351
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Crowell EF, Gonneau M, Stierhof YD, Höfte H, Vernhettes S. Regulated trafficking of cellulose synthases. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 13:700-5. [PMID: 20822948 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2010.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2010] [Revised: 07/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/30/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
New findings reveal that proteins involved in cellulose biosynthesis undergo regulated trafficking between intracellular compartments and the plasma membrane. The coordinated secretion and internalization of these proteins involve both the actin and cortical microtubule cytoskeletons. This regulated trafficking allows the dynamic remodeling of cellulose synthase complex (CSC) secretion during cell expansion and differentiation. Several new actors of the cellulose synthesis machinery have been recently identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- E F Crowell
- Membrane Traffic and Cell Division Research Group, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France
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352
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Shaw SL, Lucas J. Intrabundle microtubule dynamics in the Arabidopsis cortical array. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2010; 68:56-67. [PMID: 20960529 DOI: 10.1002/cm.20495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2010] [Revised: 09/09/2010] [Accepted: 10/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We tested the general hypothesis that bundling stabilizes the dynamic properties of the constituent microtubules (MTs) in vivo. We quantified the assembly dynamics of bundled and unbundled MTs in the interphase cortical array of Arabidopsis hypocotyl cells using high dynamic range spinning disk confocal microscopy. We find no evidence that bundled MTs are stabilized against depolymerization through changes to their dynamic properties. Our observations of MT plus and minus ends indicate that both bundled and unbundled polymers undergo persistent treadmilling in this system. We conclude that the temporal persistence of MT subassemblies in the Arabidopsis cortical array is largely dependent upon recruitment or nucleation of new treadmilling MTs and not on polymer stabilization. Monte Carlo simulations suggest that small differences discovered in the dynamic properties between bundled and unbundled polymers would produce relatively small macroscopic effects on the larger MT array.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidney L Shaw
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
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353
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Chan J, Crowell E, Eder M, Calder G, Bunnewell S, Findlay K, Vernhettes S, Höfte H, Lloyd C. The rotation of cellulose synthase trajectories is microtubule dependent and influences the texture of epidermal cell walls in Arabidopsis hypocotyls. J Cell Sci 2010; 123:3490-5. [PMID: 20876662 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.074641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant shoots have thick, polylamellate outer epidermal walls based on crossed layers of cellulose microfibrils, but the involvement of microtubules in such wall lamellation is unclear. Recently, using a long-term movie system in which Arabidopsis seedlings were grown in a biochamber, the tracks along which cortical microtubules move were shown to undergo slow rotary movements over the outer surface of hypocotyl epidermal cells. Because microtubules are known to guide cellulose synthases over the short term, we hypothesised that this previously unsuspected microtubule rotation could, over the longer term, help explain the cross-ply structure of the outer epidermal wall. Here, we test that hypothesis using Arabidopsis plants expressing the cellulose synthase GFP-CESA3 and show that cellulose synthase trajectories do rotate over several hours. Neither microtubule-stabilising taxol nor microtubule-depolymerising oryzalin affected the linear rate of GFP-CESA3 movement, but both stopped the rotation of cellulose synthase tracks. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that drug-induced suppression of rotation alters the lamellation pattern, resulting in a thick monotonous wall layer. We conclude that microtubule rotation, rather than any hypothetical mechanism for wall self-assembly, has an essential role in developing cross-ply wall texture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Chan
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Elizabeth Crowell
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, INRA Centre de Versailles-Grignon, Route de St-Cyr (RD10), 78026 Versailles CedexFrance
| | - Magdalena Eder
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Grant Calder
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Susan Bunnewell
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Kim Findlay
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Samantha Vernhettes
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, INRA Centre de Versailles-Grignon, Route de St-Cyr (RD10), 78026 Versailles CedexFrance
| | - Herman Höfte
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, INRA Centre de Versailles-Grignon, Route de St-Cyr (RD10), 78026 Versailles CedexFrance
| | - Clive Lloyd
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
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354
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Mélida H, Encina A, Alvarez J, Acebes JL, Caparrós-Ruiz D. Unraveling the biochemical and molecular networks involved in maize cell habituation to the cellulose biosynthesis inhibitor dichlobenil. MOLECULAR PLANT 2010; 3:842-53. [PMID: 20534772 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssq027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The biochemical and molecular processes involved in the habituation of maize cells to growth in the presence of the cellulose biosynthesis inhibitor dichlobenil (DCB) were investigated. DCB affects the synthesis of cellulose both in active and stationary growth phases and alters the expression of several CesA genes. Of these, ZmCesA5 and ZmCesA7 seem to play a major role in habituating cells to growth in the presence of DCB. As a consequence of the reduction in cellulose, the expression of several genes involved in the synthesis of hydroxycinnamates is increased, resulting in cell walls with higher levels of ferulic and p-coumaric acids. A proteomic analysis revealed that habituation to DCB is linked to modifications in several metabolic pathways. Finally, habituated cells present a reduction in glutathione S-transferase detoxifying activity and antioxidant activities. Plant cell adaptation to the disturbance of such a crucial process as cellulose biosynthesis requires changes in several metabolic networks, in order to modify cell wall architecture and metabolism, and survive in the presence of the inhibitor. Some of these modifications are described in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Mélida
- Area de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de CC. Biológicas y Ambientales, Universidad de León, E-24071 León, Spain
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355
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Zeng W, Jiang N, Nadella R, Killen TL, Nadella V, Faik A. A glucurono(arabino)xylan synthase complex from wheat contains members of the GT43, GT47, and GT75 families and functions cooperatively. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 154:78-97. [PMID: 20631319 PMCID: PMC2938142 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.159749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2010] [Accepted: 07/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Glucuronoarabinoxylans (GAXs) are the major hemicelluloses in grass cell walls, but the proteins that synthesize them have previously been uncharacterized. The biosynthesis of GAXs would require at least three glycosyltransferases (GTs): xylosyltransferase (XylT), arabinosyltransferase (AraT), and glucuronosyltransferase (GlcAT). A combination of proteomics and transcriptomics analyses revealed three wheat (Triticum aestivum) glycosyltransferase (TaGT) proteins from the GT43, GT47, and GT75 families as promising candidates involved in GAX synthesis in wheat, namely TaGT43-4, TaGT47-13, and TaGT75-4. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments using specific antibodies produced against TaGT43-4 allowed the immunopurification of a complex containing these three GT proteins. The affinity-purified complex also showed GAX-XylT, GAX-AraT, and GAX-GlcAT activities that work in a cooperative manner. UDP Xyl strongly enhanced both AraT and GlcAT activities. However, while UDP arabinopyranose stimulated the XylT activity, it had only limited effect on GlcAT activity. Similarly, UDP GlcUA stimulated the XylT activity but had only limited effect on AraT activity. The [(14)C]GAX polymer synthesized by the affinity-purified complex contained Xyl, Ara, and GlcUA in a ratio of 45:12:1, respectively. When this product was digested with purified endoxylanase III and analyzed by high-pH anion-exchange chromatography, only two oligosaccharides were obtained, suggesting a regular structure. One of the two oligosaccharides has six Xyls and two Aras, and the second oligosaccharide contains Xyl, Ara, and GlcUA in a ratio of 40:8:1, respectively. Our results provide a direct link of the involvement of TaGT43-4, TaGT47-13, and TaGT75-4 proteins (as a core complex) in the synthesis of GAX polymer in wheat.
