Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Breast, Ovarian, and Pancreatic, Version 2.2021, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology

Prevalence of BRCA1 and BRCA2 pathogenic variants in 8627 unselected patients with breast cancer: stratification of age at diagnosis, family history and molecular subtype

PURPOSE

Comprehensively analyzing the prevalence of BRCA1/2 germline pathogenic variants (PVs) in a large cohort of unselected Chinese patients with breast cancer has great clinical importance.

METHODS

Germline pathogenic variants in full-length BRCA1/2 genes were determined through next-generation sequencing and/or Sanger sequencing assays in 8627 unselected Chinese patients with breast cancer who were treated at the Breast Center of Peking University Cancer Hospital. The prevalence of BRCA1/2 PVs was further stratified by age at diagnosis, family history of cancer and molecular subtype.

RESULTS

We found that the overall prevalence of BRCA1/2 PVs was 6.0% in the entire cohort, 2.4% in BRCA1 and 3.7% in BRCA2. The prevalence of BRCA1/2 PVs in patients with early-onset breast cancer (age at diagnosis ≤ 40 years) was significantly higher than that in patients over the age of 40 (9.7% vs. 5.1%). The prevalence rates of BRCA1/2 PVs in patients with a family history of breast, ovarian, pancreatic, and prostate cancer were 19.5%, 39.0%, 11.1%, and 12.8%, respectively. Moreover, the number of relatives affected by breast cancer was associated with a higher prevalence of BRCA1/2 PVs. Molecular subtypes were associated with the prevalence of BRCA1/2 PVs. Patients with the triple-negative phenotype had the highest prevalence of BRCA1/2 PVs (13.3%) among the three molecular groups, followed by the HR + and HER2- group (5.9%), and the lowest was in the HER2 + group (2.5%).

CONCLUSION

Our study provides the most comprehensive information to date on the prevalence of BRCA1/2 PVs in unselected Chinese patients with breast cancer.

Diagnostic yield and clinical relevance of expanded genetic testing for cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Genetic testing (GT) for hereditary cancer predisposition is traditionally performed on selected genes based on established guidelines for each cancer type. Recently, expanded GT (eGT) using large hereditary cancer gene panels uncovered hereditary predisposition in a greater proportion of patients than previously anticipated. We sought to define the diagnostic yield of eGT and its clinical relevance in a broad cancer patient population over a 5-year period.

METHODS

A total of 17,523 cancer patients with a broad range of solid tumors, who received eGT at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center between July 2015 to April 2020, were included in the study. The patients were unselected for current GT criteria such as cancer type, age of onset, and/or family history of disease. The diagnostic yield of eGT was determined for each cancer type. For 9187 patients with five common cancer types frequently interrogated for hereditary predisposition (breast, colorectal, ovarian, pancreatic, and prostate cancer), the rate of pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants in genes that have been associated with each cancer type was analyzed. The clinical implications of additional findings in genes not known to be associated with a patients' cancer type were investigated.

RESULTS

16.7% of patients in a broad cancer cohort had P/LP variants in hereditary cancer predisposition genes identified by eGT. The diagnostic yield of eGT in patients with breast, colorectal, ovarian, pancreatic, and prostate cancer was 17.5%, 15.3%, 24.2%, 19.4%, and 15.9%, respectively. Additionally, 8% of the patients with five common cancers had P/LP variants in genes not known to be associated with the patient's current cancer type, with 0.8% of them having such a variant that confers a high risk for another cancer type. Analysis of clinical and family histories revealed that 74% of patients with variants in genes not associated with their current cancer type but which conferred a high risk for another cancer did not meet the current GT criteria for the genes harboring these variants. One or more variants of uncertain significance were identified in 57% of the patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to targeted testing approaches, eGT can increase the yield of detection of hereditary cancer predisposition in patients with a range of tumors, allowing opportunities for enhanced surveillance and intervention. The benefits of performing eGT should be weighed against the added number of VUSs identified with this approach.

Risk-reducing surgery in unaffected individuals receiving cancer genetic testing in an integrated health care system

BACKGROUND

Germline genetic testing enables primary cancer prevention, including through prophylactic surgery. We examined risk-reducing surgeries in unaffected individuals tested for hereditary cancer susceptibly between 2010 and 2018 in the Kaiser Permanente Northwest health system.

METHODS

We used an internal genetic testing database to create a cohort of individuals who received tests including one or more high-penetrance hereditary cancer susceptibility gene. We then identified, after testing, bilateral mastectomy, bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO), and total hysterectomy procedures in electronic health record and claims data through 2019. We describe surgery utilization by genetic test results and National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines.

RESULTS

The cohort included 1020 individuals, 16% with pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants in one or more of the following genes: BRCA1, BRCA2, CHEK2, APC, MUTYH, ATM, MSH2, PALB2, BRIP1, MLH1, MSH6, EPCAM, FLCN, RAD51C, RAD51D, or TP53. Among individuals with P/LP variants making them candidates for mastectomy, BSO, or hysterectomy per NCCN guidelines, 34% (33/97), 24% (23/94), and 8% (1/12), respectively, underwent surgery during follow-up. Fifty-three percent (18/37) of hysterectomies were among APC, BRCA1, and BRCA2 P/LP variant heterozygotes, typically concurrent with BSO. Three individuals with variants of uncertain significance (only) and 22 with negative results had prophylactic surgery after genetic testing.

CONCLUSIONS

Uptake of risk-reducing surgery following usual care genetic testing appears to be lower than in studies that actively recruit high-risk patients and provide testing and follow-up care in specialized settings. Factors in addition to genetic test results and NCCN guidelines motivate prophylactic surgery use and deserve further study.

BRCA Mutations in Ovarian and Prostate Cancer: Bench to Bedside

Simple Summary

DNA damage is one of the hallmarks of cancer. Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) —especially the high-grade serous subtype—harbors a defect in at least one DNA damage response (DDR) pathway. Defective DDR results from a variety of lesions affecting homologous recombination (HR) and nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) for double strand breaks, base excision repair (BER), and nucleotide excision repair (NER) for single strand breaks and mismatch repair (MMR). Apart from the EOC, mutations in the DDR genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2, are common in prostate cancer as well. Among them, BRCA2 lesions are found in 12% of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancers, but very rarely in primary prostate cancer. Better understanding of the DDR pathways is essential in order to optimize the therapeutic choices, and has led to the design of biomarker-driven clinical trials. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors are now a standard therapy for EOC patients, and more recently have been approved for the metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer with alterations in DDR genes. They are particularly effective in tumours with HR deficiency.

Abstract

DNA damage repair (DDR) defects are common in different cancer types, and these alterations can be exploited therapeutically. Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is among the tumours with the highest percentage of hereditary cases. BRCA1 and BRCA2 predisposing pathogenic variants (PVs) were the first to be associated with EOC, whereas additional genes comprising the homologous recombination (HR) pathway have been discovered with DNA sequencing technologies. The incidence of DDR alterations among patients with metastatic prostate cancer is much higher compared to those with localized disease. Genetic testing is playing an increasingly important role in the treatment of patients with ovarian and prostate cancer. The development of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors offers a therapeutic strategy for patients with EOC. One of the mechanisms of PARP inhibitors exploits the concept of synthetic lethality. Tumours with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations are highly sensitive to PARP inhibitors. Moreover, the synthetic lethal interaction may be exploited beyond germline BRCA mutations in the context of HR deficiency, and this is an area of ongoing research. PARP inhibitors are in advanced stages of development as a treatment for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. However, there is a major concern regarding the need to identify reliable biomarkers predictive of treatment response. In this review, we explore the mechanisms of DDR, the potential for genomic analysis of ovarian and prostate cancer, and therapeutics of PARP inhibitors, along with predictive biomarkers.

