The Effects of Acute Exercise on Mood, Cognition, Neurophysiology, and Neurochemical Pathways: A Review

Immediate effects of a single session of physical exercise on cognition and cerebral blood flow: A randomized controlled study of older adults

BACKGROUND

Regular physical activity is beneficial for cognitive performance in older age. A single bout of aerobic physical exercise can transiently improve cognitive performance. Researchers have advanced improvements in cerebral circulation as a mediator of long-term effects of aerobic physical exercise on cognition, but the immediate effects of exercise on cognition and cerebral perfusion are not well characterized and the effects in older adults are largely unknown.

METHODS

Forty-nine older adults were randomized to a 30-min aerobic exercise at moderate intensity or relaxation. Groups were matched on age and cardiovascular fitness (VO2 max). Average Grey Matter Blood Flow (GMBF), measured by a pulsed arterial-spin labeling (pASL) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) acquisition, and working memory performance, measured by figurative n-back tasks with increasing loads were assessed before and 7 min after exercising/resting.

RESULTS

Accuracy on the n-back task increased from before to after exercising/resting regardless of the type of activity. GMBF decreased after exercise, relative to the control (resting) group. In the exercise group, higher n-back performance after exercise was associated with lower GMBF in the right hippocampus, left medial frontal cortex and right orbitofrontal cortex, and higher cardiovascular fitness was associated with lower GMBF.

CONCLUSION

The decrease of GMBF reported in younger adults shortly after exercise also occurs in older adults and relates to cardiovascular fitness, potentially supporting the link between cardiovascular fitness and cerebrovascular reactivity in older age.

Exercise Intensity May Not Moderate the Acute Effects of Functional Circuit Training on Cognitive Function: A Randomized Crossover Trial

Functional circuit training (FCT) has been demonstrated to acutely enhance cognitive performance (CP). However, the moderators of this observation are unknown. This study aimed to elucidate the role of exercise intensity. According to an a priori sample size calculation, n = 24 healthy participants (26 ± 3 years, 13 females), in randomized order, performed a single 15-min bout of FCT with low (20-39% of the heart rate reserve/HRR), moderate (40-59% HRR) or high intensity (maximal effort). Immediately pre- and post-workout, CP was measured by use of the Digit Span test, Stroop test and Trail Making test. Non-parametric data analyses did not reveal significant differences between conditions (p > 0.05) although parameter-free 95% confidence intervals showed pre-post improvements in some outcomes at moderate and high intensity only. The effort level does not seem to be a major effect modifier regarding short-term increases in CP following HCT in young active adults.

Effects of Acute Exercise on Drug Craving, Self-Esteem, Mood, and Affect in Adults with Polysubstance Use Disorder: Protocol for a Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Novel treatments for substance use disorders are needed. Acute bouts of exercise can improve mood states and craving in nonclinical populations. Exercise effects in those with polysubstance dependence are understudied; controlled trials are needed.

Objective

This protocol describes a clinical study examining the short-term psychological effects of 2 types of physical activity, soccer and circuit training, in patients with substance use disorders. Effects will be compared with a nonexercise control group. Specific aims are to investigate whether there are differences between the activities and the duration of changes.

Methods

This study is a short-term multicenter randomized control trial with a crossover design. Patients consecutively admitted to 4 inpatient treatment centers were invited to participate in 3 conditions, each lasting 45 minutes, within one week. The order of the conditions was randomized. There were a total of 5 assessments, taken at baseline, immediately before each condition, immediately after each condition, and 1, 2, and 4 hours postintervention, enabling patterns of change over time to be observed. Psychological effects were assessed with self-report questionnaires, which included scales for craving, state anxiety, positive and negative affect, self-esteem, and mood. Exercise intensity was assessed with the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion scale and a heart rate monitor (Polar M200; Polar Electro Ltd). Cortisol was assessed in saliva before and 4 hours after the intervention.

Results

A total of 39 patients were included in the study. Data collection was completed in 2019.

Conclusions

We anticipate larger improvements in the intervention groups than among controls, indicating positive psychological effects during and after exercise. The study will add clinically relevant information about the short-term psychological effects of exercise in the treatment of substance use disorders, using activities that are easily accessible in different clinical settings.

Trial Registration

German Clinical Trials Register DRKS00018869; https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00018869

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/18553

Free-Weight Resistance Exercise Is More Effective in Enhancing Inhibitory Control than Machine-Based Training: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

Resistance exercise has been demonstrated to improve brain function. However, the optimal workout characteristics are a matter of debate. This randomized, controlled trial aimed to elucidate differences between free-weight (REfree) and machine-based (REmach) training with regard to their ability to acutely enhance cognitive performance (CP). A total of n = 46 healthy individuals (27 ± 4 years, 26 men) performed a 45-min bout of REfree (military press, barbell squat, bench press) or REmach (shoulder press, leg press, chest press). Pre- and post-intervention, CP was examined using the Stroop test, Trail Making Test and Digit Span test. Mann-Whitney U tests did not reveal between-group differences for performance in the Digit Span test, Trail Making test and the color and word conditions of the Stroop test (p > 0.05). However, REfree was superior to REmach in the Stroop color-word condition (+6.3%, p = 0.02, R = 0.35). Additionally, REfree elicited pre-post changes in all parameters except for the Digit Span test and the word condition of the Stroop test while REmach only improved cognitive performance in part A of the Trail Making test. Using free weights seems to be the more effective RE method to acutely improve cognitive function (i.e., inhibitory control). The mechanisms of this finding merit further investigation.

A single bout of moderate intensity exercise improves cognitive flexibility: evidence from task-switching

Executive function entails the core components of response  inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility. An accumulating literature has shown that a single bout of exercise improves the response inhibition  and working memory components of executive function; however, limited work has examined a putative exercise-related improvement to cognitive flexibility. To address this limitation, Experiment 1 entailed a 20-min session of moderate intensity aerobic exercise (via cycle ergometer), and pre- and post-exercise cognitive flexibility was examined via a task-switching paradigm involving alternating pro- and antisaccades (AABB: A = prosaccade, B = antisaccade). In Experiment 2, participants sat on the cycle ergometer without exercising (i.e., rest break) and the same AABB paradigm was examined pre- and post-break. We used an AABB pro- and antisaccade paradigm because previous work has shown that a prosaccade preceded by an antisaccade exhibits a reliable-and large magnitude-increase in reaction time, whereas the converse switch does not (i.e., the unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost). Experiment 1 showed a unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost pre-exercise (p = .012)-but not post-exercise (p = .30), and a two one-sided t test indicated that the latter comparison was within an equivalence boundary (p < .01). In contrast, Experiment 2 revealed a unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost at pre- and post-break assessments (ps < .01). Accordingly, our results indicate that a single bout of exercise improves cognitive flexibility and provides convergent evidence that exercise improves global components of executive function.