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356
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Designing Biomass Crops with Improved Calorific Content and Attributes for Burning: a UK Perspective. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13440-1_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
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357
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Song D, Shen J, Li L. Characterization of cellulose synthase complexes in Populus xylem differentiation. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2010; 187:777-90. [PMID: 20546138 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
*It is generally hypothesized that the synthesis of cellulose in higher plants is mediated by cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs) localized on the plasma membrane. However, CSCs have not been investigated thoroughly through their isolation. The availability of ample Populus tissue allowed Populus CSCs to be isolated and characterized in association with xylem differentiation. *The methods used here included co-immunoprecipitation, proteomic analysis, laser microdissection, immunolocalization and others. *Western blot analysis of the immunoprecipitated CSCs led to the identification of at least two types of CSC in the membrane protein of Populus xylem tissue. Proteomic analysis further revealed that the two types of CSC were assembled from different cellulose synthase proteins. Immunolocalization confirmed that both types of CSC were involved in secondary cell wall formation. In addition, a number of noncellulose synthase proteins were also identified in association with CSC precipitation. *The results indicate that two types of CSC participate in secondary wall formation in Populus, suggesting a new mechanism of cellulose formation involved in the thickening of wood cell walls. This study also suggests that the CSC machinery may be aided by other proteins in addition to cellulose synthase proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongliang Song
- Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Institutes of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
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358
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Chen CY, Hsieh MH, Yang CC, Lin CS, Wang AY. Analysis of the cellulose synthase genes associated with primary cell wall synthesis in Bambusa oldhamii. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2010; 71:1270-9. [PMID: 20541781 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of cell wall polysaccharides is highly active in rapidly growing bamboo shoots. We cloned a set of BoCesA cDNAs that encode cellulose synthase from bamboo (Bambusa oldhamii) and investigated the expression patterns of the BoCesA2, BoCesA5, BoCesA6 and BoCesA7 genes. The four BoCesA genes were differentially expressed in the different parts of growing bamboo shoots, in various organs, and in multiple shoots that were cultured in vitro. They were down-regulated by alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid and differentially affected by thidiazuron in the multiple shoots. In situ RT-PCR analyses demonstrated that BoCesA2, BoCesA5, BoCesA6, and BoCesA7 mRNAs were present throughout the base and the internode regions of the etiolated shoots that emerged from pseudorhizomes, and in the internode regions of the juvenile branch shoots that emerged from nodes of mature bamboo culms; however, the expression of the four genes in the lignified internode of the branch shoot was predominantly detected in the center of the vascular bundles. Our results for cDNA cloning, expression analyses, and phylogenetic analysis suggest that the 10 BoCesA genes cloned from the etiolated bamboo shoots participate in cellulose synthesis in the primary cell walls of the growing bamboo, and that at least three additional BoCesA genes involved in cellulose synthesis in the secondary walls may be present in the bamboo genome. The expressions of BoCesA genes may be under fine control in response to the various developmental stages and physiological conditions of bamboo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Yu Chen
- Institute of Microbiology and Biochemistry and Department of Biochemical Science and Technology, College of Life Science, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei, Taiwan
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359
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Volgger M, Lang I, Ovecka M, Lichtscheidl I. Plasmolysis and cell wall deposition in wheat root hairs under osmotic stress. PROTOPLASMA 2010; 243:51-62. [PMID: 19533299 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-009-0055-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2009] [Accepted: 05/25/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We analysed cell wall formation in rapidly growing root hairs of Triticum aestivum under reduced turgor pressure by application of iso- and hypertonic mannitol solutions. Our experimental series revealed an osmotic value of wheat root hairs of 150 mOsm. In higher concentrations (200-650 mOsm), exocytosis of wall material and its deposition, as well as callose synthesis, still occurred, but the elongation of root hairs was stopped. Even after strong plasmolysis when the protoplast retreated from the cell wall, deposits of wall components were observed. Labelling with DiOC(6)(3) and FM1-43 revealed numerous Hechtian strands that spanned the plasmolytic space. Interestingly, the Hechtian strands also led towards the very tip of the root hair suggesting strong anchoring sites that are readily incorporated into the new cell wall. Long-term treatments of over 24 h in mannitol solutions (150-450 mOsm) resulted in reduced growth and concentration-dependent shortening of root hairs. However, the formation of new root hairs does occur in all concentrations used. This reflects the extraordinary potential of wheat root cells to adapt to environmental stress situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Volgger
- Cell Imaging and Ultrastructure Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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360
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Identification of a cellulose synthase-associated protein required for cellulose biosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:12866-71. [PMID: 20616083 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1007092107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellulose synthase-interactive protein 1 (CSI1) was identified in a two-hybrid screen for proteins that interact with cellulose synthase (CESA) isoforms involved in primary plant cell wall synthesis. CSI1 encodes a 2,150-amino acid protein that contains 10 predicted Armadillo repeats and a C2 domain. Mutations in CSI1 cause defective cell elongation in hypocotyls and roots and reduce cellulose content. CSI1 is associated with CESA complexes, and csi1 mutants affect the distribution and movement of CESA complexes in the plasma membrane.
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361
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Wightman R, Turner S. Trafficking of the plant cellulose synthase complex. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:427-32. [PMID: 20200066 PMCID: PMC2879793 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.154666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Accepted: 02/27/2010] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
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362
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Stork J, Harris D, Griffiths J, Williams B, Beisson F, Li-Beisson Y, Mendu V, Haughn G, DeBolt S. CELLULOSE SYNTHASE9 serves a nonredundant role in secondary cell wall synthesis in Arabidopsis epidermal testa cells. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:580-9. [PMID: 20335403 PMCID: PMC2879785 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.154062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Accepted: 03/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we sought to explore the contribution of cellulose biosynthesis to the shape and morphogenesis of hexagonal seed coat cells in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Consistent with seed preferential expression of CELLULOSE SYNTHASE9 (CESA9), null mutations in CESA9 caused no change in cellulose content in leaves or stems, but caused a 25% reduction in seeds. Compositional studies of cesa9 seeds uncovered substantial proportional increases in cell wall neutral sugars and in several monomers of cell wall-associated polyesters. Despite these metabolic compensations, cesa9 seeds were permeable to tetrazolium salt, implying that cellulose biosynthesis, via CESA9, is required for correct barrier function of the seed coat. A syndrome of depleted radial wall, altered seed coat cell size, shape, and internal angle uniformity was quantified using scanning electron micrographs in cesa9 epidermal cells. By contrast, morphological defects were absent in cesa9 embryos, visually inspected from torpedo to bent cotyledon, consistent with no reduction in postgermination radical or hypocotyl elongation. These data implied that CESA9 was seed coat specific or functionally redundant in other tissues. Assessment of sections from glutaraldehyde fixed wild-type and cesa9 mature seeds supported results of scanning electron micrographs and quantitatively showed depletion of secondary cell wall synthesis in the radial cell wall. Herein, we show a nonredundant role for CESA9 in secondary cell wall biosynthesis in radial cell walls of epidermal seed coats and document its importance for cell morphogenesis and barrier function of the seed coat.