Lessons Learned in Practice with Li-Fraumeni Syndrome: LFS-Related Breast Cancer Treatment Strategy and Establishment of a Surveillance System

We herein present the case of a 33-year-old woman with no family history of metachronous bilateral breast cancer and osteosarcoma, diagnosed with Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS), which is a rare autosomal dominant hereditary cancer syndrome associated with a germline TP53 variant. She was diagnosed with left distal femoral osteosarcoma at the age of 16, and metachronous bilateral breast cancer at the ages of 29 and 33. When the third cancer was diagnosed, a hereditary tumor syndrome was suspected and the patient was referred to our genetic outpatient clinic. There was no family history of the 'core' cancers for LFS, but since the patient met Chompret's criteria, germline TP53 genetic testing was performed with the patient's will. A pathogenic variant, TP53:c.216dupC (p.Val73ArgfsX76) was found in exon 4 of the gene. This case is didactic because radiotherapy was performed on the first breast cancer before the diagnosis of LFS was made; radiation should be avoided if there are other options in LFS because of the inability to repair DNA damage. As a lesson learned, oncologists reaffirmed the importance of being aware of hereditary tumors from the keywords "multiple," "young," "familial," and "rare," and consulting the genetic department. In addition, surveillance using whole-body magnetic resonance imaging is recommended in LFS. However, this system is not yet provided nationwide, but we have newly settled it in our hospital.

Clonal Hematopoiesis and Mosaicism Revealed by a Multi-Tissue Analysis of Constitutional TP53 Status

BACKGROUND

Though germline TP53 pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants (PV) are associated with Li-Fraumeni syndrome, many detected by multigene panels represent aberrant clonal expansion (ACE), most due to clonal hematopoiesis (CH). Discerning ACE/CH from germline variants and postzygotic mosaicism (PZM) is critically needed for risk assessment and management.

METHODS

Participants in the Li-Fraumeni & TP53 Understanding & Progress (LiFT UP) study with a TP53 PV were eligible. Demographics, personal/family cancer history, and clinical laboratory test reports were obtained. DNA from multiple tissues was analyzed using a custom QIAseq assay (ACE panel) that included TP53 and other CH-associated genes; the ACE panel and eyebrow follicles were assessed in a workflow to discern TP53 PV clinical categories.

RESULTS

Among 134 participants there was a significant difference for the age at diagnosis (P < 0.001), component cancers (P = 0.007), and clinical testing criteria (P < 0.001), comparing germline with PZM or ACE. ACE panel analysis of DNA from 55 sets of eyebrow follicles (mean 1.4 ug) and 36 formalin-fixed, paraffin imbedded tissues demonstrated low variance (SE, 3%; P = 0.993) for TP53 variant allele fraction, with no significant difference (P = 0.965) between tissue types, and detected CH gene PVs. Of 55 multi-tissue cases, germline status was confirmed for 20, PZM in seven, ACE for 25, and three were indeterminate. Additional CH variants were detected in six ACE and two germline cases.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated an effective approach and tools for discerning germline TP53 status.

IMPACT

Discernment of PZM and TP53-driven CH increases diagnostic accuracy and enables risk-appropriate care.

Discrepancies between tumor genomic profiling and germline genetic testing

BACKGROUND

Tumor genomic profiling (TGP) often incidentally identifies germline pathogenic variants (PVs) associated with cancer predisposition syndromes. Methods used by somatic testing laboratories, including germline analysis, differ from designated germline laboratories that have optimized the identification of germline PVs. This study evaluated discrepancies between somatic and germline testing results, and their impact on patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Chart reviews were carried out at a single institution for patients who had both somatic and designated germline genetic testing. Cases with discrepant results in which germline PVs were not detected by the somatic laboratory or in which variant classification differed are summarized.

RESULTS

TGP was carried out on 2811 cancer patients, 600 of whom also underwent designated germline genetic testing. Germline PVs were identified for 109 individuals. Discrepancies between germline genetic testing and tumor profiling reports were identified in 20 cases, including 14 PVs identified by designated germline genetic testing laboratories that were not reported by somatic testing laboratories and six variants with discrepant classifications between the designated germline and somatic testing laboratories. Three PVs identified by designated germline laboratories are targets for poly adenosine diphosphate-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors and resulted in different treatment options. Of the PVs identified by designated germline laboratories, 60% (n = 12) were in genes with established associations to the patients' cancer, and 40% of the PVs were incidental. The majority (90%) of all discrepant findings, both contributory and incidental, changed management recommendations for these patients, highlighting the importance of comprehensive germline assessment.

CONCLUSIONS

Methods used by somatic laboratories, regardless of the inclusion of germline analysis, differ from those of designated germline laboratories for identifying germline PVs. Unrecognized germline PVs may harm patients by missing hereditary syndromes and targeted therapy opportunities (e.g. anti-programmed cell death protein 1 immunotherapy, PARP inhibitors). Clinicians should refer patients who meet the criteria for genetic evaluation regardless of somatic testing outcomes.

Long-Term Adaptation Among Adolescent and Young Adult Children to Familial Cancer Risk

BACKGROUND

It is important to examine adolescent and young adult (AYA) children's long-term psychosocial and behavioral adaptation to disclosure of maternal BRCA-positive carrier status (BRCA+) to inform approaches for familial cancer risk communication, education, and counseling.

METHODS

Mothers underwent BRCA genetic testing 1 to 5 years earlier. Group differences in AYAs' self-reported outcomes were analyzed by maternal health and carrier status, and child age and sex.

RESULTS

A total of N = 272 AYAs were enrolled: 76.1% of their mothers were breast or ovarian cancer survivors and 17.3% were BRCA+. AYAs' cancer risk behavior (tobacco and alcohol use, physical activity) and psychologic distress levels did not vary by maternal status. In bivariate analyses, AYAs of cancer-surviving mothers believed themselves to be at greater risk for, and were more knowledgeable about, cancer than AYAs of mothers without cancer. AYAs of BRCA+ mothers were more concerned about cancer, held stronger beliefs about genetic risk, and placed a higher value on learning about genetics. In adjusted models, maternal cancer history (not BRCA+) remained associated with AYAs' greater perceptions of cancer risk (P = .002), and knowledge about cancer (P = .03) and its causes (P = .002).

CONCLUSIONS

Disclosing maternal BRCA+ status did not influence children's lifestyle behavior or adversely affect quality of life long term. AYAs of BRCA+ mothers were more aware of and interested in genetic risk information. Such families may benefit from support to promote open communication about genetic testing choices.

Association between Health Insurance Type and Genetic Testing and/or Counseling for Breast and Ovarian Cancer

As genetic testing becomes increasingly incorporated into clinical practice to aid in both the diagnosis and risk assessment of genetic diseases, patients benefit from genetic counseling to support their understanding of test results either before and/or after genetic testing. Therefore, access to genetic testing and counseling is imperative for patient care. It is well established that health insurance coverage is a major determinant of access to health care in the United States as individuals without insurance are less likely to have a regular source of health care than their insured counterparts. Different health insurance plans and benefits also influence patients’ access to health care. Data on the association of health insurance and the uptake of genetic testing and/or counseling for cancer risk are limited. Using data from the National Health Interview Survey, we examined the uptake of genetic testing and/or counseling for breast/ovarian cancer risk by health insurance type. We found that only a small proportion of women undergo genetic testing and/or counseling for breast/ovarian cancer risk (2.3%), even among subgroups of women at risk due to family or personal history (6.5%). Women with health insurance were more likely to undergo genetic testing and/or counseling for breast/ovarian cancer risk, particularly those with military and private insurance plans, than those without health insurance after adjusting for various demographic, socioeconomic, and health risk covariates. Further investigations are needed to examine potential disparities in access and health inequities.

Multi-Gene Mutation Profiling by Targeted Next-Generation Sequencing in Premenopausal Breast Cancer

Breast cancer has distinct etiology, prognoses, and clinical outcomes at premenopausal ages. Determination of the frequency of germline and somatic mutations will refine our understanding of the genetic contribution to premenopausal breast cancer susceptibility. We applied a comprehensive next generation sequencing-based approach to analyze blood and/or tissue samples of 54 premenopausal breast cancer patients treated in our clinic. Genetic testing results were descriptively analyzed in correlation with clinicopathological data. In the present study, 42.5% of premenopausal breast cancer patients tested carried pathogenic mutations in cancer predisposition genes (CHEK2, BRCA1, TP53, and MUTYH). Germline variants of unknown/uncertain significance (VUSs) in eight different cancer susceptibility genes, namely BRCA1, BRCA2, CHEK2, RAD51C, RAD51D, ATM, BRIP1, and PMS2, were also identified in 14 premenopausal patients (35%). Of the breast tumors tested, 61.8% harbored pathogenic somatic variants in tumor suppressor genes (TP53, NF1, RB), genes involved in DNA repair (BRCA1, BRCA2, ATM, RAD50), cell proliferation (PTEN, PIK3C FGFR3, AKT1, ROS1, ERBB2, NOTCH1), and cell adhesion (CTNNB1). This descriptive study employs the powerful NGS technology to highlight the high frequency of premenopausal cases attributable to genetic predisposition. Mutation identification in a larger cohort may further ensure that these patients receive tailored treatment according to their menopausal status.