Effects of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function in Children With and Without Learning Disability: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This study examined the effects of acute aerobic exercise on sustained attention and discriminatory ability of children with and without learning disabilities (LD). Fifty-one children with LD and 49 typically developing children were randomly assigned to exercise or control groups. The participants in the exercise groups performed a 30-min session of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, whereas the control groups watched a running/exercise-related video. Neuropsychological tasks, the Daueraufmerksamkeit sustained attention test, and the determination tests were assessed before and after each treatment. Exercise significantly benefited performance in sustained attention and discriminatory ability, particularly in higher accuracy rate and shorter reaction time. In addition, the LD exercise group demonstrated greater improvement than the typically developing exercise group. The findings suggest that the acute aerobic exercise influenced the sustained attention and the discriminatory function in children with LD by enhancing regulation of mental states and allocation of attentional resources.

Acute high-intensity interval training improves motor skill acquisition

BACKGROUND

It is well established that acute exercise improves cognitive function. However, less is known about the effects of exercise on motor skill acquisition. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on motor skill acquisition.

METHODS

Sixty individuals (27 males, 33 females) between 18 and 40 years of age participated in two testing sessions separated by one week. During visit 1, participants performed one block of a continuous tracking, force control task to establish baseline ability. Participants were then randomized to either an aerobic-only HIIT group (HIIT-A), an aerobic/resistance HIIT group (HIIT-AR), or a resting control group. Both exercise groups performed a 20-minute, digital versatile disc (DVD)-delivered HIIT exercise protocol during visit 2. Following exercise or rest, all participants performed five blocks of the same force control task to assess skill acquisition.

RESULTS

On visit 2, the HIIT-A group had a significantly lower total performance error (E) compared to the control group (P<0.05). Both exercise groups (HIIT-A and HIIT-AR) had a significantly lower peak amplitude error (PE) following exercise compared to the control group (P<0.05). No significant group differences were observed for temporal error (TE). Additionally, no significant differences were observed between the exercise groups (P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that acute HIIT-A improves motor skill acquisition compared to rest. Furthermore, improvements in acquisition appeared to be a result of improved spatial accuracy. Therefore, performing HIIT-A prior to practicing a motor task may help reduce total error during the motor skill acquisition phase.

Get Vigorous with Physical Exercise and Improve Your Well-Being at Work!

The aim of this study is to investigate whether people who exercise regularly have higher levels of psychological well-being at work. Doing physical exercise is a habit that not only has consequences for physical and mental health, but it can also have positive consequences for organizations because physical exercise makes it easier for the employee to recover from physical, mental, and emotional effort during the workday, thus showing higher levels of engagement the next day. Through the analysis of structural equation models in a sample of 485 workers from different Spanish and Latin American companies, this study shows that subjects who exercise more have higher levels of vigor in physical exercise, which is positively related to high levels of well-being at work. This means that organizations that promote activities related to physical exercise among their employees are building a process of resource recovery, which, through the vigor of these activities, makes workers feel less stressed and more satisfied, thus experiencing greater well-being at work. Therefore, at a practical level, these results suggest that the practice of physical exercise is a tool for organizations that want to promote their employees’ psychological well-being.

Exercise-Induced Elevated BDNF Level Does Not Prevent Cognitive Impairment Due to Acute Exposure to Moderate Hypoxia in Well-Trained Athletes

Exposure to acute hypoxia causes a detrimental effect on the brain which is also manifested by a decrease in the ability to perform psychomotor tasks. Conversely, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), whose levels are elevated in response to exercise, is a well-known factor in improving cognitive function. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate whether the exercise under hypoxic conditions affects psychomotor performance. For this purpose, 11 healthy young athletes performed a graded cycloergometer exercise test to volitional exhaustion under normoxia and acute mild hypoxia (FiO₂ = 14.7%). Before, immediately after exercise and after a period of recovery, choice reaction time (CRT) and number of correct reactions (NCR) in relation to changes in serum BDNF were examined. Additionally, other selected factors which may modify BDNF production, i.e., cortisol (C), nitrite, catecholamines (adrenalin-A, noradrenaline-NA, dopamine-DA, serotonin-5-HT) and endothelin-1 (ET-1), were also measured. Exercise in hypoxic conditions extended CRT by 13.8% (p < 0.01) and decreased NCR (by 11.5%) compared to rest (p < 0.05). During maximal workload, NCR was lower by 9% in hypoxia compared to normoxia (p < 0.05). BDNF increased immediately after exercise in normoxia (by 29.3%; p < 0.01), as well as in hypoxia (by 50.0%; p < 0.001). There were no differences in BDNF between normoxia and hypoxia. Considering the fact that similar levels of BDNF were seen in both conditions but cognitive performance was suppressed in hypoxia, acute elevation of BDNF did not compensate for hypoxia-induced cognition impairment. Moreover, neither potentially negative effects of C nor positive effects of A, DA and NO on the brain were observed in our study.

Functional high-intensity exercise is more effective in acutely increasing working memory than aerobic walking: an exploratory randomized, controlled trial

Aerobic and resistance exercise acutely increase cognitive performance (CP). High-intensity functional training (HIFT) combines the characteristics of both regimes but its effect on CP is unclear. Thirty-five healthy individuals (26.7 ± 3.6 years, 18 females) were randomly allocated to three groups. The first (HIFT) performed a functional whole-body workout at maximal effort and in circuit format, while a second walked at 60% of the heart rate reserve (WALK). The third group remained physically inactive reading a book (CON). Before and after the 15-min intervention period, CP was assessed with the Stroop Test, Trail Making Test and Digit Span Test. Repeated-measures ANOVAs and post-hoc 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were used to detect time/group differences. A significant group*time interaction was found for the backwards condition of the Digit Span Test (p = 0.04) and according to the 95% CI, HIFT was superior to WALK and CON. Analysis of the sum score of the Digit Span Test and the incongruent condition of the Stroop Test, furthermore, revealed main effects for time (p < 0.05) with HIFT being the only intervention improving CP. No differences were found for the Trail Making Test (p > 0.05). In conclusion, HIFT represents an appropriate method to acutely improve working memory, potentially being superior to moderate aerobic-type exercise.

Neither Cathodal nor Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex alone or Applied During Moderate Aerobic Exercise Modulates Executive Function

There is converging evidence that both aerobic exercise (AE) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can acutely modulate executive functions (EF). In addition, recent studies have proposed the beneficial effects of applying tDCS during AE on physical performance. This study aimed to investigate whether tDCS applied during an AE session additionally or differently effects EF. Therefore, five experiments were conducted in a counterbalanced pre-post-retention crossover design to explore the acute effects of tDCS and AE on EF (inhibition and updating) once in isolation (i.e., either cathodal, anodal tDCS or AE alone as controls) and once in a combined application (i.e., anodal and cathodal tDCS during AE versus sham tDCS during AE). No differences were found in any experiment in the cognitive test parameters. However, in the case of anodal tDCS vs. sham during AE, heart rate was significantly affected. For cathodal tDCS vs. sham during AE, a significant Anova interaction indicated that cathodal tDCS during AE slightly reduced ratings of perceived exertion. The nonsignificant effects of tDCS on EFs are in contrast to previous studies, as no replication of existing observations could be achieved. Thus, the protocol applied in this study does not provide any strong evidence that a combination of AE and tDCS has any effects on EFs, but indicates effects on physiological parameters and subjective exhaustion ratings. Further research should consider changes in AE and tDCS parameters (e.g., intensity or exercise mode) and sequence of applications (online vs. offline).