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363
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Steinwand BJ, Kieber JJ. The role of receptor-like kinases in regulating cell wall function. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:479-84. [PMID: 20410434 PMCID: PMC2879783 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.155887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
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364
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Harris D, Bulone V, Ding SY, DeBolt S. Tools for cellulose analysis in plant cell walls. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:420-6. [PMID: 20304970 PMCID: PMC2879802 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.154203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Accepted: 03/16/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
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365
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Abstract
The potential for using cellulosic biomass as a source of fuel has renewed interest into how the large cellulose synthase complex deposits cellulose within the woody secondary walls of plants. This complex sits within the plasma membrane where it synthesizes numerous glucan chains which bond together to form the strong cellulose microfibril. The maintenance and guidance of the complex at the plasma membrane and its delivery to sites of secondary wall formation require the involvement of the cytoskeleton. In the present paper, we discuss the dynamics of the complex at the cell cortex and what is known about its assembly and trafficking.
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366
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Jiang Y, Deyholos MK. Transcriptome analysis of secondary-wall-enriched seed coat tissues of canola (Brassica napus L.). PLANT CELL REPORTS 2010; 29:327-42. [PMID: 20145934 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-010-0824-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2009] [Revised: 01/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The seed coat of Brassica napus (canola, oilseed rape) is derived from ovule integuments and contains a layer of palisade cells, which have thick secondary walls. Because cellulosic walls and other indigestible components of the seed coat contribute negatively to the value of oilseeds, efforts are underway to alter seed development. To facilitate these efforts, and to better understand the biology of seed coats, we used a 90,000 element microarray to identify genes whose transcripts were expressed in developing seed coats of B. napus. After dissecting seed coats into three layers, and comparing transcript expression in the middle fraction (which contained the palisade-enriched tissue and bulk of inner integument) to transcript expression in developing hypocotyls, we identified 674 genes whose transcripts were more abundant in the middle fraction of the seed coat. Among these were well-characterized markers of seed coat identity and many genes associated with metabolism of cell wall polysaccharides, flavonoids and various cell wall proteins and transcription factors. Conversely, we identified 1,203 genes whose transcripts were more abundant in the hypocotyl tissue as compared to seed coat, including xylem-specific markers, such as XCP1 and XCP2. We validated 21 of the differentially expressed transcripts using quantitative RT-PCR. The results define a set of transcripts that are highly enriched in the developing seed coat of B. napus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanqing Jiang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2E9, Canada
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367
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Harris D, DeBolt S. Synthesis, regulation and utilization of lignocellulosic biomass. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2010; 8:244-62. [PMID: 20070874 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2009.00481.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Increasing the range of fuels and bioproducts that are derived from lignocellulosic biomass and the efficiency at which they are produced hinges on a detailed understanding of the cell wall biosynthetic process. Herein, we review the structure and biosynthesis of lignocellulosic biomass and also highlight recent breakthroughs that demonstrate a complex regulatory system of transcription factors, small interfering RNAs and phosphorylation that ultimately dictate the development of the polyalaminate cell wall. Finally, we provide an update on cases where plant biotechnology has been used to improve lignocellulosic biomass utilization as a second-generation biofuel source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darby Harris
- Department of Horticulture, Plant Physiology/Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, University of Kentucky, N-318 Agricultural Science Center, North Lexington, KY, USA
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368
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Liepman AH, Wightman R, Geshi N, Turner SR, Scheller HV. Arabidopsis - a powerful model system for plant cell wall research. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 61:1107-21. [PMID: 20409281 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2010.04161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls are composites of various carbohydrates, proteins and other compounds. Cell walls provide plants with strength and protection, and also represent the most abundant source of renewable biomass. Despite the importance of plant cell walls, comparatively little is known about the identities of genes and functions of proteins involved in their biosynthesis. The model plant Arabidopsis and the availability of its genome sequence have been invaluable for the identification and functional characterization of genes encoding enzymes involved in plant cell-wall biosynthesis. This review covers recent progress in the identification and characterization of genes encoding proteins involved in the biosynthesis of Arabidopsis cell-wall polysaccharides and arabinogalactan proteins. These studies have improved our understanding of both the mechanisms of cell-wall biosynthesis and the functions of various cell-wall polymers, and have highlighted areas where further research is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron H Liepman
- Biology Department, Eastern Michigan University, 316 Mark Jefferson Building, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA.
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369
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Roudier F, Gissot L, Beaudoin F, Haslam R, Michaelson L, Marion J, Molino D, Lima A, Bach L, Morin H, Tellier F, Palauqui JC, Bellec Y, Renne C, Miquel M, Dacosta M, Vignard J, Rochat C, Markham JE, Moreau P, Napier J, Faure JD. Very-long-chain fatty acids are involved in polar auxin transport and developmental patterning in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2010; 22:364-375. [PMID: 20145257 DOI: 10.2307/25680057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) are essential for many aspects of plant development and necessary for the synthesis of seed storage triacylglycerols, epicuticular waxes, and sphingolipids. Identification of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase PASTICCINO3 and the 3-hydroxy acyl-CoA dehydratase PASTICCINO2 revealed that VLCFAs are important for cell proliferation and tissue patterning. Here, we show that the immunophilin PASTICCINO1 (PAS1) is also required for VLCFA synthesis. Impairment of PAS1 function results in reduction of VLCFA levels that particularly affects the composition of sphingolipids, known to be important for cell polarity in animals. Moreover, PAS1 associates with several enzymes of the VLCFA elongase complex in the endoplasmic reticulum. The pas1 mutants are deficient in lateral root formation and are characterized by an abnormal patterning of the embryo apex, which leads to defective cotyledon organogenesis. Our data indicate that in both tissues, defective organogenesis is associated with the mistargeting of the auxin efflux carrier PIN FORMED1 in specific cells, resulting in local alteration of polar auxin distribution. Furthermore, we show that exogenous VLCFAs rescue lateral root organogenesis and polar auxin distribution, indicating their direct involvement in these processes. Based on these data, we propose that PAS1 acts as a molecular scaffold for the fatty acid elongase complex in the endoplasmic reticulum and that the resulting VLCFAs are required for polar auxin transport and tissue patterning during plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Roudier
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
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370
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Roudier F, Gissot L, Beaudoin F, Haslam R, Michaelson L, Marion J, Molino D, Lima A, Bach L, Morin H, Tellier F, Palauqui JC, Bellec Y, Renne C, Miquel M, DaCosta M, Vignard J, Rochat C, Markham JE, Moreau P, Napier J, Faure JD. Very-long-chain fatty acids are involved in polar auxin transport and developmental patterning in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2010; 22:364-75. [PMID: 20145257 PMCID: PMC2845409 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.109.071209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2009] [Revised: 01/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) are essential for many aspects of plant development and necessary for the synthesis of seed storage triacylglycerols, epicuticular waxes, and sphingolipids. Identification of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase PASTICCINO3 and the 3-hydroxy acyl-CoA dehydratase PASTICCINO2 revealed that VLCFAs are important for cell proliferation and tissue patterning. Here, we show that the immunophilin PASTICCINO1 (PAS1) is also required for VLCFA synthesis. Impairment of PAS1 function results in reduction of VLCFA levels that particularly affects the composition of sphingolipids, known to be important for cell polarity in animals. Moreover, PAS1 associates with several enzymes of the VLCFA elongase complex in the endoplasmic reticulum. The pas1 mutants are deficient in lateral root formation and are characterized by an abnormal patterning of the embryo apex, which leads to defective cotyledon organogenesis. Our data indicate that in both tissues, defective organogenesis is associated with the mistargeting of the auxin efflux carrier PIN FORMED1 in specific cells, resulting in local alteration of polar auxin distribution. Furthermore, we show that exogenous VLCFAs rescue lateral root organogenesis and polar auxin distribution, indicating their direct involvement in these processes. Based on these data, we propose that PAS1 acts as a molecular scaffold for the fatty acid elongase complex in the endoplasmic reticulum and that the resulting VLCFAs are required for polar auxin transport and tissue patterning during plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Roudier