Functional assessment of missense variants of uncertain significance in the cancer susceptibility gene PALB2

Germline PALB2 pathogenic variants are associated with an increased lifetime risk for breast, pancreatic, and ovarian cancer. However, the interpretation of the pathogenicity of numerous PALB2 missense variants of uncertain significance (VUSs) identified in germline genetic testing remains a challenge. Here we selected ten potentially pathogenic PALB2 VUSs identified in 2279 Chinese patients with breast cancer and evaluated their impacts on PALB2 function by systematic functional assays. We showed that three PALB2 VUSs p.K16M [c.47 A > T], p.L24F [c.72 G > C], and p.L35F [c.103 C > T] in the coiled-coil domain impaired PALB2-mediated homologous recombination. The p.L24F and p.L35F variants partially disrupted BRCA1-PALB2 interactions, reduced RAD51 foci formation in response to DNA damage, abrogated ionizing radiation-induced G2/M checkpoint maintenance, and conferred increased sensitivity to olaparib and cisplatin. The p.K16M variant presented mild effects on BRCA1-PALB2 interactions and RAD51 foci formation. Altogether, we identify two novel PALB2 VUSs, p.L24F and p.L35F, that compromise PALB2 function and may increase cancer risk. These two variants display marked olaparib and cisplatin sensitivity and may help predict response to targeted therapy in the clinical treatment of patients with these variants.

Fertility Counseling in BRCA1/2-Mutated Women with Breast Cancer and Healthy Individuals

Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide and the fifth leading cause of cancer death. In 2020, there were 2.3 million new cases, and 685,000 women died from it. Breast cancer among young women under 40 years of age accounts for 5% to 10% of all cases of this cancer. The greater availability of multi-gene sequence analysis by next-generation sequencing has improved diagnosis and, consequently, the possibility of using appropriate therapeutic approaches in BRCA1/2 gene mutation carriers. Treatment of young breast cancer patients affects their reproductive potential by reducing ovarian reserve. It can lead to reversible or permanent premature menopause, decreased libido, and other symptoms of sex hormone deficiency. This requires that, in addition to oncological treatment, patients are offered genetic counseling, oncofertility, psychological assistance, and sexological counseling. Given the number of BRCA1/2 gene mutation carriers among young breast cancer patients, but also thanks to growing public awareness, among their healthy family members planning offspring, the possibility of benefiting from preimplantation testing and performing cancer-risk-reduction procedures: RRM (risk-reducing mastectomy) and RRSO (risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy) significantly increase the chance of a genetically burdened person living a healthy life and giving birth to a child not burdened by the parent's germline mutation. The goal of this paper is to show methods and examples of fertility counselling for BRCA1/2 gene mutation carriers, including both patients already affected by cancer and healthy individuals.

A Real-World Disproportionality Analysis of Olaparib: Data Mining of the Public Version of FDA Adverse Event Reporting System

Background

Olaparib, the world’s first poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitor (PARPi), has been approved for treatment of ovarian cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer by FDA. The current study was to assess olaparib-related adverse events (AEs) of real-world through data mining of the US Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS).

Methods

Disproportionality analyses, including the reporting odds ratio (ROR), the proportional reporting ratio (PRR), the Bayesian confidence propagation neural network (BCPNN) and the multi-item gamma Poisson shrinker (MGPS) algorithms were employed to quantify the signals of olaparib-associated AEs.

Results

Out of 8,450,009 reports collected from the FAERS database, 6402 reports of olaparib-associated AEs were identified. A total of 118 significant disproportionality preferred terms (PTs) conforming to the four algorithms simultaneously were retained. The most common AEs included anemia, thrombocytopenia, nausea, decreased appetite, blood creatinine increased and dermatomyositis, which were corresponding to those reported in the specification and clinical trials. Unexpected significant AEs as interstitial lung disease, Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, folate deficiency, renal impairment and intestinal obstruction might also occur. The median onset time of olaparib-related AEs was 61 days (interquartile range [IQR] 14–182 days), and most of the cases occurred within the first 1 month after olaparib initiation.

Conclusion

Results of our study were consistent with clinical observations, and we also found potential new and unexpected AEs signals for olaparib, suggesting prospective clinical studies were needed to confirm these results and illustrate their relationship. Our results could provide valuable evidence for further safety studies of olaparib.

Functions of Breast Cancer Predisposition Genes: Implications for Clinical Management

Approximately 5–10% of all breast cancer (BC) cases are caused by germline pathogenic variants (GPVs) in various cancer predisposition genes (CPGs). The most common contributors to hereditary BC are BRCA1 and BRCA2, which are associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC). ATM, BARD1, CHEK2, PALB2, RAD51C, and RAD51D have also been recognized as CPGs with a high to moderate risk of BC. Primary and secondary cancer prevention strategies have been established for HBOC patients; however, optimal preventive strategies for most hereditary BCs have not yet been established. Most BC-associated CPGs participate in DNA damage repair pathways and cell cycle checkpoint mechanisms, and function jointly in such cascades; therefore, a fundamental understanding of the disease drivers in such cascades can facilitate the accurate estimation of the genetic risk of developing BC and the selection of appropriate preventive and therapeutic strategies to manage hereditary BCs. Herein, we review the functions of key BC-associated CPGs and strategies for the clinical management in individuals harboring the GPVs of such genes.

Effects of Exposure to an Entertainment-Based Genetic Testing Narrative on Genetic Testing Knowledge, Attitudes and Counseling Discussion Intentions

This study explores the effects of exposure to a reality television narrative depicting genetic testing on attitudes and intentions, looking particularly at the effects of narratives containing elements of misinformation on genetics-related knowledge accuracy. In an experiment, participants completed a baseline survey, viewed a high versus low-accuracy narrative, then completed a follow-up survey. Exposure to a low-accuracy narrative was associated with lower knowledge accuracy. Indirect effects of identification and transportation on intentions to talk to a doctor about genetic testing also were detected via attitudes and reduced message counterarguing. Results illustrate the negative implications of inaccurate narratives on knowledge, which is concerning given the public's low level of genetic literacy, as well as the critical role narrative engagement may play in shaping public attitudes and intentions regarding genetic testing.

Germline Pathogenic Variant Prevalence Among Latin American and US Hispanic Individuals Undergoing Testing for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer: A Cross-Sectional Study

PURPOSE

To report on pathogenic germline variants detected among individuals undergoing genetic testing for hereditary breast and/or ovarian cancer (HBOC) from Latin America and compare them with self-reported Hispanic individuals from the United States.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, unrelated individuals with a personal/family history suggestive of HBOC who received clinician-ordered germline multigene sequencing were grouped according to the location of the ordering physician: group A, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; group B, South America; and group C, United States with individuals who self-reported Hispanic ethnicity. Relatives who underwent cascade testing were analyzed separately.

RESULTS

Among 24,075 unrelated probands across all regions, most were female (94.9%) and reported a personal history suggestive of HBOC (range, 65.0%-80.6%); the mean age at testing was 49.1 ± 13.1 years. The average number of genes analyzed per patient was highest in group A (A 63 ± 28, B 56 ± 29, and C 40 ± 28). Between 9.1% and 18.7% of patients had pathogenic germline variants in HBOC genes (highest yield in group A), with the majority associated with high HBOC risk. Compared with US Hispanics individuals the overall yield was significantly higher in both Latin American regions (A v C P = 1.64×10-9, B v C P < 2.2×10-16). Rates of variants of uncertain significance were similar across all three regions (33.7%-42.6%). Cascade testing uptake was low in all regions (A 6.6%, B 4.5%, and C 1.9%).