Chronic aerobic exercise: Autoradiographic assessment of GABA(a) and mu-opioid receptor binding in adult rats

Exercise programs have shown great potential for both the prevention and treatment of substance use disorder (SUD). As exercise has been shown to have potent effects on physical and psychological health, it is reasonable to examine the mechanism of how exercise can be used as an adjunct treatment for addiction. The present study examined the effects of chronic aerobic (treadmill) exercise on both GABA(a) and mu-opioid receptor levels in the brains of male and female rats. GABA(a) receptor binding, measured by [³H] Flunitrazepam, was increased in the cingulate cortex following exercise, but only in females. Mu-opioid receptor expression, measured by [³H] ([D-Ala², N-MePhe⁴, Gly-ol]-enkephalin) (DAMGO), showed no effect of exercise while showing an effect of sex, with increased [³H] DAMGO binding in the brains of sedentary males compared to that of sedentary females. Our findings support the potential role for GABA(a) signaling in the cingulate cortex as part of the mechanism of action of aerobic exercise. These data, along with prior reports, aid our understanding of the neurochemical impact and mechanism of chronic aerobic exercise on neuropsychiatric disease, particularly regarding addiction.

Effects of exercise on proactive interference in memory: potential neuroplasticity and neurochemical mechanisms

Proactive interference occurs when consolidated memory traces inhibit new learning. This kind of interference decreases the efficiency of new learning and also causes memory errors. Exercise has been shown to facilitate some types of cognitive function; however, whether exercise reduces proactive interference to enhance learning efficiency is not well understood. Thus, this review discusses the effects of exercise on proactive memory interference and explores potential mechanisms, such as neurogenesis and neurochemical changes, mediating any effect.

A Single 30 Minutes Bout of Combination Physical Exercises Improved Inhibition and Vigor-Mood in Middle-Aged and Older Females: Evidence From a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Long-term combination of physical exercises has reported benefits for cognitive functions and mood states. However, it remains unclear whether a single bout of combination exercise training has acute positive effects on cognitive functions and mood states in middle-aged and older women. It is important to investigate acute effect of physical exercise because it would help to understand a mechanism of benefits of physical exercise. The purpose of this study was to investigate 30 min of a single bout of combination exercise training on cognition and mood states in middle-aged and older females.

Methods

In this single-blinded randomized control trial (RCT), middle-aged and older females were assigned randomly to two groups: a combination exercise group and a no-exercise control group. The former group did the combination exercise training (aerobic, strength, and stretching exercises) for 30 min. Meanwhile, the latter group did not do any exercise and waited for 30 min. We measured cognitive functions and mood performance states before and after the exercise or control interventions.

Results

Our main results demonstrated that, compared to the control group, the combination exercise improved inhibition (reverse Stroop and Stroop) and increased vigor–activity mood scores in both middle-aged and older groups. We also found that the only combination exercise group showed the significant positive correlations between improved inhibition performance and improved vigor–activity mood.

Discussion

This randomized controlled trial revealed the acute benefits of combination exercise on inhibition in executive functions and vigor–activity in the healthy middle-aged and older females. Our results provided the scientific evidence related to acute effects of the single bout of the combination exercise training. It suggests that we would be better to do the 30 min physical exercise for our health.

Clinical Trial Registration

This trial was registered in the University Hospital Medical Information Network Clinical Trials Registry (UMIN000029681). Registered 24 October 2017, https://upload.umin.ac.jp/cgi-bin/ctr/ctr_view_reg.cgi?recptno=R000033922.

The impact of menstrual-cycle phase on basal and exercise-induced hormones, mood, anxiety and exercise performance in physically active women

BACKGROUND

The influence of menstrual cycle phase on perceptual responses and exercise performance is still unclear in the literature. Therefore, this study investigated salivary estradiol (sal-E<inf>2</inf>) and cortisol (sal-C) concentrations, mood, anxiety and exercise (aerobic, anaerobic) performance in physically-active women across two menstrual-cycle phases.

METHODS

Twelve women (mean age 24.9±4.3 years) were assessed in the early follicular (early-FP) and mid luteal (mid-LP) phase of their menstrual cycle. In each phase, participants were tested for both aerobic (i.e. VO<inf>2max</inf>) and anaerobic (i.e. peak power, average power and Fatigue Index) performance. Basal and exercise-induced changes in sal-E<inf>2</inf> and sal-C concentrations, self-appraised mood and anxiety were assessed.

RESULTS

We observed a significant increase in basal (pre-exercise) sal-E<inf>2</inf> concentration from early-FP to mid-LP (P≤0.05), coupled with a significant increase in VO<inf>2max</inf> in early-FP (39.9±7.8 mL/kg/min) versus mid-LP (36.9±7.8 mL/kg/min). Depression also decreased with aerobic exercise, but only in the early-FP. No other significant menstrual-phase differences in exercise performance, emotional state or hormonal change scores were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that physically-active women may experience a natural rise in estradiol concentration, as they transition from the early-FP to mid-LP. In the present study, this was accompanied by a small reduction in VO<inf>2max</inf>. An exercise (aerobic)-related decline in depression also emerged in the early-FP. Most of the exercise performance, emotional state and hormonal measures did not exhibit any menstrual phase-related difference.

Altered relationship between anandamide and glutamate in circulation after 30 min of arm cycling: A comparison of chronic pain subject with healthy controls

The insufficient knowledge of biochemical mechanisms behind the emergence and maintenance of chronic musculoskeletal pain conditions constrains the development of diagnostic and therapeutic tools for clinical use. However, physical activity and exercise may improve pain severity and physical function during chronic pain conditions. Nevertheless, the biochemical consequences of physical activity and exercise in chronic pain need to be elucidated to increase the precision of this therapeutic tool in chronic pain treatment. The endocannabinoid system has been suggested to play an important role in exercise-induced reward and pain inhibition. Moreover, glutamatergic signalling has been suggested as an important factor for sensation and transmission of pain. In addition, a link has been established between the endocannabinoid system and glutamatergic pathways. This study examines the effect of dynamic load arm cycling (30 min) on levels of lipid mediators related to the endocannabinoid system and glutamate in plasma of chronic pain subjects and pain-free controls. Pain assessments and plasma levels of arachidonoylethanolamide (anandamide), 2-aracidonoylglycerol, oleoylethanolamide, palmitoylethanolamide, stearoylethanolamide and glutamate from 21 subjects with chronic neck pain (chronic pain group) and 11 healthy controls were analysed pre and post intervention of dynamic load arm cycling. Pain intensity was significantly different between groups pre and post exercise. Post exercise, anandamide levels were significantly decreased in health controls but not in the chronic pain group. A strong positive correlation existed between anandamide and glutamate in the control group post exercise but not in the chronic pain group. Moreover, the glutamate/anandamide ratio increased significantly in the control group and differed significantly with the chronic pain group post exercise. The altered relationship between anandamide and glutamate after the intervention in the chronic pain group might reflect alterations in the endocannabinoid-glutamate mechanistic links in the chronic pain group compared to the pain-free control group.

Effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on motor memory encoding and consolidation: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Emerging evidence indicates that acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise promote motor memory formation. In this preregistered meta-analysis (CRD42018106288) we synthesize data from 22 studies published until February 2020, including a total of 862 participants. We calculated standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) to assess exercise effects on motor memory encoding and consolidation, respectively. The pooled data indicate that exercise mainly benefits the consolidation of memories, with exercise prior to motor practice improving early non-sleep consolidation (SMD, 0.58; 95 % CI, 0.30-0.86; p < 0.001), and post-practice exercise facilitating sleep-dependent consolidation (SMD, 0.62; 95 % CI, 0.34-0.90; p < 0.001). Strongest effects exist for high exercise intensities, and motor task nature appears to be another relevant modulator. We demonstrate that acute cardiovascular exercise particularly promotes the consolidation of acquired motor memories, and exercise timing, and intensity as well as motor task nature seem to critically modulate this relationship. These findings are discussed within currently proposed models of motor memory formation and considering molecular and systemic mechanisms of neural plasticity.

Virtual Reality Games and the Role of Body Involvement in Enhancing Positive Emotions and Decreasing Anxiety: Within-Subjects Pilot Study

Background

In the last few years, the introduction of immersive technologies, especially virtual reality, into the gaming market has dramatically altered the traditional concept of video games. Given the unique features of virtual reality in terms of interaction and its ability to completely immerse the individual into the game, this technology should increase the propensity for video games to effectively elicit positive emotions and decrease negative emotions and anxiety in the players. However, to date, few studies have investigated the ability of virtual reality games to induce positive emotions, and the possible effect of this new type of video game in diminishing negative emotions and anxiety has not yet been tested. Furthermore, given the critical role of body movement in individuals’ well-being and in emotional responses to video games, it seems critical to investigate how body involvement can be exploited to modulate the psychological benefits of virtual reality games in terms of enhancing players’ positive emotions and decreasing negative emotions and anxiety.

Objective

This within-subjects study aimed to explore the ability of commercial virtual reality games to induce positive emotions and diminish negative emotions and state anxiety of the players, investigating the effects of the level of body involvement requested by the game (ie, high vs low).

Methods

A total of 36 young adults played a low body-involvement (ie, Fruit Ninja VR) and a high body-involvement (ie, Audioshield) video game in virtual reality. The Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Form-Y1 (STAI-Y1) were used to assess positive and negative emotions and state anxiety.

Results

Results of the generalized linear model (GLM) for repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed a statistically significant increase in the intensity of happiness (P<.001) and surprise (P=.003) and, in parallel, a significant decrease in fear (P=.01) and sadness (P<.001) reported by the users. Regarding the ability to improve anxiety in the players, the results showed a significant decrease in perceived state anxiety after game play, assessed with both the STAI-Y1 (P=.003) and the VAS-anxiety (P=.002). Finally, the results of the GLM MANOVA showed a greater efficacy of the high body-involvement game (ie, Audioshield) compared to the low body-involvement game (ie, Fruit Ninja VR), both for eliciting positive emotions (happiness, P<.001; and surprise, P=.01) and in reducing negative emotions (fear, P=.05; and sadness, P=.05) and state anxiety, as measured by the STAI-Y1 (P=.05).

Conclusions

The two main principal findings of this study are as follows: (1) virtual reality video games appear to be effective tools to elicit positive emotions and to decrease negative emotions and state anxiety in individuals and (2) the level of body involvement of the virtual video game has an important effect in determining the ability of the game to improve positive emotions and decrease negative emotions and state anxiety of the players.

Acute aerobic exercise enhances pleasant compared to unpleasant visual scene processing

Although acute aerobic exercise benefits different aspects of emotional functioning, it is unclear how exercise influences the processing of emotional stimuli and which brain mechanisms support this relationship. We assessed the influence of acute aerobic exercise on valence biases (preferential processing of negative/positive pictures) by performing source reconstructions of participants' brain activity after they viewed emotional scenes. Twenty-four healthy participants (12 women) were tested in a randomized and counterbalanced design that consisted of three experimental protocols, each lasting 30 min: low-intensity exercise (Low-Int); moderate-intensity exercise (Mod-Int); and a seated rest condition (REST). After each of the protocols, participants viewed negative and positive pictures, during which event-related magnetic fields were recorded. Analyses revealed that exercise strongly impacted the valence processing of emotional scenes within a widely distributed left hemispheric spatio-temporal cluster between 190 and 310 ms after picture onset. Brain activity in this cluster showed that a negativity bias at REST (negative > positive picture processing) diminished after the Low-Int condition (positive = negative) and even reversed to a positivity bias after the Mod-Int condition (positive > negative). Thus, acute aerobic exercise of low and moderate intensities induces a positivity bias which is reflected in early, automatic processes.

A Single Bout of Aerobic Exercise Provides an Immediate "Boost" to Cognitive Flexibility

Executive function includes the core components of working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. A wealth of studies demonstrate that working memory and inhibitory control improve following a single bout of exercise; however, a paucity - and equivocal - body of work has demonstrated a similar benefit for cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility underlies switching between different attentional- and motor-related goals, and a potential limitation of previous work examining this component in an exercise context is that they included tasks involving non-executive processes (i.e., numerosity, parity, and letter judgments). To address this issue, Experiment 1 employed a 20-min bout of aerobic exercise and examined pre- and immediate post-exercise cognitive flexibility via stimulus-driven (SD) and minimally delayed (MD) saccades ordered in an AABB task-switching paradigm. Stimulus-driven saccades are a standard task requiring a response at target onset, whereas MD saccades are a non-standard and top-down task requiring a response only after the target is extinguished. Work has shown that RTs for a SD saccade preceded by a MD saccade are longer than when a SD saccade is preceded by its same task-type, whereas the converse switch does not influence performance (i.e., the unidirectional switch-cost). Experiment 1 yielded a 28 ms and 8 ms unidirectional switch-cost pre- and post-exercise, respectively (ps < 0.001); however, the magnitude of the switch-cost was reduced post-exercise (p = 0.005). Experiment 2 involved a non-exercise control condition and yielded a reliable and equivalent magnitude unidirectional switch-cost at a pre- (28 ms) and post-break (26 ms) assessment (ps < 0.001). Accordingly, a single-bout of exercise improved task-switching efficiency and thereby provides convergent evidence that exercise provides a global benefit to the core components of executive function.

The association between physical fitness and mental health in Norwegian adolescents

BACKGROUND

Studies indicate that health-related components of physical fitness are associated with mental health outcomes. However, research is scarce concerning this relationship in young adolescents in general and non-existent in Norwegian populations specifically. The aim of the study was to examine whether body composition, muscular strength and cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with self-reported mental health in Norwegian adolescents.