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Lionel Gissot
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | | | - Richard Haslam
- Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts AL5 2JQ, United Kingdom
| | | | - Jessica Marion
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Diana Molino
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Amparo Lima
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Liên Bach
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Halima Morin
- Plateforme de Cytologie et d'Imagerie Végétale, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Frédérique Tellier
- Plateforme de Chimie du Végétale, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Palauqui
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Yannick Bellec
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Charlotte Renne
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Martine Miquel
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Marco DaCosta
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Julien Vignard
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Christine Rochat
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | | | - Patrick Moreau
- Laboratoire Biogenèse membranaire, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5200, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Université Bordeaux 2, BP 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | | | - Jean-Denis Faure
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1318, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique-AgroParisTech, Centre de Versailles-Grignon, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
- Address correspondence to
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371
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Guerriero G, Fugelstad J, Bulone V. What do we really know about cellulose biosynthesis in higher plants? JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 52:161-75. [PMID: 20377678 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.00935.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose biosynthesis is one of the most important biochemical processes in plant biology. Despite the considerable progress made during the last decade, numerous fundamental questions related to this key process in plant development are outstanding. Numerous models have been proposed through the years to explain the detailed molecular events of cellulose biosynthesis. Almost all models integrate solid experimental data with hypotheses on several of the steps involved in the process. Speculative models are most useful to stimulate further research investigations and bring new exciting ideas to the field. However, it is important to keep their hypothetical nature in mind and be aware of the risk that some undemonstrated hypotheses may progressively become admitted. In this review, we discuss the different steps required for cellulose formation and crystallization, and highlight the most important specific aspects that are supported by solid experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gea Guerriero
- Division of Glycoscience, School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology, AlbaNova University Center, Stockholm, Sweden
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372
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Betancur L, Singh B, Rapp RA, Wendel JF, Marks MD, Roberts AW, Haigler CH. Phylogenetically distinct cellulose synthase genes support secondary wall thickening in arabidopsis shoot trichomes and cotton fiber. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 52:205-20. [PMID: 20377682 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.00934.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Abstract Through exploring potential analogies between cotton seed trichomes (or cotton fiber) and arabidopsis shoot trichomes we discovered that CesAs from either the primary or secondary wall phylogenetic clades can support secondary wall thickening. CesA genes that typically support primary wall synthesis, AtCesA1,2,3,5, and 6, underpin expansion and secondary wall thickening of arabidopsis shoot trichomes. In contrast, apparent orthologs of CesA genes that support secondary wall synthesis in arabidopsis xylem, AtCesA4,7, and 8, are up-regulated for cotton fiber secondary wall deposition. These conclusions arose from: (a) analyzing the expression of CesA genes in arabidopsis shoot trichomes; (b) observing birefringent secondary walls in arabidopsis shoot trichomes with mutations in AtCesA4, 7, or 8; (c) assaying up-regulated genes during different stages of cotton fiber development; and (d) comparing genes that were co-expressed with primary or secondary wall CesAs in arabidopsis with genes up-regulated in arabidopsis trichomes, arabidopsis secondary xylem, or cotton fiber during primary or secondary wall deposition. Cumulatively, the data show that: (a) the xylem of arabidopsis provides the best model for secondary wall cellulose synthesis in cotton fiber; and (b) CesA genes within a "cell wall toolbox" are used in diverse ways for the construction of particular specialized cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lissete Betancur
- Department of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7612, USA
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373
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374
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375
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Zhang B, Deng L, Qian Q, Xiong G, Zeng D, Li R, Guo L, Li J, Zhou Y. A missense mutation in the transmembrane domain of CESA4 affects protein abundance in the plasma membrane and results in abnormal cell wall biosynthesis in rice. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 71:509-24. [PMID: 19697141 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-009-9536-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Accepted: 08/05/2009] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose synthase (CESA) is a critical catalytic subunit of the cellulose synthase complex responsible for glucan chain elongation. Our knowledge about how CESA functions is still very limited. Here, we report the functional characterization of a rice mutant, brittle culm11, that shows growth retardation and dramatically reduced plant strength. Map-based cloning revealed that all the mutant phenotypes result from a missense mutation in OsCESA4 (G858R), a highly conserved residue at the end of the fifth transmembrane domain. The aberrant secondary cell wall of the mutant plants is attributed to significantly reduced cellulose content, abnormal secondary wall structure of sclerenchyma cells, and overall altered wall composition, as detected by chemical analyses and immunochemical staining. Importantly, we have found that this point mutation decreases the abundance of OsCESA4 in the plasma membrane, probably due to a defect in the process of CESA complex secretion. The data from our biochemical, genetic, and pharmacological analyses indicate that this residue is critical for maintaining the normal level of CESA proteins in the plasma membrane.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Biomechanical Phenomena
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Cell Wall/genetics
- Cell Wall/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Plant/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation, Plant/physiology
- Membrane Proteins/chemistry
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Membrane Proteins/physiology
- Microscopy, Confocal
- Microscopy, Electron, Transmission
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutation, Missense
- Oryza/genetics
- Oryza/growth & development
- Oryza/metabolism
- Oryza/ultrastructure
- Phylogeny
- Plant Proteins/chemistry
- Plant Proteins/genetics
- Plant Proteins/metabolism
- Plants, Genetically Modified/genetics
- Plants, Genetically Modified/growth & development
- Plants, Genetically Modified/metabolism
- Plants, Genetically Modified/ultrastructure
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
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Affiliation(s)
- Baocai Zhang
- National Center for Plant Gene Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
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376
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Arabidopsis cortical microtubules position cellulose synthase delivery to the plasma membrane and interact with cellulose synthase trafficking compartments. Nat Cell Biol 2009; 11:797-806. [PMID: 19525940 DOI: 10.1038/ncb1886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 461] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2009] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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377