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the importance of multigene panel testing in Latin American individuals with newly diagnosed or history of HBOC, who can benefit from medical management changes including targeted therapies, eligibility to clinical trials, risk-reducing surgeries, surveillance and prevention of secondary malignancy, and genetic counseling and subsequent cascade testing of at-risk relatives.

Deep learning on time series laboratory test results from electronic health records for early detection of pancreatic cancer

The multi-modal and unstructured nature of observational data in Electronic Health Records (EHR) is currently a significant obstacle for the application of machine learning towards risk stratification. In this study, we develop a deep learning framework for incorporating longitudinal clinical data from EHR to infer risk for pancreatic cancer (PC). This framework includes a novel training protocol, which enforces an emphasis on early detection by applying an independent Poisson-random mask on proximal-time measurements for each variable. Data fusion for irregular multivariate time-series features is enabled by a "grouped" neural network (GrpNN) architecture, which uses representation learning to generate a dimensionally reduced vector for each measurement set before making a final prediction. These models were evaluated using EHR data from Columbia University Irving Medical Center-New York Presbyterian Hospital. Our framework demonstrated better performance on early detection (AUROC 0.671, CI 95% 0.667 - 0.675, p < 0.001) at 12 months prior to diagnosis compared to a logistic regression, xgboost, and a feedforward neural network baseline. We demonstrate that our masking strategy results greater improvements at distal times prior to diagnosis, and that our GrpNN model improves generalizability by reducing overfitting relative to the feedforward baseline. The results were consistent across reported race. Our proposed algorithm is potentially generalizable to other diseases including but not limited to cancer where early detection can improve survival.

Bone health after RRBSO among BRCA1/2 mutation carriers: a population-based study

OBJECTIVE

Examine the risks of fractures and osteoporosis after risk-reducing bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (RRBSO) among women with BRCA1/2 mutations.

METHODS

In this retrospective population-based study in British Columbia, Canada, between 1996 to 2017, we compared risks of osteoporosis and fractures among women with BRCA1/2 mutations who underwent RRBSO before the age of 50 (n=329) with two age-matched groups without known mutations: 1) women who underwent bilateral oophorectomy (BO) (n=3,290); 2) women with intact ovaries who had hysterectomy or salpingectomy (n=3,290). Secondary outcomes were: having dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan, and bisphosphonates use.

RESULTS

The mean age at RRBSO was 42.4 years (range, 26-49) and the median follow-up for women with BRCA1/2 mutations was 6.9 years (range, 1.1-19.9). There was no increased hazard of fractures for women with BRCA1/2 mutations (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]=0.80; 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.56-1.14 compared to women who had BO; aHR=1.02; 95% CI=0.65-1.61 compared to women with intact ovaries). Among women who had DEXA-scan, those with BRCA1/2 mutations had higher risk of osteoporosis (aHR=1.60; 95% CI=1.00-2.54 compared to women who had BO; aHR=2.49; 95% CI=1.44-4.28 compared to women with intact ovaries). Women with BRCA1/2 mutations were more likely to get DEXA-scan than either control groups, but only 46% of them were screened. Of the women with BRCA1/2 mutations diagnosed with osteoporosis, 36% received bisphosphonates.

CONCLUSION

Women with BRCA1/2 mutations had higher risk of osteoporosis after RRBSO, but were not at increased risk of fractures during our follow-up. Low rates of DEXA-scan and bisphosphonates use indicate we can improve prevention of bone loss.

Evaluating breast cancer predisposition genes in women of African ancestry

PURPOSE

Studies conducted primarily among European ancestry women reported 12 breast cancer predisposition genes. However, etiologic roles of these genes in breast cancer among African ancestry women have been less well-investigated.

METHODS

We conducted a case-control study in African American women, which included 1117 breast cancer cases and 2169 cancer-free controls, and a pooled analysis, which included 7096 cases and 8040 controls of African descent. Odds ratios of associations with breast cancer risk were estimated.

RESULTS

Using sequence data, we identified 61 pathogenic variants in 12 breast cancer predisposition genes, including 11 pathogenic variants not yet reported in previous studies. Pooled analysis showed statistically significant associations of breast cancer risk with pathogenic variants in BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, CHEK2, TP53, NF1, RAD51C, and RAD51D (all P < .05). The associations with BRCA1, PALB2, and RAD51D were stronger for estrogen receptor (ER)-negative than for ER-positive breast cancer (P heterogeneity < .05), whereas the association with CHEK2 was stronger for ER-positive than for ER-negative breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Our study confirmed previously identified associations of breast cancer risk with BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, TP53, NF1, and CHEK2 and provided new evidence to extend the associations of breast cancer risk with RAD51C and RAD51D, which was identified previously in European ancestry populations, to African ancestry women.

Management of Patients with Advanced Prostate Cancer: Report from the Advanced Prostate Cancer Consensus Conference 2021

BACKGROUND

Innovations in treatments, imaging, and molecular characterisation in advanced prostate cancer have improved outcomes, but various areas of management still lack high-level evidence to inform clinical practice. The 2021 Advanced Prostate Cancer Consensus Conference (APCCC) addressed some of these questions to supplement guidelines that are based on level 1 evidence.

OBJECTIVE

To present the voting results from APCCC 2021.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

The experts identified three major areas of controversy related to management of advanced prostate cancer: newly diagnosed metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC), the use of prostate-specific membrane antigen ligands in diagnostics and therapy, and molecular characterisation of tissue and blood. A panel of 86 international prostate cancer experts developed the programme and the consensus questions.

OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The panel voted publicly but anonymously on 107 pre-defined questions, which were developed by both voting and non-voting panel members prior to the conference following a modified Delphi process.

RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS

The voting reflected the opinions of panellists and did not incorporate a standard literature review or formal meta-analysis. The answer options for the consensus questions received varying degrees of support from panellists, as reflected in this article and the detailed voting results reported in the Supplementary material.

CONCLUSIONS

These voting results from a panel of experts in advanced prostate cancer can help clinicians and patients to navigate controversial areas of management for which high-level evidence is scant. However, diagnostic and treatment decisions should always be individualised according to patient characteristics, such as the extent and location of disease, prior treatment(s), comorbidities, patient preferences, and treatment recommendations, and should also incorporate current and emerging clinical evidence and logistic and economic constraints. Enrolment in clinical trials should be strongly encouraged. Importantly, APCCC 2021 once again identified salient questions that merit evaluation in specifically designed trials.

PATIENT SUMMARY

The Advanced Prostate Cancer Consensus Conference is a forum for discussing current diagnosis and treatment options for patients with advanced prostate cancer. An expert panel votes on predefined questions focused on the most clinically relevant areas for treatment of advanced prostate cancer for which there are gaps in knowledge. The voting results provide a practical guide to help clinicians in discussing treatment options with patients as part of shared decision-making.

Gynecologic Cancer Risk and Genetics: Informing an Ideal Model of Gynecologic Cancer Prevention

Individuals with proven hereditary cancer syndrome (HCS) such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 have elevated rates of ovarian, breast, and other cancers. If these high-risk people can be identified before a cancer is diagnosed, risk-reducing interventions are highly effective and can be lifesaving. Despite this evidence, the vast majority of Canadians with HCS are unaware of their risk. In response to this unmet opportunity for prevention, the British Columbia Gynecologic Cancer Initiative convened a research summit “Gynecologic Cancer Prevention: Thinking Big, Thinking Differently” in Vancouver, Canada on 26 November 2021. The aim of the conference was to explore how hereditary cancer prevention via population-based genetic testing could decrease morbidity and mortality from gynecologic cancer. The summit invited local, national, and international experts to (1) discuss how genetic testing could be more broadly implemented in a Canadian system, (2) identify key research priorities in this topic and (3) outline the core essential elements required for such a program to be successful. This report summarizes the findings from this research summit, describes the current state of hereditary genetic programs in Canada, and outlines incremental steps that can be taken to improve prevention for high-risk Canadians now while developing an organized population-based hereditary cancer strategy.