METHODS

Adolescents from four regions of Norway (n = 1486; mean age = 13.9; girls = 50.6%) participated. Self-reported mental health (psychological difficulties) was measured by completing the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed with an intermittent running test; muscular strength was assessed by measuring handgrip strength, standing broad jump and sit-ups; and body composition was assessed by calculating body mass index from weight and height. Linear mixed effects models were conducted to assess the associations between the health-related components of physical fitness and psychological difficulties. School clusters were included as random effects and all models were controlled for sex, socioeconomic status and birthplace (domestic or foreign).

RESULTS

Body composition was not associated with psychological difficulties. Muscular strength was independently associated with psychological difficulties, but when all independent variables were entered in the fully adjusted model, only cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with psychological difficulties.

CONCLUSIONS

There was a small but significant inverse association between cardiorespiratory fitness and levels of psychological difficulties in Norwegian adolescents. The results suggest that muscular strength is not associated with psychological difficulties in adolescents, when controlling for cardiorespiratory fitness. Future research should focus on the prospective association between physical fitness components and mental health outcomes in adolescents.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov ID nr: NCT03817047. Retrospectively registered January 25, 2019.

Acute physical exercise promotes the consolidation of emotional material

Physical exercise can improve cognitive functions and promote learning and memory, especially when performed in close temporal proximity to the encoding of information. This benefit may occur due to circulating stress hormones released in response to acute exercise. When administered after encoding, acute stress typically enhances the consolidation of emotional stimuli. However, whether acute exercise also selectively modulates emotional memories remains to be explored. Likewise, the potential role of sex in moderating these effects has not been addressed so far. Here, we tested whether a single bout of aerobic exercise after learning boosts the consolidation and thus long-term memory for emotional versus neutral visuospatial stimuli. Healthy men and women learned an object-location task and subsequently were exposed to a vigorous-treadmill running task or control intervention. Memory was assessed 24 h later. Acute exercise significantly increased heart rate and salivary cortisol in both sexes and selectively facilitated the consolidation of emotional stimuli. In particular, we found improved memory for negative items in women and better recall of positive items in men following exercise exposure. This memory benefit was positively related to the increase in heart rate and cortisol in both men and women, suggesting that the favorable effects of acute exercise on emotional memory may be mediated via a co-activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Our findings thereby provide first evidence for the improvement of emotional memory consolidation by acute physical exercise that appears to rely on similar neuroendocrine mechanisms as psychosocial stressors. Given that exercise is healthy, cost-effective and practical in nature, it constitutes an ideal behavioral intervention strategy for boosting memory in clinical and educational settings alike.

Combined and Isolated Effects of Acute Exercise and Brain Stimulation on Executive Function in Healthy Young Adults

Abstract: Acute cognitive enhancement has been sought by healthy young individuals to improve academic and professional performance. Among several methods, physical exercise interventions and transcranial direct current brain stimulation (tDCS) have shown promise in impacting executive functions. Here, we observed a set of new findings about the causal effect of acute aerobic exercise and tDCS across three facets of executive function: Inhibition (as measured by a flanker task) was selectively impacted by acute aerobic exercise but not tDCS, whereas working memory (as measured by an n-back task) was impacted by both acute aerobic exercise and tDCS, with effects emerging on distinct processing components for each manipulation. Sustained attention (as measured by the Mackworth clock task), on the other hand, was not impacted by acute aerobic exercise or tDCS. Interestingly, no effects of combining acute aerobic exercise and tDCS emerged. We argue that understanding the unique and combined contributions of these cognitive enhancement techniques can not only contribute to a deeper mechanistic explanation in healthy individuals but also inform future research with clinical and aging populations.

Synergistic effects of quercetin and regular exercise on the recovery of spatial memory and reduction of parameters of oxidative stress in animal model of Alzheimer's disease

It has widely been reported that the brain in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is affected by increased oxidative stress, and this may have a role in the pathogenesis of this disorder. Quercetin, a polyphenol extensively found in nature, has recently been considered. Also, physical activities have a paradoxical effect on brain function in older adults. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating the synergic effects of quercetin (as chemical treatment) and exercise (as physical treatment) on AD-induced learning and memory impairment. Fifty-six adult male Wistar rats were randomly assigned into one of the following eight groups (n=7): The Control, Sham (saline), AD (intracerebroventricular administration of streptozotocin (STZ)), AD+80 mg/kg Quercetin (STZ+Q80), Quercetin vehicle (1 % Ethanol)+STZ, Exercise pretreatment (EX)+STZ, Off the treadmill+STZ, and EX+Q80+STZ. Quercetin administration was done intraperitoneally for 21 days after STZ injection. The rats ran on the treadmill for one hour a day for 60 days at a speed of 20-22 m/min. After the treatment, the spatial memory and levels of oxidative stress parameters were evaluated. The results showed that STZ caused spatial memory impairment and increased oxidative stress in the hippocampus. Exercise pretreatment or Quercetin injection improved the spatial memory impairment and oxidative stress caused by STZ injection. However, the combination of quercetin and exercise pretreatment was more effective. It can be concluded that the combined exercise pretreatment and Quercetin injection affected the antioxidant defense system and improved STZ-induced memory impairment.

The Effects of Interrupting Sitting Time on Affect and State Anxiety in Children of Healthy Weight and Overweight: A Randomized Crossover Trial

PURPOSE

Sedentary time relates to higher anxiety and more negative affect in children. This study assessed whether interrupting sitting over 3 hours is sufficient to influence state anxiety, positive affect, or negative affect, and tested weight status as a moderator.

METHODS

Analyses were the second (preplanned) purpose of a larger study. Children (N = 61; age: mean [SD] = 9.5 [1.3]; 43% healthy weight) completed 2 experimental conditions: continuous sitting for 3 hours and sitting for 3 hours interrupted with walking for 3 minutes in every 30 minutes. State anxiety, positive affect, and negative affect were reported at pretest and posttest. Multilevel models for repeated measures assessed whether experimental condition predicted posttest scores.

RESULTS

Experimental condition was unrelated to posttest state anxiety or positive affect. Weight status moderated how experimental condition influenced posttest negative affect (P = .003). Negative affect was lower in the children of healthy weight after interrupted sitting (vs continuous sitting; β = -0.8; 95% confidence interval, -1.5 to 0.0, P = .05), but it was higher in the children with overweight/obesity after interrupted sitting (vs continuous sitting; β = 0.6; 95% confidence interval, 0.0 to 1.2, P = .06).

CONCLUSIONS

Interrupting sitting acutely reduced negative affect in children of healthy weight, but not in children with overweight. Further research is needed to better understand the potential emotional benefits of sitting interruptions in youth.

