/L GO with 0.1 mM Na2S for 3 and 5 days, respectively, exhibited lower mobility than did parent GO in saturated quartz sand. Interestingly, decreased mobility cannot simply be attributed to the increased hydrophobicity and aggregation upon GO reduction because the retention mechanisms of RGOs were highly cation-dependent. In the presence of Na(+) (a representative monovalent cation), the main retention mechanism was deposition in the secondary energy minimum. However, in the presence of Ca(2+) (a model divalent cation), cation bridging between RGO and sand grains became the most predominant retention mechanism; this was because sulfide reduction markedly increased the amount of hydroxyl groups (a strong metal-complexing moiety) on GO. When Na(+) was the background cation, increasing pH (which increased the accumulation of large hydrated Na(+) ions on grain surface) and the presence of Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) significantly enhanced the transport of RGO, mainly due to steric hindrance. However, pH and SRHA had little effect when Ca(2+) was the background cation because neither affected the extent of cation bridging that controlled particle retention. These findings highlight the significance of abiotic transformations on the fate and transport of GO in aqueous systems.

Particles in the oceans: Implication for a safe marine environment

Strategies and technologies for the ecosafety assessment and design of engineered particles entering the marine environment are urgently needed. As the application of nanoparticles in science and technology grows, the need to understand their impact on the marine environment becomes increasingly important. This Editorial introduces a Special Issue on the topic of a sustainable and safety use of nanoparticles for protecting, recovering and supporting the oceans' environment and consequently human health. The issue focus on the impact of micro/nano-plastics and metallic nanoparticles on marine organisms, as well as some methodological aspects associated to the eco/toxicity and analytical approaches for in deep physico-chemical characterization of nanoparticles in marine waters and sediment media. Important and urgent topics are addressed in the field of nano-ecosafety in order to assess more precisely both exposure routes and environmental hazards of nanoparticles in the ocean. Ecotoxicological and toxicological data, obtained using a wide variety of organisms representative of different trophic levels and biological organization, from whole animals to macromolecules, will be useful for a better definition of cleaner and safer nanoparticles. Efforts in developing a broad understanding of target species, expected results, benchmarks and timelines, will be of primary importance.

Effect of Microbes on the Adsorption of Naphthalene by Graphene Oxide

The adsorption of naphthalene on graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets in presence of Paecilomyces cateniannulatus (P. cateniannulatus) was conducted by the batch techniques. The morphology and nanostructure of GO were characterized by SEM, TEM, FTIR, XPS, and Raman. The adsorption kinetics indicated that the adsorption of naphthalene on GO and GO + P. catenlannulatus can be satisfactorily fitted pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic model, respectively. P. catenlannulatus inhibited the adsorption of naphthalene on GO at pH<4.0, whereas the increased adsorption was observed at pH>4.0. The adsorption of naphthalene on GO and GO + P. catenlannulatus can be better fitted by Langmuir and Freundlich model, respectively. The change in the conformation of GO was responsible to the increased adsorption of naphthalene by SEM and TEM images. According to FTIR analysis, naphthalene was absorbed by the oxygen-containing functional groups of GO, especially for –COOH. The finding in the study provides the implication for the preconcentration and removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from environment cleanup applications.

Aggregation and Stability of Reduced Graphene Oxide: Complex Roles of Divalent Cations, pH, and Natural Organic Matter