Germline Aberrations in Pancreatic Cancer: Implications for Clinical Care

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has an extremely poor prognosis and represents a major public health issue, as both its incidence and mortality are expecting to increase steeply over the next years. Effective screening strategies are lacking, and most patients are diagnosed with unresectable disease precluding the only chance of cure. Therapeutic options for advanced disease are limited, and the treatment paradigm is still based on chemotherapy, with a few rare exceptions to targeted therapies. Germline variants in cancer susceptibility genes-particularly those involved in mechanisms of DNA repair-are emerging as promising targets for PDAC treatment and prevention. Hereditary PDAC is part of the spectrum of several syndromic disorders, and germline testing of PDAC patients has relevant implications for broad cancer prevention. Germline aberrations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are predictive biomarkers of response to poly(adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor olaparib and platinum-based chemotherapy in PDAC, while mutations in mismatch repair genes identify patients suitable for immune checkpoint inhibitors. This review provides a timely and comprehensive overview of germline aberrations in PDAC and their implications for clinical care. It also discusses the need for optimal approaches to better select patients for PARP inhibitor therapy, novel therapeutic opportunities under clinical investigation, and preclinical models for cancer susceptibility and drug discovery.

Pilot study of a culturally sensitive intervention to promote genetic counseling for breast cancer risk

BACKGROUND

Despite the benefits of genetic counseling and testing, uptake of cancer genetic services is generally low and Black/African American (Black) women are substantially less likely to receive genetic services than non-Hispanic White women. Our team developed a culturally sensitive, narrative decision aid video to promote uptake of genetic counseling among Black women at risk for a hereditary breast cancer syndrome that can be incorporated in conjunction with population-based cancer risk assessment in a clinical setting. We report here a pilot study to demonstrate changes in intention to access genetic counseling and intervention satisfaction.

METHODS

Black women who were personally unaffected by breast cancer and were recommended for genetic counseling based on family history screening in a mammography center were recruited at the time of the mammogram. A prospective, pre-post survey study design, guided by theoretical constructs, was used to evaluate baseline and immediate post-intervention psychosocial factors, including intention to participate in genetic counseling and intervention satisfaction.

RESULTS

Pilot recruitment goals were met (n = 30). Pre-intervention, 50% of participants indicated that they were extremely likely to make a genetic counseling appointment, compared with 70% post-intervention (p = 0.05). After watching the intervention, 50% of participants indicated that the video changed their mind regarding genetic counseling.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated cultural satisfaction with a decision aid intervention designed to motivate Black women with hereditary breast cancer risk to attend a genetic counseling appointment. Our study showed that intention may be a specific and key construct to target in interventions designed to support decision-making about genetic services. Study results informed the design of a subsequent large scale, randomized implementation study.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov NCT04082117 . Registered September 9, 2019. Retrospectively registered.

Impact of germline mutations in cancer-predisposing genes on long-term survival in patients with epithelial ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Several clinical and tumour factors impact on ovarian cancer survival. It is important to evaluate if germline mutations impact long-term outcomes among patients with epithelial ovarian cancer.

METHODS

We followed 1422 Ontario women with ovarian cancer. Clinical information was obtained from medical records and vital status was determined by registry linkage. Germline genetic testing was performed for 12 susceptibility genes. We estimated 20-year cancer-specific survival according to various factors.

RESULTS

Twenty-year survival was inferior for women with serous cancers vs. other types (22.3% vs. 68.6%; P < 0.0001). Of the 1422 patients, 248 (17.4%) carried a germline mutation; 119 BRCA1; 75 BRCA2; 7 in a mismatch repair (MMR) gene and 47 in one of seven other genes. Among serous patients, 20-year survival was 28.9% for similar for women with a BRCA1 (28.9%), BRCA2 (21.2%) or no mutation (21.6%). Among endometrioid patients, 20-year survival was poor for women with a BRCA vs. no mutation (47.3% vs. 70.4%; P = 0.004). Six of the seven MMR mutation carriers are currently alive, while all three PALB2 mutation carriers died within 3 years of diagnosis. Among women with Stage III/IV serous cancers, 20-year survival was 9.4% for those with vs. 46.5% for those with no residual disease (HR = 2.91; 95% CI 2.12-4.09, P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

The most important predictor of long-term survival was no residual disease post surgery. BRCA mutation status was not predictive of long-term survival while those with MMR mutations had excellent survival. Larger studies on PALB2 carriers are needed.

The Impact of Proband Indication for Genetic Testing on the Uptake of Cascade Testing Among Relatives

Although multiple factors can influence the uptake of cascade genetic testing, the impact of proband indication has not been studied. We performed a retrospective, cross-sectional study comparing cascade genetic testing rates among relatives of probands who received either diagnostic germline testing or non-indication-based proactive screening via next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based multigene panels for hereditary cancer syndromes (HCS) and/or familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). The proportion of probands with a medically actionable (positive) finding were calculated based on genes associated with Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Tier 1 conditions, HCS genes, and FH genes. Among probands with a positive finding, cascade testing rates and influencing factors were assessed. A total of 270,715 probands were eligible for inclusion in the study (diagnostic n = 254,281,93.9%; proactive n = 16,434, 6.1%). A positive result in a gene associated with a CDC Tier 1 condition was identified in 10,520 diagnostic probands (4.1%) and 337 proactive probands (2.1%), leading to cascade testing among families of 3,305 diagnostic probands (31.4%) and 36 proactive probands (10.7%) (p < 0.0001). A positive result in an HCS gene was returned to 23,272 diagnostic probands (9.4%) and 970 proactive probands (6.1%), leading to cascade testing among families of 6,611 diagnostic probands (28.4%) and 89 proactive probands (9.2%) (p < 0.0001). Cascade testing due to a positive result in an HCS gene was more commonly pursued when the diagnostic proband was White, had a finding in a gene associated with a CDC Tier 1 condition, or had a personal history of cancer, or when the proactive proband was female. A positive result in an FH gene was returned to 1,647 diagnostic probands (25.3%) and 67 proactive probands (0.62%), leading to cascade testing among families of 360 diagnostic probands (21.9%) and 4 proactive probands (6.0%) (p < 0.01). Consistently higher rates of cascade testing among families of diagnostic probands may be due to a perceived urgency because of personal or family history of disease. Due to the proven clinical benefit of cascade testing, further research on obstacles to systematic implementation and uptake of testing for relatives of any proband with a medically actionable variant is warranted.

Case Report: Male Lobular Breast Cancer in Hereditary Cancer Syndromes

Background

Lobular breast carcinoma (LBC) is considered an exceptionally rare disease in men, including only 1% of all male breast malignancies. The majority of LBCs have negative immunohistochemical staining for E-cadherin (CDH1) expression, and the loss of CDH1 function was traditionally implicated in the tumorigenesis of diffuse gastric cancer as well as LBC. It is well recognized that LBC in women could be involved in both hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) and hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) syndromes; however, there are no data present in literature about the involvement of male LBC in these inherited conditions.

Methods

BRCA1, BRCA2, and CDH1 genes were performed on DNA from peripheral blood using next-generation sequencing (NGS), Sanger sequencing, and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification analyses. BRCA2 and CDH1 somatic gene analyses were performed on breast tumoral DNA using the NGS sequencing approach.

Results and conclusions

Here, we describe two men affected by LBC, the carriers of a pathogenic variant of BRCA2 and CDH1 genes, respectively. Our data, including somatic and germline results, demonstrate a strong relationship between male LBC and HBOC/HDGC syndromes, excluding a sporadic origin of LBC in these two patients. Male LBC could represent a sentinel cancer for inherited syndrome identification, and early identification of cancer susceptibility could improve cancer prevention both for men and women in these families. The history of the LBC patient carrier of the CDH1 variant suggests to include male LBC genetic testing criteria and male breast surveillance in HDGC guidelines.

Risk of Peritoneal Carcinomatosis After Risk-Reducing Salpingo-Oophorectomy: A Systematic Review and Individual Patient Data Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

After risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy (RRSO), BRCA1/2 pathogenic variant (PV) carriers have a residual risk to develop peritoneal carcinomatosis (PC). The etiology of PC is not yet clarified, but may be related to serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma (STIC), the postulated origin for high-grade serous cancer. In this systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis, we investigate the risk of PC in women with and without STIC at RRSO.

METHODS

Unpublished data from three centers were supplemented by studies identified in a systematic review of EMBASE, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane library describing women with a BRCA-PV with and without STIC at RRSO until September 2020. Primary outcome was the hazard ratio for the risk of PC between BRCA-PV carriers with and without STIC at RRSO, and the corresponding 5- and 10-year risks. Primary analysis was based on a one-stage Cox proportional-hazards regression with a frailty term for study.