The Contribution of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to the Understanding of the Effects of Acute Physical Exercise on Cognition

The fact that a single bout of acute physical exercise has a positive impact on cognition is well-established in the literature, but the neural correlates that underlie these cognitive improvements are not well understood. Here, the use of neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), offers great potential, which is just starting to be recognized. This review aims at providing an overview of those studies that used fMRI to investigate the effects of acute physical exercises on cerebral hemodynamics and cognition. To this end, a systematic literature survey was conducted by two independent reviewers across five electronic databases. The search returned 668 studies, of which 14 studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in this systematic review. Although the findings of the reviewed studies suggest that acute physical exercise (e.g., cycling) leads to profound changes in functional brain activation, the small number of available studies and the great variability in the study protocols limits the conclusions that can be drawn with certainty. In order to overcome these limitations, new, more well-designed trials are needed that (i) use a more rigorous study design, (ii) apply more sophisticated filter methods in fMRI data analysis, (iii) describe the applied processing steps of fMRI data analysis in more detail, and (iv) provide a more precise exercise prescription.

Hypothesized Mechanisms Through Which Exercise May Attenuate Memory Interference

In this paper we introduce a mechanistic model through which exercise may enhance episodic memory, specifically via attenuating proactive and retroactive memory interference. We discuss the various types of memory, different stages of memory function, review the mechanisms behind forgetting, and the mechanistic role of exercise in facilitating pattern separation (to attenuate memory interference).

Acute increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor in plasma following physical exercise relates to subsequent learning in older adults

Multidomain lifestyle interventions represents a promising strategy to counteract cognitive decline in older age. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is essential for experience-dependent plasticity and increases following physical exercise, suggesting that physical exercise may facilitate subsequent learning. In a randomized-controlled trial, healthy older adults (65–75 years) completed a 12-week behavioral intervention that involved either physical exercise immediately before cognitive training (n = 25; 13 females), physical exercise immediately after cognitive training (n = 24; 11 females), physical exercise only (n = 27; 15 females), or cognitive training only (n = 21; 12 females). We hypothesized that cognition would benefit more from cognitive training when preceded as opposed to followed by physical exercise and that the relationship between exercise-induced increases in peripheral BDNF and cognitive training outcome would be greater when cognitive training is preceded by physical exercise. Greater increases of plasma BDNF were associated with greater cognitive training gains on trained task paradigms, but only when such increases preceded cognitive training (ß = 0.14, 95% CI [0.04, 0.25]). Average cognitive training outcome did not differ depending on intervention order (ß = 0.05, 95% CI [−0.10, 0.20]). The study provides the first empirical support for a time-critical but advantageous role for post-exercise increases in peripheral BDNF for learning at an interindividual level in older adults, with implications for future multidomain lifestyle interventions.

Factors that influence participation in physical activity for anxiety or depression: a synthesis of qualitative evidence

This is a protocol for a Cochrane Review (Qualitative). The objectives are as follows:

Main objective: To identify the factors that create barriers or facilitate physical activity for people with a diagnosis of anxiety or depression from the perspectives of service users, carers, service providers and practitioners to help inform the design and implementation of interventions that promote physical activity.

The overall aim of this review is to identify, appraise, and synthesise qualitative research evidence on the barriers and facilitators to engaging in physical activity in general lifestyle settings or as part of an intervention designed to increase physical activity for people with anxiety and depression. This will allow us to identify factors that create barriers and facilitators of physical activity in this population to inform the development, design, and implementation of future interventions. We will also integrate the findings from the QES with the two associated effectiveness reviews (Cooney 2014 ; Larun 2006 ). We will communicate our findings to public health commissioners and other stakeholders.

Effects of carbohydrate and protein co-ingestion during short-term moderate-intensity exercise on cognitive function

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the effects of isocaloric carbohydrate-electrolyte solution (CES) and carbohydrates-electrolyte-protein solution (CEPS) consumed during moderate-intensity exercise on cognitive function.

METHODS

Twenty-three healthy participants (age: 21.7±1.5 years, Body Mass Index: 21.8±2.0 kg/m2, and peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak): 42.4±6.9 mL/kg/min) were recruited in the study. Participants completed two main experiment trials using a cross-over study design. In each trial, they completed 30 minutes of 70% VO2peak cycling, and one of two solutions (CES or CEPS) was consumed. A battery of cognitive function tests (imPACT Package) was administrated at rest and immediately post-exercise.

RESULTS

Blood glucose concentrations decreased in both trials. Heart rate and blood lactate concentrations increased in both trials. However, no significant main effects of the exercise on all cognitive function variables (verbal and visual memory, visual-motor speed, reaction time, impulse control, and cognitive efficiency index) were observed (all P>0.05). Also, there was no difference in any of the cognitive function variables between the CES and CEPS trials (all P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

There was no difference in the cognitive performance when CES or CES-PRO solutions was consumed during 30 minutes moderate-intensity cycling.

Regular Moderate- to Vigorous-Intensity Physical Activity Rather Than Walking Is Associated with Enhanced Cognitive Functions and Mental Health in Young Adults

The beneficial effect of physical activity (PA) on the brain has been well established. Both acute and regular PA can boost a range of cognitive functions and enhance mood and mental health. Notably, the effect of acute PA on the brain and cognitive functions is generally found to be dose-dependent, in terms of both the amount and intensity of the exercise episode. In contrast, in the case of regular PA, the literature has primarily focused on the amount of exercise, and limited studies have assessed the influence of the exercise intensity. Since PA in higher intensity causes more extensive, more powerful, and longer-lasting neurobiological changes, it may prove more beneficial to cognitive functions and mental health. In the present study, we set out to test this hypothesis by employing a battery of questionnaires and laboratory tests with a sample of young adults. We found that more frequent vigorous- and moderate-intensity PA rather than walking (considered low to moderate intensity) was associated with better cognitive and mental health measures. Meanwhile, compared with no moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) at all, as few as 1~2 days per week (lasting at least 10 min each time) of MVPA was associated with a variety of benefits, particularly related to coping with challenging situations. In light of the neurobiological literature, the present study speaks to the value of moderate- to vigorous- rather than low-intensity PA in enhancing cognitive functions and mental health.

Affective Outcomes of Group versus Lone Green Exercise Participation

'Green exercise' (being physically active within a natural environment) research has examined the influence of environmental setting on health and wellbeing-related exercise outcomes. However, it is not known whether social exercise settings influence green exercise-associated changes in mood, self-esteem, and connection to nature. This study directly compared outcomes of participating in green exercise alone compared to in a group. Using repeated measures, counterbalanced and randomized-crossover design, participants (n = 40) completed two 3 km runs around sports fields. These fields had a relatively flat grass terrain, predominant view of trees, and open grassland. On one occasion participants ran alone and on the other they ran in a group of 4-5 participants. Questionnaire measures of mood, self-esteem, and connection to nature were completed immediately pre- and post-run. Across all of the measures, two-way mixed ANOVAs found that there were statistically significant effects for time but not for time-by-condition interactions. The simplest interpretation of this finding is that social setting does not influence individuals' attainment of the psychological outcomes of green exercise participation. However, we discuss the possibility that more complex processes might underpin this finding.