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Kumar M, Thammannagowda S, Bulone V, Chiang V, Han KH, Joshi CP, Mansfield SD, Mellerowicz E, Sundberg B, Teeri T, Ellis BE. An update on the nomenclature for the cellulose synthase genes in Populus. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2009; 14:248-54. [PMID: 19375973 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2009.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2008] [Revised: 02/12/2009] [Accepted: 02/12/2009] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose synthase (CesA) is a central catalyst in the generation of the plant cell wall biomass and is, therefore, the focus of intense research. Characterization of individual CesA genes from Populus species has led to the publication of several different naming conventions for CesA gene family members in this model tree. To help reduce the resulting confusion, we propose here a new phylogeny-based CesA nomenclature that aligns the Populus CesA gene family with the established Arabidopsis thaliana CesA family structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish Agricultural University, Umeå, Sweden
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378
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Duval I, Beaudoin N. Transcriptional profiling in response to inhibition of cellulose synthesis by thaxtomin A and isoxaben in Arabidopsis thaliana suspension cells. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2009; 28:811-30. [PMID: 19198845 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-009-0670-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2008] [Revised: 12/16/2008] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall determines cell shape and is the main barrier against environmental challenges. Perturbations in the cellulose content of the wall lead to global modifications in cellular homeostasis, as seen in cellulose synthase mutants or after inhibiting cellulose synthesis. In particular, application of inhibitors of cellulose synthesis such as thaxtomin A (TA) and isoxaben (IXB) initiates a programmed cell death (PCD) in Arabidopsis thaliana suspension cells that is dependent on de novo gene transcription. To further understand how TA and IXB activate PCD, a whole genome microarray analysis was performed on mRNA isolated from Arabidopsis suspension cells exposed to TA and IXB. More than 75% of the genes upregulated by TA were also upregulated by IXB, including genes encoding cell wall-related and calcium-binding proteins, defence/stress-related transcription factors, signalling components and cell death-related proteins. Comparisons with published transcriptional analyses revealed that half of these genes were also induced by ozone, wounding, bacterial elicitor, Yariv reagent, chitin and H(2)O(2). These data indicate that both IXB and TA activate a similar gene expression profile, which includes an important subset of genes generally induced in response to various biotic and abiotic stress. However, genes typically activated during the defence response mediated by classical salicylic acid, jasmonate or ethylene signalling pathways were not upregulated in response to TA and IXB. These results suggest that inhibition of cellulose synthesis induces PCD by the activation of common stress-related pathways that would somehow bypass the classical hormone-dependent defence pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Duval
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
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379
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Farquharson KL. Cortical microtubules regulate the insertion of cellulose synthase complexes in the plasma membrane. THE PLANT CELL 2009; 21:1028. [PMID: 19376929 PMCID: PMC2685629 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.109.210411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
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380
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Crowell EF, Bischoff V, Desprez T, Rolland A, Stierhof YD, Schumacher K, Gonneau M, Höfte H, Vernhettes S. Pausing of Golgi bodies on microtubules regulates secretion of cellulose synthase complexes in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2009; 21:1141-54. [PMID: 19376932 PMCID: PMC2685615 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.108.065334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 355] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Plant growth and organ formation depend on the oriented deposition of load-bearing cellulose microfibrils in the cell wall. Cellulose is synthesized by plasma membrane-bound complexes containing cellulose synthase proteins (CESAs). Here, we establish a role for the cytoskeleton in intracellular trafficking of cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs) through the in vivo study of the green fluorescent protein (GFP)-CESA3 fusion protein in Arabidopsis thaliana hypocotyls. GFP-CESA3 localizes to the plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, a compartment identified by the VHA-a1 marker, and, surprisingly, a novel microtubule-associated cellulose synthase compartment (MASC) whose formation and movement depend on the dynamic cortical microtubule array. Osmotic stress or treatment with the cellulose synthesis inhibitor CGA 325'615 induces internalization of CSCs in MASCs, mimicking the intracellular distribution of CSCs in nongrowing cells. Our results indicate that cellulose synthesis is coordinated with growth status and regulated in part through CSC internalization. We find that CSC insertion in the plasma membrane is regulated by pauses of the Golgi apparatus along cortical microtubules. Our data support a model in which cortical microtubules not only guide the trajectories of CSCs in the plasma membrane, but also regulate the insertion and internalization of CSCs, thus allowing dynamic remodeling of CSC secretion during cell expansion and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Faris Crowell
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 78026 Versailles cedex, France
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381
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Timmers J, Vernhettes S, Desprez T, Vincken JP, Visser RG, Trindade LM. Interactions between membrane-bound cellulose synthases involved in the synthesis of the secondary cell wall. FEBS Lett 2009; 583:978-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2009.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2008] [Revised: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 02/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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382
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Remmerie N, Roef L, Van De Slijke E, Van Leene J, Persiau G, Eeckhout D, Stals H, Laukens K, Lemière F, Esmans E, Van Onckelen H, Inzé D, De Jaeger G, Witters E. A bioanalytical method for the proteome wide display and analysis of protein complexes from whole plant cell lysates. Proteomics 2009; 9:598-609. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200800100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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383
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Minic Z, Jamet E, San-Clemente H, Pelletier S, Renou JP, Rihouey C, Okinyo DPO, Proux C, Lerouge P, Jouanin L. Transcriptomic analysis of Arabidopsis developing stems: a close-up on cell wall genes. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2009; 9:6. [PMID: 19149885 PMCID: PMC2649120 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-9-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2008] [Accepted: 01/16/2009] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Different strategies (genetics, biochemistry, and proteomics) can be used to study proteins involved in cell biogenesis. The availability of the complete sequences of several plant genomes allowed the development of transcriptomic studies. Although the expression patterns of some Arabidopsis thaliana genes involved in cell wall biogenesis were identified at different physiological stages, detailed microarray analysis of plant cell wall genes has not been performed on any plant tissues. Using transcriptomic and bioinformatic tools, we studied the regulation of cell wall genes in Arabidopsis stems, i.e. genes encoding proteins involved in cell wall biogenesis and genes encoding secreted proteins. RESULTS Transcriptomic analyses of stems were performed at three different developmental stages, i.e., young stems, intermediate stage, and mature stems. Many genes involved in the synthesis of cell wall components such as polysaccharides and monolignols were identified. A total of 345 genes encoding predicted secreted proteins with moderate or high level of transcripts were analyzed in details. The encoded proteins were distributed into 8 classes, based on the presence of predicted functional domains. Proteins acting on carbohydrates and proteins of unknown function constituted the two most abundant classes. Other proteins were proteases, oxido-reductases, proteins with interacting domains, proteins involved in signalling, and structural proteins. Particularly high levels of expression were established for genes encoding pectin methylesterases, germin-like proteins, arabinogalactan proteins, fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins, and structural proteins. Finally, the results of this transcriptomic analyses were compared with those obtained through a cell wall proteomic analysis from the same material. Only a small proportion of genes identified by previous proteomic analyses were identified by transcriptomics. Conversely, only a few proteins encoded by genes having moderate or high level of transcripts were identified by proteomics. CONCLUSION Analysis of the genes predicted to encode cell wall proteins revealed that about 345 genes had moderate or high levels of transcripts. Among them, we identified many new genes possibly involved in cell wall biogenesis. The discrepancies observed between results of this transcriptomic study and a previous proteomic study on the same material revealed post-transcriptional mechanisms of regulation of expression of genes encoding cell wall proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoran Minic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, 110 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9, Canada