RESULTS

From 17 studies, individual patient data were available for 3,121 women, of whom 115 had a STIC at RRSO. The estimated hazard ratio to develop PC during follow-up in women with STIC was 33.9 (95% CI, 15.6 to 73.9), P < .001) compared with women without STIC. For women with STIC, the five- and ten-year risks to develop PC were 10.5% (95% CI, 6.2 to 17.2) and 27.5% (95% CI, 15.6 to 43.9), respectively, whereas the corresponding risks were 0.3% (95% CI, 0.2 to 0.6) and 0.9% (95% CI, 0.6 to 1.4) for women without STIC at RRSO.

CONCLUSION

BRCA-PV carriers with STIC at RRSO have a strongly increased risk to develop PC which increases over time, although current data are limited by small numbers of events.

Medicaid Expansions: Probing Medicaid's Filling of the Cancer Genetic Testing and Screening Space

Cancer is the third largest source of spending for Medicaid in the United States. A working group of the American Public Health Association Genomics Forum Policy Committee reviewed 133/149 pieces of literature addressing the impact of Medicaid expansion on cancer screening and genetic testing in underserved groups and the general population. Breast and colorectal cancer screening rates improved during very early Medicaid expansion but displayed mixed improvement thereafter. Breast cancer screening rates have remained steady for Latina Medicaid enrollees; colorectal cancer screening rates have improved for African Americans. Urban areas have benefited more than rural. State programs increasingly cover BRCA1/2 and Lynch syndrome genetic testing, though testing remains underutilized in racial and ethnic groups. While increased federal matching could incentivize more states to engage in Medicaid expansion, steps need to be taken to ensure that they have an adequate distribution of resources to increase screening and testing utilization.

Addressing the routine failure to clinically identify monogenic cases of common disease

Changes in medical practice are needed to improve the diagnosis of monogenic forms of selected common diseases. This article seeks to focus attention on the need for universal genetic testing in common diseases for which the recommended clinical management of patients with specific monogenic forms of disease diverges from standard management and has evidence for improved outcomes.We review evidence from genomic screening of large patient cohorts, which has confirmed that important monogenic case identification failures are commonplace in routine clinical care. These case identification failures constitute diagnostic misattributions, where the care of individuals with monogenic disease defaults to the treatment plan offered to those with polygenic or non-genetic forms of the disease.The number of identifiable and actionable monogenic forms of common diseases is increasing with time. Here, we provide six examples of common diseases for which universal genetic test implementation would drive improved care. We examine the evidence to support genetic testing for common diseases, and discuss barriers to widespread implementation. Finally, we propose recommendations for changes to genetic testing and care delivery aimed at reducing diagnostic misattributions, to serve as a starting point for further evaluation and development of evidence-based guidelines for implementation.

Beyond the pill: contraception and the prevention of hereditary ovarian cancer

BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers face an elevated lifetime risk of developing ovarian cancer. Oral contraceptives have been shown to significantly decrease the risk of ovarian cancer by approximately 50% in this high-risk population. Changes in contraceptive formulations and patterns of use over time have introduced lower hormonal dosages, different steroid types and non-oral routes of administration. Specifically, there has been a considerable shift in patterns of contraceptive use and the increase in the uptake of non-oral, long-acting, reversible contraception (e.g., intrauterine devices, implants, injections) has corresponded to a decline in oral contraceptive pill use. Whether or not these other methods confer a protective effect against ovarian cancer in the general population is not clear. To our knowledge, there have been no such studies conducted among BRCA mutation carriers. Furthermore, the impact of these changes on the risk of developing ovarian cancer is not known. In this article, we will review the existing epidemiologic evidence regarding the role of contraceptives and the risk of ovarian cancer with a focus on women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. We will discuss recent findings and gaps in the knowledge while extrapolating from studies conducted among women from the noncarrier population.

Association of Pathogenic Variants in Hereditary Cancer Genes With Multiple Diseases

Importance

Knowledge about the spectrum of diseases associated with hereditary cancer syndromes may improve disease diagnosis and management for patients and help to identify high-risk individuals.

Objective

To identify phenotypes associated with hereditary cancer genes through a phenome-wide association study.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This phenome-wide association study used health data from participants in 3 cohorts. The Electronic Medical Records and Genomics Sequencing (eMERGEseq) data set recruited predominantly healthy individuals from 10 US medical centers from July 16, 2016, through February 18, 2018, with a mean follow-up through electronic health records (EHRs) of 12.7 (7.4) years. The UK Biobank (UKB) cohort recruited participants from March 15, 2006, through August 1, 2010, with a mean (SD) follow-up of 12.4 (1.0) years. The Hereditary Cancer Registry (HCR) recruited patients undergoing clinical genetic testing at Vanderbilt University Medical Center from May 1, 2012, through December 31, 2019, with a mean (SD) follow-up through EHRs of 8.8 (6.5) years.

Exposures

Germline variants in 23 hereditary cancer genes. Pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants for each gene were aggregated for association analyses.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Phenotypes in the eMERGEseq and HCR cohorts were derived from the linked EHRs. Phenotypes in UKB were from multiple sources of health-related data.

Results

A total of 214 020 participants were identified, including 23 544 in eMERGEseq cohort (mean [SD] age, 47.8 [23.7] years; 12 611 women [53.6%]), 187 234 in the UKB cohort (mean [SD] age, 56.7 [8.1] years; 104 055 [55.6%] women), and 3242 in the HCR cohort (mean [SD] age, 52.5 [15.5] years; 2851 [87.9%] women). All 38 established gene-cancer associations were replicated, and 19 new associations were identified. These included the following 7 associations with neoplasms: CHEK2 with leukemia (odds ratio [OR], 3.81 [95% CI, 2.64-5.48]) and plasma cell neoplasms (OR, 3.12 [95% CI, 1.84-5.28]), ATM with gastric cancer (OR, 4.27 [95% CI, 2.35-7.44]) and pancreatic cancer (OR, 4.44 [95% CI, 2.66-7.40]), MUTYH (biallelic) with kidney cancer (OR, 32.28 [95% CI, 6.40-162.73]), MSH6 with bladder cancer (OR, 5.63 [95% CI, 2.75-11.49]), and APC with benign liver/intrahepatic bile duct tumors (OR, 52.01 [95% CI, 14.29-189.29]). The remaining 12 associations with nonneoplastic diseases included BRCA1/2 with ovarian cysts (OR, 3.15 [95% CI, 2.22-4.46] and 3.12 [95% CI, 2.36-4.12], respectively), MEN1 with acute pancreatitis (OR, 33.45 [95% CI, 9.25-121.02]), APC with gastritis and duodenitis (OR, 4.66 [95% CI, 2.61-8.33]), and PTEN with chronic gastritis (OR, 15.68 [95% CI, 6.01-40.92]).

Conclusions and Relevance

The findings of this genetic association study analyzing the EHRs of 3 large cohorts suggest that these new phenotypes associated with hereditary cancer genes may facilitate early detection and better management of cancers. This study highlights the potential benefits of using EHR data in genomic medicine.

Female permanent contraception trends and updates

Permanent contraception remains one of the most popular methods of contraception worldwide. This article has reviewed recent literature related to demographic characteristics of users, prevalence of use and trends over time, surgical techniques, and barriers to obtain the procedure. We have emphasized the patient's perspective as a key element of choosing permanent contraception. This review has incorporated sections on salpingectomy, hysteroscopy, unmet need, impact of policies at religiously affiliated institutions, and reproductive coercion.

Rate of breast biopsy referrals in female BRCA mutation carriers aged 50 years or more: a retrospective comparative study and matched analysis

PURPOSE

To evaluate the total biopsy and positive biopsy rates in women at high risk of breast cancer compared to the general population.

METHODS

The study group consisted of 330 women with pathogenic variants (PVs) in BRCA1/2 attending the dedicated multidisciplinary breast cancer clinic of a tertiary medical center in Israel. Clinical, genetic, and biopsy data were retrieved from the central healthcare database and the medical files. Patients aged 50 years or older during follow-up were matched 1:10 to women in the general population referred for routine breast cancer screening at the same age, as recommended by international guidelines. The groups were compared for rate of biopsy studies performed and percentage of positive biopsy results. Matched analysis was performed to correct for confounders.