Physical exercise in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder - evidence and implications for the treatment of borderline personality disorder

A growing body of literature indicates a potential role for physical exercise in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Suggested effects include the reduction of ADHD core symptoms as well as improvements in executive functions. In the current review, we provide a short overview on the neurophysiological mechanisms assumed to underlie the beneficial effects of exercise. Further, we review the current evidence from experimental studies regarding both acute exercise and long-term interventions in ADHD. While the positive effects observed after acute aerobic exercise are promising, very few well-designed long-term intervention studies have been conducted yet. Moreover, although exercise effects have not yet been studied in borderline personality disorder (BPD), in the end of this paper we derive hypotheses why exercise could also be beneficial for this patient population.

An Overview of the Beneficial Effects of Exercise on Health and Performance

Life expectancy is steadily increasing in modern societies, and so are noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, and cancer, accounting for more than 70% of all deaths globally. The costs associated with these diseases are enormous, but it has been estimated that the majority of these noncommunicable diseases are preventable. In addition to an unhealthy diet, tobacco use, and harmful use of alcohol, physical inactivity is a key risk factor. Consequently, physical activity is a logical remedy, and in this chapter an overview of the numerous beneficial effects of physical activity on health and performance is given.The chapter is divided into three parts: First, the basics of physical activity and exercise are discussed, for instance exercise classification, exercise intensity operationalization, energy supply, and the acute effects of exercise such as blood flow redistribution and increased cardiac output. In the second part, the effects of exercise on physical performance are summarized. Specifically, it is discussed how endurance, strength, power, and balance can be improved. This discussion includes recommendations regarding the type, intensity, and duration of the exercise leading to improvements in one of these aspects of physical performance, as well as the mechanisms causing these adaptations. In the third part, the beneficial effects of physical activity on physical and mental health are outlined, with particular attention to cardiovascular diseases, the metabolic syndrome, musculoskeletal diseases, mood, anxiety, depression, and dementia.It can be concluded that with adequate programming, regular physical activity is an effective way to improve physical performance, improve physical and mental health, and reduce the risk factors for many noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome, sarcopenia, osteoporosis, and depression. In contrast to medication, physical exercise has no negative side effects, costs very little, and targets many health issues at once. If the multitude of beneficial effects of regular exercise were to be combined in a single low-cost drug, it would be prescribed for almost all types of physical and mental health issues.

Modulation of Distinct Intrinsic Resting State Brain Networks by Acute Exercise Bouts of Differing Intensity

Acute exercise bouts alter resting state functional connectivity (rs-FC) within cognitive, sensorimotor, and affective networks, but it remains unknown how these effects are influenced by exercise intensity.

Twenty-five male athletes underwent individual fitness assessments using an incremental treadmill test. On separate days, they performed ‘low’ (35% below lactate threshold) and ‘high’ (20% above lactate threshold) intensity exercise bouts of 30 min. Rs-fMRI and Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) were acquired before and after each exercise bout. Networks of interest were extracted from twenty-two participants (3 dropouts). Pre-to-post changes and between conditions effects were evaluated using FSL’s randomise by applying repeated measures ANOVA. Results were reported at p < 0.05, corrected for multiple comparisons using threshold free cluster enhancement.

PANAS revealed a significant increase in positive mood after both exercise conditions. Significant effects were observed between conditions in the right affective and reward network (ARN), the right fronto parietal network (FPN) and the sensorimotor network (SMN). Pre-to-post comparisons after ‘low’ exercise intensity revealed a significant increase in rs-FC in the left and right FPN, while after ‘high’-intensity exercise rs-FC decreased in the SMN and the dorsal attention network (DAN) and increased in the left ARN.

Supporting recent findings, this study is the first to report distinct rs-FC alterations driven by exercise intensity: (i) Increased rs-FC in FPN may indicate beneficial functional plasticity for cognitive/attentional processing, (ii) increased rs-FC in ARN may be linked to endogenous opioid-mediated internal affective states. Finally, (iii) decreased rs-FC in the SMN may signify persistent motor fatigue. The distinct effects on rs-FC fit with theories of transient persistent network alterations after acute exercise bouts that are mediated by different exercise intensities and impact differentially on cognitive/attentional or affective responses.

Effect of Acute Physical Exercise on Executive Functions and Emotional Recognition: Analysis of Moderate to High Intensity in Young Adults

Physical exercise (PE) is associated with cognitive changes and brain function. However, it is required to clarify the effect of PE in different intensities, population groups conditions and the EF duration over different cognitive domains. Besides, no studies are known to have evaluated the contextual emotional recognition. Therefore, we studied the effect of acute PE of moderate intensities up to higher ones to the executive functions and the contextual emotional recognition. The participants were evaluated and classified in two experiments according to the IPAQ short form self-report and control measures. In both experiments, the groups were randomized, controlled, and exposed to one session of indoor cycling through intervals of high measure intensity (75–85% HRmax). Experiment 1 comprised young adults who were physically active (PA) and healthy, apparently (n = 54, M_age = 20.7, SD = 2.5). Experiment 2 involved young adults who were physically inactive (IP) and healthy, apparently (n = 36, M_age = 21.6, SD = 1.8). The duration was the only factor that varied: 45 min for PA and 30 min for PI. The executive functions were evaluated by the Stroop, TMT A/B, and verbal fluency, and the emotional recognition through a task that includes body and facial emotions in context, simultaneously. The analysis of factorial mixed ANOVA showed effects on the right choices of the indoor cycling groups in the PA, and the time response in PI. Also, other effects were observed in the controlled groups. TMT-A/B measures showed changes in the pre-test–post-test measures for both experiments. Verbal fluency performance favored the control group in both experiments. Meanwhile, the emotional recognition showed an effect of the PE in error-reduction and enhanced the scores in the right choices of body emotions. These results suggest that the EF with intensities favored cognitive processes such as inhibitory control and emotional recognition in context. We took into account the importance of high-complexity tasks design that avoid a ceiling effect. This study is the first on reporting a positive effect of PE over the emotional contextual recognition. Important clinical and educational implications are presented implications which highlight the modulatory role of EF with moderate to high intensities.

Acute Aerobic Exercise Based Cognitive and Motor Priming: Practical Applications and Mechanisms

Acute exercise stimulates brain regions involved in motor and cognitive processes. Recent research efforts have explored the benefits of aerobic exercise on brain health and cognitive functioning with positive results reported for both healthy and neurocognitively impaired individuals. Specifically, exercise positioned near therapeutic (both behavioral and physical) activities may enhance outcomes associated with treatment outcomes (e.g., depression or motor skill) through neural plasticity promoting mechanisms (e.g., increased brain flow and oxygenation). This approach has been termed "exercise priming" and is a relatively new topic of exploration in the fields of exercise science and motor control. The authors report on physiological mechanisms that are related to the priming effect. In addition, parameters related to the exercise bout (e.g., intensity, duration) and the idea of combining exercise and therapeutic rehabilitation are explored. This exercise-based priming concept has the potential to be applied to many areas such as education, cognitive therapy, and motor rehabilitation.