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Route de St-Cyr, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Elisabeth Jamet
- Surfaces Cellulaires et Signalisation chez les Végétaux, UMR 5546 CNRS-UPS, Université de Toulouse, 24 Chemin de Borde Rouge, BP42617, 31326-Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Hélène San-Clemente
- Surfaces Cellulaires et Signalisation chez les Végétaux, UMR 5546 CNRS-UPS, Université de Toulouse, 24 Chemin de Borde Rouge, BP42617, 31326-Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Sandra Pelletier
- Unité de Recherche en Génomique Végétale, UMR INRA 1165-CNRS 8114, UEVE, 91057 Evry cedex, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Renou
- Unité de Recherche en Génomique Végétale, UMR INRA 1165-CNRS 8114, UEVE, 91057 Evry cedex, France
| | - Christophe Rihouey
- Faculté des Sciences, FRE CNRS 3090, IFRMP23, Université de Rouen, F-76821 Mont Saint Aignan Cedex, France
| | - Denis PO Okinyo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, 110 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C9, Canada
| | - Caroline Proux
- Unité de Recherche en Génomique Végétale, UMR INRA 1165-CNRS 8114, UEVE, 91057 Evry cedex, France
| | - Patrice Lerouge
- Faculté des Sciences, FRE CNRS 3090, IFRMP23, Université de Rouen, F-76821 Mont Saint Aignan Cedex, France
| | - Lise Jouanin
- Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Route de St-Cyr, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
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384
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Daras G, Rigas S, Penning B, Milioni D, McCann MC, Carpita NC, Fasseas C, Hatzopoulos P. The thanatos mutation in Arabidopsis thaliana cellulose synthase 3 (AtCesA3) has a dominant-negative effect on cellulose synthesis and plant growth. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2009; 184:114-126. [PMID: 19645738 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02960.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Genetic functional analyses of mutants in plant genes encoding cellulose synthases (CesAs) have suggested that cellulose deposition requires the activity of multiple CesA proteins. Here, a genetic screen has led to the identification of thanatos (than), a semi-dominant mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana with impaired growth of seedlings. Homozygous seedlings of than germinate and grow but do not survive. In contrast to other CesA mutants, heterozygous plants are dwarfed and display a radially swollen root phenotype. Cellulose content is reduced by approximately one-fifth in heterozygous and by two-fifths in homozygous plants, showing gene-dosage dependence. Map-based cloning revealed an amino acid substitution (P578S) in the catalytic domain of the AtCesA3 gene, indicating a critical role for this residue in the structure and function of the cellulose synthase complex. Ab initio analysis of the AtCesA3 subdomain flanking the conserved proline residue predicted that the amino acid substitution to serine alters protein secondary structure in the catalytic domain. Gene dosage-dependent expression of the AtCesA3 mutant gene in wild-type A. thaliana plants resulted in a than dominant-negative phenotype. We propose that the incorporation of a mis-folded CesA3 subunit into the cellulose synthase complex may stall or prevent the formation of functional rosette complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerasimos Daras
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, Athens 118 55, Greece
| | - Stamatis Rigas
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, Athens 118 55, Greece
| | - Bryan Penning
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Dimitra Milioni
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, Athens 118 55, Greece
| | - Maureen C McCann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Nicholas C Carpita
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Constantinos Fasseas
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, Athens 118 55, Greece
| | - Polydefkis Hatzopoulos
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, Athens 118 55, Greece
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385
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Bischoff V, Cookson SJ, Wu S, Scheible WR. Thaxtomin A affects CESA-complex density, expression of cell wall genes, cell wall composition, and causes ectopic lignification in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2009; 60:955-65. [PMID: 19269997 PMCID: PMC2652064 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2008] [Revised: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 12/05/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Thaxtomin A, a phytotoxin produced by Streptomyces eubacteria, is suspected to act as a natural cellulose synthesis inhibitor. This view is confirmed by the results obtained from new chemical, molecular, and microscopic analyses of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings treated with thaxtomin A. Cell wall analysis shows that thaxtomin A reduces crystalline cellulose, and increases pectins and hemicellulose in the cell wall. Treatment with thaxtomin A also changes the expression of genes involved in primary and secondary cellulose synthesis as well as genes associated with pectin metabolism and cell wall remodelling, in a manner nearly identical to isoxaben. In addition, it induces the expression of several defence-related genes and leads to callose deposition. Defects in cellulose synthesis cause ectopic lignification phenotypes in A. thaliana, and it is shown that lignification is also triggered by thaxtomin A, although in a pattern different from isoxaben. Spinning disc confocal microscopy further reveals that thaxtomin A depletes cellulose synthase complexes from the plasma membrane and results in the accumulation of these particles in a small microtubule-associated compartment. The results provide new and clear evidence for thaxtomin A having a strong impact on cellulose synthesis, thus suggesting that this is its primary mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Bischoff
- Max-Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Science Park Golm, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Sarah Jane Cookson
- Max-Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Science Park Golm, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Shuang Wu
- University of Massachusetts, Biology Department, 611 N. Pleasant Street, Amherst MA 01003, USA
| | - Wolf-Rüdiger Scheible
- Max-Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Science Park Golm, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- To whom correspondence should be addressed: E-mail:
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386
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Nielsen E. Plant Cell Wall Biogenesis During Tip Growth in Root Hair Cells. PLANT CELL MONOGRAPHS 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-79405-9_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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387
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McCurdy DW, Patrick JW, Offler CE. Wall ingrowth formation in transfer cells: novel examples of localized wall deposition in plant cells. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 11:653-61. [PMID: 18849189 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2008.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2008] [Revised: 08/15/2008] [Accepted: 08/25/2008] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The formation of wall ingrowths increases plasma membrane surface areas of transfer cells involved in membrane transport of nutrients in plants. Construction of these ingrowths provides intriguing and diverse examples of localized wall deposition. Flange wall ingrowths resemble secondary wall thickenings of tracheary elements in morphology and probable mechanisms of deposition. By contrast, reticulate wall ingrowths, deposited as discrete papillate projections, branch and fuse to create a fenestrated wall labyrinth representing a novel form of localized wall deposition. Papillate wall ingrowths are initiated as patches of disorganized cellulosic material and are compositionally similar to primary walls, except for a surrounding layer of callose and enhanced levels of arabinogalactan proteins at the ingrowth/membrane interface. How this unusual form of localized wall deposition is constructed is unknown but may involve constraining cellulose-synthesizing rosette complexes at their growing tips.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W McCurdy
- Plant Science Group, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle NSW 2308, Australia.
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388
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Lloyd C, Chan J. The parallel lives of microtubules and cellulose microfibrils. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 11:641-6. [PMID: 18977684 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2008.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2008] [Revised: 10/14/2008] [Accepted: 10/14/2008] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
A major breakthrough was the recent discovery that cellulose synthases really do move along the plasma membrane upon tracks provided by the underlying cortical microtubules. It emphasized the cytoplasmic contribution to cell wall organization. A growing number of microtubule-associated proteins has been identified and shown to affect the way that microtubules are ordered, with downstream effects on the pattern of growth. The dynamic properties of microtubules turn out to be key in understanding the behaviour of the global array and good progress has been made in deciphering the rules by which the array is self-organized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clive Lloyd
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK.