RESULTS

The total biopsy rate per 1000 follow-up years was 61.7 in the study group and 22.7 in the control group (p < 0.001). The corresponding positive biopsy rates per 1000 follow-up years were 26.4 and 2.0 (p < 0.001), and the positive biopsy percentages, 42.9% and 8.7% (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Women aged 50 + years with PVs in BRCA1/2 attending a dedicated clinic have a 2.7 times higher biopsy rate per 1000 follow-up years, a 13.2 times higher positive biopsy rate per 1000 follow-up years, and a 4.9 times higher positive biopsy percentage than same-aged women in the general population.

Integrating Medical Genetics Into Precision Oncology Practice in the Veterans Health Administration: The Time Is Now

PURPOSE

Increased access and utilization of tumor profiling of cancers in our veteran population uncovered a modest number of potentially pathogenic germline variants (PPGVs) that require genetics referral for follow-up evaluation and germline sequencing. Challenges identified specific to the veteran population include paucity of genetics providers, either at a veteran's VA facility or nearby non-VA facilities. We sought to investigate the number of veterans who would benefit from having such resources at both local and national levels.

METHODS

Annotated clinical reports of mutations identified by tumor-only profiling and medical records of veterans with solid tumors at the Veterans Administration Ann Arbor Healthcare System (VA AAHS) between 2015 and 2020 were reviewed. PPGVs were identified according to society recommendations (such as ESMO and American Board of Medical Genetics and Genomics), expert review, and/or previously published criteria. After the analysis of our local VA population, these same criteria were then applied to veterans in the National Precision Oncology Program (NPOP).

RESULTS

Two hundred eight veterans underwent tumor profiling at the VA AAHS over the defined time period. This included 20 different primary tumor sites with over half (n = 130) being advanced cancer at diagnosis. Of these, 18 veterans (8.5%) had mutations suggestive of a PPGV. Applying these criteria to the larger NPOP database (n = 20,014), a similar percentage (6%) of PPGVs were identified.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate a PPGV frequency (6%-9% of veterans) consistent with the prevalence of inherited cancer predisposition syndromes in the general population, underscoring the need for medical genetics as part of standard oncologic care for veterans. We explore current and future care delivery models to optimize incorporation of medical genetics and genetic counseling to best serve veterans needing such services.

PARP inhibitors as single agents and in combination therapy: the most promising treatment strategies in clinical trials for BRCA-mutant ovarian and triple-negative breast cancers

INTRODUCTION

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPis) are an exciting class of agents that have shown efficacy, particularly for BRCA-mutant triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC). However, most patients who receive PARPi as their standard of care therapy inevitably develop resistance and this underscores the need to identify additional targets that can circumvent such resistance. Combination treatment strategies have been developed in preclinical and clinical studies to address the challenges of efficacy and resistance.

AREAS COVERED

This review examines completed or ongoing clinical trials of PARPi mono- and combination therapies. PARPi monotherapy in HER2 negative breast (HR+ and TNBC subtypes) and ovarian cancer is a focal point. The authors propose potential strategies that might overcome resistance to PARPi and discuss key questions and future directions.

EXPERT OPINION

While the advent of PARPis has significantly improved the treatment of tumors with defects in DNA damage and repair pathways, careful patient selection will be essential to enhance these treatments. The identification of molecular biomarkers to predict disease response and progression is an endeavor.

Endometrial Cancer and BRCA Mutations: A Systematic Review

This systematic review identifies, evaluates, and summarises the findings of all relevant individual studies on the prevalence of BRCA mutation (BRCAm) in endometrial cancer patients and the incidence of endometrial cancer in BRCAm women patients. Consequently, the benefits and limits of a prophylactic hysterectomy at the time of the risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy are analysed and discussed. A systematic literature search was performed in the databases of PubMed, Cochrane, and Web of Science until May 2022; 13 studies met the eligibility criteria. Overall, 1613 endometrial cancer patients from 11 cohorts were tested for BRCA1/2 mutation. BRCA1/2m were identified in 4.3% of women with endometrial cancer (70/1613). BRCA1m was the most represented (71.4%) pathogenic variant. Alongside, a total of 209 BRCAm carriers from 14 studies were diagnosed with endometrial cancer. Only 5 out of 14 studies found a correlation between BRCAm and an increased risk of endometrial cancer. Nevertheless, two studies found a statistical difference only for BRCA1m women. The present systematic review does not provide strong evidence in favour of performing routine hysterectomy at the time of risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy; however, it provides epidemiological data that can be useful for counselling patients in order to offer a tailored approach.

PALB2 germline mutations in a multi-gene panel testing cohort of 1905 breast-ovarian cancer patients in Argentina

PURPOSE

PALB2 variants have been scarcely described in Argentinian and Latin-American reports. In this study, we describe molecular and clinical characteristics of PALB2 mutations found in multi-gene panels (MP) from breast-ovarian cancer (BOC) families in different institutions from Argentina.

METHODS

We retrospectively identified PALB2 pathogenic (PV) and likely pathogenic (LPV) variants from a cohort of 1905 MP results, provided by one local lab (Heritas) and SITHER (Hereditary Tumor Information System) public database. All patients met hereditary BOC clinical criteria for testing, according to current guidelines.

RESULTS

The frequency of PALB2 mutations is 2.78% (53/1905). Forty-eight (90.5%) are PV and five (9.5%) are LPV. Most of the 18 different mutations (89%) are nonsense and frameshift types and 2 variants are novel. One high-rate recurrent PV (Y551*) is present in 43% (23/53) of the unrelated index cases. From the 53 affected carriers, 94% have BC diagnosis with 14% of bilateral cases. BC phenotype is mainly invasive ductal (78%) with 62% of hormone-receptor positive and 22% of triple negative tumors. Self-reported ethnic background of the cohort is West European (66%) and native Latin-American (20%) which is representative of Buenos Aires and other big urban areas of the country.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report describing molecular and clinical characteristics of PALB2 carriers in Argentina. Frequency of PALB2 PV in Argentinian HBOC families is higher than in other reported populations. Y551* is a recurrent mutation that seems to be responsible for almost 50% of PALB2 cases.

Points to Consider Regarding Risk-Reducing Mastectomy in High-, Moderate-, and Low-Penetrance Gene Carriers

Risk-reducing mastectomy is considered a safe and effective surgical procedure in high-risk individuals with BRCA1/2 germline mutations. Multigene panels identify women with alterations in breast cancer susceptibility genes other than BRCA1/2. International guidelines classify these genes as high-, moderate-, and low-penetrance based on their associated relative risk for breast cancer. Classification of specific genes is not always concordant among guidelines, and the indications for risk-reducing mastectomy are not defined. In this opinion paper, we review some considerations to clarify these controversial points.

Efficacy of Clinical Guidelines in Identifying All Japanese Patients with Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer

Clinical screening using the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) testing criteria may fail to identify all patients with hereditary breast and ovarian cancers. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the strategy of expanding target patients for genetic testing among Japanese patients. We reviewed the medical records of 91 breast cancer patients who underwent genetic testing. Among 91 patients, eight were diagnosed with pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants: BRCA1 (n = 4) and BRCA2 (n = 4). Among 50 patients meeting the testing criteria of the guidelines, 6 (12%) were diagnosed with pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants. The sensitivity and specificity of screening using the testing criteria were 75% and 47%, respectively. Expanding the NCCN criteria to include all women diagnosed with breast cancer aged ≤65 years achieved 88% sensitivity but 8% specificity. The expansion of the NCCN criteria could benefit Japanese patients; however, larger studies are necessary to change clinical practice.