Effects of Acute Stretching on Cognitive Function and Mood States of Physically Inactive Young Adults

Exercise intensity from stretching is very low, making it well suited to varied populations, including physically inactive people. We tested the hypothesis that acute stretching would improve cognitive function and improved mood states in physically inactive people. We asked 19 physically inactive young participants to perform the Stroop task and complete the short form of Profile of Moods Scale before and after 10 minutes of whole body stretching using yoga techniques and poses (stretching condition) versus a resting period. In the stretching condition, we observed decreases in Tension–Anxiety, Depression–Dejection, Anger–Hostility, Fatigue, and Confusion scores on the Profile of Moods Scale (all p values < .01) and an increase in the Vigor score ( p =  .01). We also observed a decrease in Stroop interference performance ( p <  .001). Furthermore, we found a significant negative correlation between ΔVigor score and ΔStroop interference ( r = −.36, p =  .03), indicating that a greater increase in the Vigor score was associated with better cognitive performance. Thus, acute stretching improved mood states and cognitive performance in physically inactive people. We suggest that the improved cognitive performance may be, at least partly, associated with the improved mood states.

The Utility of Functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy for Measuring Cortical Activity during Cycling Exercise

PURPOSE

Real-time measurement of dynamic brain activity during exercise can help advance our understanding of the role of exercise upon brain health and function. In exercise science, functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has primarily been used to measure the effects of exercise intensity on hemodynamic responses in the cerebral cortex. However, the utility of fNIRS to measure discreet hemodynamic responses underlying brain activation associated with motor and cognitive function during exercise has not been systematically examined. Here, we compared brain activation associated with a motor and cognitive task at rest and during cycling exercise at different intensities.

METHODS

In separate sessions, 13 participants performed cycling exercise on an indoor trainer at a low, moderate and high intensity. We measured changes in oxygenated (HbO) and deoxygenated (HbR) hemoglobin from prefrontal, parietal, and motor regions of the cerebral cortex during a handgrip and working-memory task.

RESULTS

Our findings show significant brain activation (a concurrent increase in HbO and decrease in HbR) in contralateral motor cortex during the handgrip task and left prefrontal cortex during the working-memory task at rest and during exercise at low, moderate and high (motor task HbO only) intensities (P < 0.05). Moreover, brain activation during the handgrip and working-memory tasks was not significantly different at rest and during exercise (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that fNIRS can robustly measure motor and cognitive task-evoked changes in brain activation during cycling exercise comparable to rest. An implication of these new findings is that fNIRS can be used to determine real-time changes in brain function during exercise in healthy and clinical populations.

Dose-Response Matters! - A Perspective on the Exercise Prescription in Exercise-Cognition Research

In general, it is well recognized that both acute physical exercises and regular physical training influence brain plasticity and cognitive functions positively. However, growing evidence shows that the same physical exercises induce very heterogeneous outcomes across individuals. In an attempt to better understand this interindividual heterogeneity in response to acute and regular physical exercising, most research, so far, has focused on non-modifiable factors such as sex and different genotypes, while relatively little attention has been paid to exercise prescription as a modifiable factor. With an adapted exercise prescription, dosage can be made comparable across individuals, a procedure that is necessary to better understand the dose-response relationship in exercise-cognition research. This improved understanding of dose-response relationships could help to design more efficient physical training approaches against, for instance, cognitive decline.

The interactive effects of acute exercise and hypoxia on cognitive performance: A narrative review

Acute moderate intensity exercise has been shown to improve cognitive performance. In contrast, hypoxia is believed to impair cognitive performance. The detrimental effects of hypoxia on cognitive performance are primarily dependent on the severity and duration of exposure. In this review, we describe how acute exercise under hypoxia alters cognitive performance, and propose that the combined effects of acute exercise and hypoxia on cognitive performance are mainly determined by interaction among exercise intensity and duration, the severity of hypoxia, and duration of exposure to hypoxia. We discuss the physiological mechanism(s) of the interaction and suggest that alterations in neurotransmitter function, cerebral blood flow, and possibly cerebral metabolism are the primary candidates that determine cognitive performance when acute exercise is combined with hypoxia. Furthermore, acclimatization appears to counteract impaired cognitive performance during prolonged exposure to hypoxia although the precise physiological mechanism(s) responsible for this amelioration remain to be elucidated. This review has implications for sporting, occupational, and recreational activities at terrestrial high altitude where cognitive performance is essential. Further studies are required to understand physiological mechanisms that determine cognitive performance when acute exercise is performed in hypoxia.

[Exercise for depression treatment. Exercise modalities and types]

The risk of metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, is increased in depression, there is a decrease in life expectancy by 8-10 years. Pharmacotherapy is the first-line method in the treatment of depression. However, pharmaceutical-related side-effects and resistance to antidepressant pharmacotherapy create serious problems in treatment. Regular exercise not only weakens the symptoms of depression, increases aerobic capacity and muscle strength, but also has a positive effect on comorbid diseases. The purpose of this review is to answer the question, on which parameters of exercise the antidepressant effect depends. The review highlights the results of clinical studies of different types of exercises, intensities and modalities for the treatment of depression over the past 10 years. Because of the contradictory results of the studies, it is impossible to make final conclusions regarding the parameters of exercise. It is possible to say with high probability that in the treatment of depression, moderate and intense aerobic exercises with elements of strength exercises and a variety of coordination exercises more often lead to a positive effect than monotonous exercises with low intensity. It is possible that regular patient adherence to the prescribed exercise regimen is more important than the specific exercise type.

Effects of a Brief Stair-Climbing Intervention on Cognitive Performance and Mood States in Healthy Young Adults

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies focused on the benefits of acute exercise on cognition and mood have mostly used specialized laboratory-based equipment, thus little is known about how such protocols generalize to naturalistic settings. Stair climbing is a simple and readily accessible means of exercise that can be performed in naturalistic settings (e.g., at home or at the workplace). In the present study we examined the effects of stair-climbing intervals on subsequent cognitive performance and mood in healthy young adults.

METHOD

Thirty-two undergraduate students (M age = 19.4 years, SD = 1.3; 21 females) completed a controlled randomized crossover trial with session order counterbalanced across participants. Participants visited the lab on two occasions, one week apart, and completed one control session (no exercise) and one stair-climbing session (3 × 1 min stair-climbing intervals) with cognitive performance and mood assessed at the end of each session.

RESULTS

Repeated measures ANCOVA revealed that males (Hedges' g av = 0.45) showed better switching performance following the stair climbing but females (Hedges' g av < 0.03) did not. Participants felt more energetic (Hedges' g av = 1.05), less tense (Hedges' g av = 0.61), and less tired (Hedges' g av = 0.43) following the stair climbing. In addition, higher exercise intensity during the stair climbing predicted better subsequent switching performance and higher energetic ratings.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that short bouts of stair climbing in a naturalistic setting can induce cognitive benefits for more challenging tasks, albeit only in males, indicating a sex-specific effect. Short bouts of stair climbing can be a practical approach to increase feelings of energy in daily life.