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389
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Geisler DA, Sampathkumar A, Mutwil M, Persson S. Laying down the bricks: logistic aspects of cell wall biosynthesis. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 11:647-52. [PMID: 18818118 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2008.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2008] [Revised: 08/08/2008] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell wall polysaccharides are synthesised at the plasma membrane and in the Golgi apparatus. Current research efforts mainly try to address how these molecules are synthesised or modified. However, it is clear that polysaccharide synthesis in the two compartments needs to be carried out in a coordinated fashion, and that carbohydrates and proteins that are delivered from the Golgi to the cell surface have to undergo a range of modifications. Consequently, there appears to be a need for a fine-tuned system that coalesces signals from the wall, synthesis of carbohydrate-based molecules and vesicle shuttling. Several recent papers have scratched the surface for an initial understanding of these linked processes. For example, the impairment of the proton pumping activity in the trans-Golgi network, which is part of the cell's trafficking system, results in growth defects, changes in Golgi stack morphology and cellulose deficiency. An increased understanding of how cell wall synthesis is coordinated with the secretory machinery may facilitate avenues for modulating cell wall contents and therefore overall plant biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela A Geisler
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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390
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Bernal AJ, Yoo CM, Mutwil M, Jensen JK, Hou G, Blaukopf C, Sørensen I, Blancaflor EB, Scheller HV, Willats WGT. Functional analysis of the cellulose synthase-like genes CSLD1, CSLD2, and CSLD4 in tip-growing Arabidopsis cells. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 148:1238-53. [PMID: 18768911 PMCID: PMC2577265 DOI: 10.1104/pp.108.121939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2008] [Accepted: 08/29/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
A reverse genetic approach was used to investigate the functions of three members of the cellulose synthase superfamily in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), CELLULOSE SYNTHASE-LIKE D1 (CSLD1), CSLD2, and CSLD4. CSLD2 is required for normal root hair growth but has a different role from that previously described for CSLD3 (KOJAK). CSLD2 is required during a later stage of hair development than CSLD3, and CSLD2 mutants produce root hairs with a range of abnormalities, with many root hairs rupturing late in development. Remarkably, though, it was often the case that in CSLD2 mutants, tip growth would resume after rupturing of root hairs. In silico, semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and promoter-reporter construct analyses indicated that the expression of both CSLD2 and CSLD3 is elevated at reduced temperatures, and the phenotypes of mutants homozygous for insertions in these genes were partially rescued by reduced temperature growth. However, this was not the case for a double mutant homozygous for insertions in both CSLD2 and CSLD3, suggesting that there may be partial redundancy in the functions of these genes. Mutants in CSLD1 and CSLD4 had a defect in male transmission, and plants heterozygous for insertions in CSLD1 or CSLD4 were defective in their ability to produce pollen tubes, although the number and morphology of pollen grains was normal. We propose that the CSLD family of putative glycosyltransferases synthesize a polysaccharide that has a specialized structural role in the cell walls of tip-growing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana J Bernal
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen Biocentre, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
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391
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Lindeboom J, Mulder BM, Vos JW, Ketelaar T, Emons AMC. Cellulose microfibril deposition: coordinated activity at the plant plasma membrane. J Microsc 2008; 231:192-200. [PMID: 18778417 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2818.2008.02035.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Plant cell wall production is a membrane-bound process. Cell walls are composed of cellulose microfibrils, embedded inside a matrix of other polysaccharides and glycoproteins. The cell wall matrix is extruded into the existing cell wall by exocytosis. This same process also inserts the cellulose synthase complexes into the plasma membrane. These complexes, the nanomachines that produce the cellulose microfibrils, move inside the plasma membrane leaving the cellulose microfibrils in their wake. Cellulose microfibril angle is an important determinant of cell development and of tissue properties and as such relevant for the industrial use of plant material. Here, we provide an integrated view of the events taking place in the not more than 100 nm deep area in and around the plasma membrane, correlating recent results provided by the distinct field of plant cell biology. We discuss the coordinated activities of exocytosis, endocytosis, and movement of cellulose synthase complexes while producing cellulose microfibrils and the link of these processes to the cortical microtubules.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lindeboom
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Arboretumlaan 4, 6703 BD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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392
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Paredez AR, Persson S, Ehrhardt DW, Somerville CR. Genetic evidence that cellulose synthase activity influences microtubule cortical array organization. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 147:1723-34. [PMID: 18583534 PMCID: PMC2492609 DOI: 10.1104/pp.108.120196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2008] [Accepted: 06/22/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
To identify factors that influence cytoskeletal organization we screened for Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) mutants that show hypersensitivity to the microtubule destabilizing drug oryzalin. We cloned the genes corresponding to two of the 131 mutant lines obtained. The genes encoded mutant alleles of PROCUSTE1 and KORRIGAN, which both encode proteins that have previously been implicated in cellulose synthesis. Analysis of microtubules in the mutants revealed that both mutants have altered orientation of root cortical microtubules. Similarly, isoxaben, an inhibitor of cellulose synthesis, also altered the orientation of cortical microtubules while exogenous cellulose degradation did not. Thus, our results substantiate that proteins involved in cell wall biosynthesis influence cytoskeletal organization and indicate that this influence on cortical microtubule stability and orientation is correlated with cellulose synthesis rather than the integrity of the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander R Paredez
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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393
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil G Taylor
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK (tel +44 1904 328756; fax +44 1904 328762; email )
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394
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Mutwil M, Obro J, Willats WGT, Persson S. GeneCAT--novel webtools that combine BLAST and co-expression analyses. Nucleic Acids Res 2008; 36:W320-6. [PMID: 18480120 PMCID: PMC2447783 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkn292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The gene co-expression analysis toolbox (GeneCAT) introduces several novel microarray data analyzing tools. First, the multigene co-expression analysis, combined with co-expressed gene networks, provides a more powerful data mining technique than standard, single-gene co-expression analysis. Second, the high-throughput Map-O-Matic tool matches co-expression pattern of multiple query genes to genes present in user-defined subdatabases, and can therefore be used for gene mapping in forward genetic screens. Third, Rosetta combines co-expression analysis with BLAST and can be used to find 'true' gene orthologs in the plant model organisms Arabidopsis thaliana and Hordeum vulgare (Barley). GeneCAT is equipped with expression data for the model plant A. thaliana, and first to introduce co-expression mining tools for the monocot Barley. GeneCAT is available at http://genecat.mpg.de.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Mutwil
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes vej 5, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
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395
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Pauly M, Keegstra K. Cell-wall carbohydrates and their modification as a resource for biofuels. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 54:559-68. [PMID: 18476863 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2008.03463.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 437] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls represent the most abundant renewable resource on this planet. Despite their great abundance, only 2% of this resource is currently used by humans. Hence, research into the feasibility of using plant cell walls in the production of cost-effective biofuels is desirable. The main bottleneck for using wall materials is the recalcitrance of walls to efficient degradation into fermentable sugars. Manipulation of the wall polysaccharide biosynthetic machinery or addition of wall structure-altering agents should make it possible to tailor wall composition and architecture to enhance sugar yields upon wall digestion for biofuel fermentation. Study of the biosynthetic machinery and its regulation is still in its infancy and represents a major scientific and technical research challenge. Of course, any change in wall structure to accommodate cost-efficient biofuel production may have detrimental effects on plant growth and development due to the diverse roles of walls in the life of a plant. However, the diversity and abundance of wall structures present in the plant kingdom gives hope that this challenge can be met.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Pauly