Clinical Impact of Pathogenic Variants in DNA Damage Repair Genes beyond BRCA1 and BRCA2 in Breast and Ovarian Cancer Patients

Consensus guidelines for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer include management recommendations for pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants in ATM, CHEK2, PALB2, and other DNA damage repair (DDR) genes beyond BRCA1 or BRCA2. We report on clinical management decisions across three academic medical centers resulting from P/LP findings in DDR genes in breast/ovarian cancer patients. Among 2184 patients, 156 (7.1%) carried a P/LP variant in a DDR gene. Clinical follow-up information was available for 101/156 (64.7%) patients. Genetic test result-based management recommendations were made for 57.8% (n = 59) of patients and for 64.7% (n = 66) of patients' family members. Most recommendations were made for moderate-to-high risk genes and were consistent with guidelines. Sixty-six percent of patients (n = 39/59) implemented recommendations. This study suggests that P/LP variants in DDR genes beyond BRCA1 and BRCA2 can change clinical management recommendations for patients and their family members, facilitate identification of new at-risk carriers, and impact treatment decisions. Additional efforts are needed to improve the implementation rates of genetic-testing-based management recommendations for patients and their family members.

Cancer Risks Associated With BRCA1 and BRCA2 Pathogenic Variants

PURPOSE

To provide precise age-specific risk estimates of cancers other than female breast and ovarian cancers associated with pathogenic variants (PVs) in BRCA1 and BRCA2 for effective cancer risk management.

METHODS

We used data from 3,184 BRCA1 and 2,157 BRCA2 families in the Consortium of Investigators of Modifiers of BRCA1/2 to estimate age-specific relative (RR) and absolute risks for 22 first primary cancer types adjusting for family ascertainment.

RESULTS

BRCA1 PVs were associated with risks of male breast (RR = 4.30; 95% CI, 1.09 to 16.96), pancreatic (RR = 2.36; 95% CI, 1.51 to 3.68), and stomach (RR = 2.17; 95% CI, 1.25 to 3.77) cancers. Associations with colorectal and gallbladder cancers were also suggested. BRCA2 PVs were associated with risks of male breast (RR = 44.0; 95% CI, 21.3 to 90.9), stomach (RR = 3.69; 95% CI, 2.40 to 5.67), pancreatic (RR = 3.34; 95% CI, 2.21 to 5.06), and prostate (RR = 2.22; 95% CI, 1.63 to 3.03) cancers. The stomach cancer RR was higher for females than males (6.89 v 2.76; P = .04). The absolute risks to age 80 years ranged from 0.4% for male breast cancer to approximately 2.5% for pancreatic cancer for BRCA1 carriers and from approximately 2.5% for pancreatic cancer to 27% for prostate cancer for BRCA2 carriers.

CONCLUSION

In addition to female breast and ovarian cancers, BRCA1 and BRCA2 PVs are associated with increased risks of male breast, pancreatic, stomach, and prostate (only BRCA2 PVs) cancers, but not with the risks of other previously suggested cancers. The estimated age-specific risks will refine cancer risk management in men and women with BRCA1/2 PVs.

Pancreatic cancer risk to siblings of probands in bilineal cancer settings

PURPOSE

Pancreatic cancer (PC) risk is increased in families, but PC risk and risk perception have been understudied when both parents have cancer.

METHODS

An unbiased method defining cancer triads (proband with PC and both parents with cancer) in a prospective registry estimated risk of PC to probands' siblings in triad group 1 (no parent with PC), group 2 (1 parent with PC), and group 3 (both parents with PC). We estimated standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) using a Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) reference. We also estimated the risk when triad probands carried germline pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in any of the 6 PC-associated genes (ATM, BRCA1, BRCA2, CDKN2A, MLH1, and TP53). PC risk perception/concern was surveyed in siblings and controls.

RESULTS

Risk of PC was higher (SIR = 3.5; 95% CI = 2.2-5.2) in 933 at-risk siblings from 297 triads. Risk increased by triad group: 2.8 (95% CI = 1.5-4.5); 4.5 (95% CI = 1.6-9.7); and 21.2 (95% CI = 4.3-62.0). SIR in variant-negative triads was 3.0 (95% CI = 1.6-5.0), whereas SIR in variant-positive triads was 10.0 (95% CI = 3.2-23.4). Siblings' perceived risk/concern of developing PC increased by triad group.

CONCLUSION

Sibling risks were 2.8- to 21.2-fold higher than that of the general population. Positive variant status increased the risk in triads. Increasing number of PC cases in a triad was associated with increased concern and perceived PC risk.

Scoping Review of Nonsurgical, Nonpharmacologic Interventions After Risk Reduction: Improving Quality of Life for Patients With Inherited Cancer Risk

PURPOSE

Although risk-reduction interventions for inherited cancer can significantly reduce cancer risk, they may also lead to distressing symptoms. It is not well understood how clinicians support patients in managing such concerns. This scoping review describes nonsurgical, nonpharmacologic interventions for adults with inherited cancer risk who have completed risk reduction.

LITERATURE SEARCH

Five publications were identified following a database review for English-language articles published from 2015 to 2020.

DATA EVALUATION

Sample, content, methods, and outcomes of included interventions are summarized.

RESULTS

The study identified five interventions.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING

Future research should target a broader variety of heritable cancers to identify effective strategies for addressing challenges with risk-reduction interventions for inherited cancer.

Attitudes of Israeli gynecologists towards risk reduction salpingo-oophorectomy at hysterectomy for benign conditions and the use of hormonal therapy

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the perspectives and attitudes of gynecologists towards risk reduction bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (RRBSO) in average-risk women at the time of hysterectomy procedure for benign indications divided by age groups, and whether they recommend the use of hormonal therapy post oophorectomy.

METHODS

A questionnaire was distributed during staff meetings either by a printed questionnaire or by a link to a total number of 360 gynecologists include seniors and practitioners. Three hundred and one gynecologists participated in a national survey. Participants completed a structured questionnaire including three different scenarios. The subject group included both attending (senior) and second-year and above resident gynecologists, from divergent subspecialties. The demographic information of the survey responders included sex, age, years of experience, working domain, and subspecialty.

RESULTS

There was a 95% consensus rate among Israeli gynecologists, in favor of the ovarian conservation approach among 45-year-old women, elected for hysterectomy due to benign indications. Whereas in 50-year-old perimenopause women, without any evident family history of ovarian cancer, 39% of gynecologists advocated BSO at the time of hysterectomy, for benign indications. As for 46-year-old women, with a first-degree relative diagnosed with ovarian cancer at the age of 65 years old, 70.4% voted for prophylactic BSO. For the second part of the questionnaire regarding the utilization of hormone therapy (HT) after BSO, 66.1% of our responders proclaimed they would always encourage the use of HT in 45-year-old-women, while 52.8% recommended HT in 46-year-old-women with a family history of ovarian cancer and 39.5% for 50-year-old perimenopause women.

CONCLUSION

Our national survey confirms the wide variability in attitudes among gynecologists towards performing RRBSO at hysterectomy for a benign indication in women aged 45-50, with family history being a major factor in the decision.

The clinical features and management of Lynch syndrome-associated ovarian cancer

AIM

Lynch syndrome (LS) is one of the most common hereditary cancer syndromes, characterized by mutations in mismatch repair genes and autosomal dominant inheritance. Women with LS have an additional increased risk of gynecologic malignancies, including endometrial cancer (EC) and ovarian cancer (OC). Compared with EC, OC is relatively under investigation. This review thoroughly summarizes the current clinical evidence of surveillance, screening, and prevention strategies, and describes the molecular and clinical characteristics of LS-associated OC.

METHODS

An electronic search from databases of PubMed and Google Scholar was carried out using key words pertaining to Lynch syndrome and ovarian cancer. A review of the literatures including review articles, experimental, and observational studies published between 2000 and 2021 was conducted.

RESULTS

The lifetime risk of OC in women with LS of MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 mutations is approximately 7%, with the median age at onset being 46 years, 10-15 years earlier than that in sporadic cases. Histologically, LS-associated OCs are primarily endometrioid (40%), high-grade (25%), and low-grade (11%) serous, or clear cell (6%) in nature. Eighty-five percent of patients are diagnosed at an early stage, presenting with a good prognosis at 84% 5-year survival. Optimal screening strategies for OC in LS are controversial; combined screening of patients' clinical and family history, immunohistochemical analysis, and microsatellite instability testing for mismatch repair deficiency have been proven efficient.

CONCLUSION

The clinical features were different between ovarian cancer in Lynch syndrome and sporadic cases. More research are needed for a greater understanding of the prevention and medical treatment of LS-associated OC.