The aggregation and stability of graphene oxide (GO) and three successively reduced GO (rGO) nanomaterials were investigated. Reduced GO species were partially reduced GO (rGO-1h), intermediately reduced GO (rGO-2h), and fully reduced GO (rGO-5h). Specifically, influence of pH, ionic strength, ion valence, and presence of natural organic matter (NOM) were studied. Results show that stability of GO in water decreases with successive reduction of functional groups, with pH having the greatest influence on rGO stability. Stability is also dependent on ion valence and the concentration of surface functional groups. While pH did not noticeably affect stability of GO in the presence of 10 mM NaCl, adding 0.1 mM CaCl2 reduced stability of GO with increased pH. This is due to adsorption of Ca(2+) ions on the surface functional groups of GO which reduces the surface charge of GO. As the concentration of rGO functional groups decreased, so did the influence of Ca(2+) ions on rGO stability. Critical coagulation concentrations (CCC) of GO, rGO-1h, and rGO-2h were determined to be ∼ 200 mM, 35 mM, and 30 mM NaCl, respectively. In the presence of CaCl2, CCC values of GO and rGO are quite similar, however. Long-term studies show that a significant amount of rGO-1h and rGO-2h remain stable in Call's Creek surface water, while effluent wastewater readily destabilizes rGO. In the presence NOM and divalent cations (Ca(2+), Mg(2+)), GO aggregates settle from suspension due to GO functional group bridging with NOM and divalent ions. However, rGO-1h and rGO-2h remain suspended due to their lower functional group concentration and resultant reduced NOM-divalent cation bridging. Overall, pH, divalent cations, and NOM can play complex roles in the fate of rGO and GO.

Transformation of graphene oxide by ferrous iron: Environmental implications

Abiotic transformation of graphene oxide (GO) in aquatic environments can markedly affect the fate, transport, and effects of GO. The authors observed that ferrous iron (Fe[II])-an environmentally abundant, mild reductant-can significantly affect the physicochemical properties of GO (examined by treating aqueous GO suspensions with Fe(2+) at room temperature, with doses of 0.032 mM Fe(2+)  per mg/L, 0.08 mM Fe(2+)  per mg/L, and 0.32 mM Fe(2+)  per mg/L GO). Microscopy data showed stacking of GO nanosheets on Fe(2+) treatment. Spectroscopy evidence (X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared transmission, Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) showed significant changes in GO surface O-functionalities, in terms of loss of epoxy and carbonyl groups but increase of carboxyl group. The reduction mechanisms were verified by treating model organic molecules (styrene oxide, p-benzoquinone, and benzoic acid) resembling O-containing fragments of GO macromolecules with Fe(2+). With sedimentation and adsorption experiments (using bisphenol A as a model contaminant), the authors demonstrated that Fe(2+) reduced GOs still maintained relatively high colloidal stability, whereas their adsorption affinities were significantly enhanced. Thus, reduction of GO by mild reductants might be of greater environmental concerns than by stronger reducing agents (e.g., N2H4 and S(2-)), because the latter can result in too significant losses of surface O-functionalities and colloidal stability of GO. This interesting aspect should be given consideration in the risk assessment of GO.

Adsorption of 4-n-Nonylphenol and Bisphenol-A on Magnetic Reduced Graphene Oxides: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Studies

Adsorption of 4-n-nonylphenol (4-n-NP) and bisphenol A (BPA) on magnetic reduced graphene oxides (rGOs) as a function of contact time, pH, ionic strength and humic acid were investigated by batch techniques. Adsorption of 4-n-NP and BPA were independent of pH at 3.0- 8.0, whereas the slightly decreased adsorption was observed at pH 8.0-11.0. Adsorption kinetics and isotherms of 4-n-NP and BPA on magnetic rGOs can be satisfactorily fitted by pseudo-second-order kinetic and Freundlich model, respectively. The maximum adsorption capacities of magnetic rGOs at pH 6.5 and 293 K were 63.96 and 48.74 mg/g for 4-n-NP and BPA, respectively, which were significantly higher than that of activated carbon. Based on theoretical calculations, the higher adsorption energy of rGOs + 4-n-NP was mainly due to π-π stacking and flexible long alkyl chain of 4-n-NP, whereas adsorption of BPA on rGOs was energetically favored by a lying-down configuration due to π-π stacking and dispersion forces, which was further demonstrated by FTIR analysis. These findings indicate that magnetic rGOs is a promising adsorbent for the efficient elimination of 4-n-NP/BPA from aqueous solutions due to its excellent adsorption performance and simple magnetic separation, which are of great significance for the remediation of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in environmental cleanup.