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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396
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Dumas B, Bottin A, Gaulin E, Esquerré-Tugayé MT. Cellulose-binding domains: cellulose associated-defensive sensing partners? TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2008; 13:160-164. [PMID: 18329320 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2008.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2007] [Revised: 02/01/2008] [Accepted: 02/04/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The cellulose-binding domains (CBDs) in the Phytophthora cellulose-binding elicitor lectin (CBEL) are potent elicitors of plant defence responses. Induction of defence has also been reported in various cellulose-deficient mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana. Based on these observations, we propose a model linking cellulose alteration to defence induction. This integrates the fast increase in cytosolic calcium recorded in response to CBEL, mechano-stimulated calcium uptake mechanisms, and proteins that interact functionally with the cellulose synthase complex. In this context, CBDs emerge as new tools to decipher the signalling cascades that result from cell wall-cellulose perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Dumas
- Unité Mixte de Recherche 5546 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, Pôle de Biotechnologie Végétale, 24 Chemin de Borde-Rouge, BP42617 Auzeville, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
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397
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Abstract
The plant cell wall is central to plant development. Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls, and is the world's most abundant biopolymer. Cellulose contains apparently simple linear chains of glucose residues, but these chains aggregate to form immensely strong microfibrils. It is the physical properties of these microfibrils that, when laid down in an organized manner, are responsible for both oriented cell elongation during plant growth and the strength required to maintain an upright growth habit. Despite the importance of cellulose, only recently have we started to unravel details of its synthesis. Mutational analysis has allowed us to identify some of the proteins involved in its synthesis at the plasma membrane, and to define a set of cellulose synthase enzymes essential for cellulose synthesis. These proteins are organized into a very large plasma membrane-localized protein complex. The way in which this protein complex is regulated and directed is central in depositing cellulose microfibrils in the wall in the correct orientation, which is essential for directional cell growth. Recent developments have given us clues as to how cellulose synthesis and deposition is regulated, an understanding of which is essential if we are to manipulate cell wall composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil G Taylor
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
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398
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Wang J, Elliott JE, Williamson RE. Features of the primary wall CESA complex in wild type and cellulose-deficient mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2008; 59:2627-37. [PMID: 18495638 PMCID: PMC2486462 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Evidence from genetics, co-precipitation and bimolecular fluorescence complementation suggest that three CESAs implicated in making primary wall cellulose in Arabidopsis thaliana form a complex. This study shows the complex has a M(r) of approximately 840 kDa in detergent extracts and that it has undergone distinctive changes when extracts are prepared from some cellulose-deficient mutants. The mobility of CESAs 1, 3, and 6 in a Triton-soluble microsomal fraction subject to blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was consistent with a M(r) of about 840 kDa. An antibody specific to any one CESA pulled down all three CESAs consistent with their occupying the same 840 kDa complex. In rsw1, a CESA1 missense mutant, extracts of seedlings grown at the permissive temperature have an apparently normal CESA complex that was missing from extracts of seedlings grown at the restrictive temperature where CESAs precipitated independently. In prc1-19, with no CESA6, CESAs 1 and 3 were part of a 420 kDa complex in extracts of light-grown seedlings that was absent from extracts of dark-grown seedlings where the CESAs precipitated independently. Two CESA3 missense mutants retained apparently normal CESA complexes as did four cellulose-deficient mutants defective in proteins other than CESAs. The 840 kDa complex could contain six CESA subunits and, since loss of plasma membrane rosettes accompanies its loss in rsw1, the complex could form one of the six particles which electron microscopy reveals in rosettes.
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399
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Creux NM, Ranik M, Berger DK, Myburg AA. Comparative analysis of orthologous cellulose synthase promoters from Arabidopsis, Populus and Eucalyptus: evidence of conserved regulatory elements in angiosperms. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2008; 179:722-737. [PMID: 18547376 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02517.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
* The cellulose synthase (CesA) gene family encodes the catalytic subunits of a large protein complex responsible for the deposition of cellulose into plant cell walls. Early in vascular plant evolution, the gene family diverged into distinct members with conserved structures and functions (e.g. primary or secondary cell wall biosynthesis). Although the functions and expression domains of CesA genes have been extensively studied in plants, little is known about transcriptional regulation and promoter evolution in this gene family. * Here, comparative sequence analysis of orthologous CesA promoters from three angiosperm genera, Arabidopsis, Populus and Eucalyptus, was performed to identify putative cis-regulatory sequences. The promoter sequences of groups of Arabidopsis genes that are co-expressed with the primary or secondary cell wall-related CesA genes were also analyzed. * Reporter gene analysis of newly isolated promoter regions of six E. grandis CesA genes in Arabidopsis revealed the conserved functionality of the promoter sequences. Comparative sequence analysis identified 71 conserved sequence motifs, of which 66 were significantly over-represented in either primary or secondary wall-associated promoters. * The presence of conserved cis-regulatory elements in the evolutionary distant CesA promoters of Arabidopsis, Populus and Eucalyptus suggests an ancient transcriptional network regulating cellulose biosynthesis in vascular plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David Kenneth Berger
- Department of Plant Science, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
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400
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Persson S, Paredez A, Carroll A, Palsdottir H, Doblin M, Poindexter P, Khitrov N, Auer M, Somerville CR. Genetic evidence for three unique components in primary cell-wall cellulose synthase complexes in Arabidopsis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:15566-71. [PMID: 17878302 PMCID: PMC2000526 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0706592104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 390] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In higher plants, cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane by the cellulose synthase (CESA) complex. The catalytic core of the complex is believed to be composed of three types of CESA subunits. Indirect evidence suggests that the complex associated with primary wall cellulose deposition consists of CESA1, -3, and -6 in Arabidopsis thaliana. However, phenotypes associated with mutations in two of these genes, CESA1 and -6, suggest unequal contribution by the different CESAs to overall enzymatic activity of the complex. We present evidence that the primary complex requires three unique types of components, CESA1-, CESA3-, and CESA6-related, for activity. Removal of any of these components results in gametophytic lethality due to pollen defects, demonstrating that primary-wall cellulose synthesis is necessary for pollen development. We also show that the CESA6-related CESAs are partially functionally redundant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Staffan Persson
- *Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Alexander Paredez
- *Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Andrew Carroll
- *Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305; and
| | - Hildur Palsdottir
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Monika Doblin
- Cereal Functional Genomics Centre, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | | | - Natalie Khitrov
- *Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Manfred Auer
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Chris R. Somerville
- *Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305; and
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