Phenotyping xylem connections in grafted plants using X-ray micro-computed tomography

Plants are able to naturally graft or inosculate their trunks, branches and roots together, this mechanism is used by humans to graft together different genotypes for a range of purposes. Grafts are considered successful if functional vascular connections between the two genotypes occur. Various techniques can evaluate xylem connections across the graft interface. However, these methods are generally unable to assess the heterogeneity and three-dimensional (3D) structure of xylem vessel connections. Here we present the use of X-ray micro-computed tomography to characterize the 3D morphology of grafts of grapevine. We show that xylem vessels form between the two plants of natural root and human-made stem grafts. The main novelty of this methodology is that we were able to visualize the 3D network of functional xylem vessels connecting the scion and rootstock in human-made stem grafts thanks to the addition of a contrast agent to the roots and improved image analysis pipelines. In addition, we reveal the presence of extensive diagonal xylem connections between the main axial xylem vessels in 2-year old grapevine stems. In conclusion, we present a method that has the potential to provide new insights into the structure and function of xylem vessels in large tissue samples.

Grafting in plants: recent discoveries and new applications

Grafting is a traditional horticultural technique that makes use of plant wound healing mechanisms to join two different genotypes together to form one plant. In many agricultural systems, grafting with rootstocks controls the vigour of the scion and/or provides tolerance to deleterious soil conditions such as the presence of soil pests or pathogens or limited or excessive water or mineral nutrient supply. Much of our knowledge about the limits to grafting different genotypes together comes from empirical knowledge of horticulturalists. Until recently, researchers believed that grafting monocotyledonous plants was impossible, because they lack a vascular cambium, and that graft compatibility between different scion/rootstock combinations was restricted to closely related genotypes. Recent studies have overturned these ideas and open up the possibility of new research directions and applications for grafting in agriculture. The objective of this review is to describe and assess these recent advances in the field of grafting and, in particular, the molecular mechanisms underlining graft union formation and graft compatibility between different genotypes. The challenges of characterizing the different stages of graft union formation and phenotyping graft compatibility are examined.

A correlative light electron microscopy approach reveals plasmodesmata ultrastructure at the graft interface

Despite recent progress in our understanding of graft union formation, we still know little about the cellular events underlying the grafting process. This is partially due to the difficulty of reliably targeting the graft interface in electron microscopy to study its ultrastructure and three-dimensional architecture. To overcome this technological bottleneck, we developed a correlative light electron microscopy (CLEM) approach to study the graft interface with high ultrastructural resolution. Grafting hypocotyls of Arabidopsis thaliana lines expressing yellow FP or monomeric red FP in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) allowed efficient targeting of the grafting interface for examination under light and electron microscopy. To explore the potential of our method to study sub-cellular events at the graft interface, we focused on the formation of secondary plasmodesmata (PD) between the grafted partners. We showed that four classes of PD were formed at the interface and that PD introgression into the cell wall was initiated equally by both partners. Moreover, the success of PD formation appeared not systematic with a third of PD not spanning the cell wall entirely. Characterizing the ultrastructural characteristics of these incomplete PD gives us insights into the process of secondary PD biogenesis. We found that the establishment of successful symplastic connections between the scion and rootstock occurred predominantly in the presence of thin cell walls and ER-plasma membrane tethering. The resolution reached in this work shows that our CLEM method advances the study of biological processes requiring the combination of light and electron microscopy.

Small RNA populations reflect the complex dialogue established between heterograft partners in grapevine

Grafting is an ancient method that has been intensively used for the clonal propagation of vegetables and woody trees. Despite its importance in agriculture the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying phenotypic changes of plants following grafting are still poorly understood. In the present study, we analyse the populations of small RNAs in homo and heterografts and take advantage of the sequence differences in the genomes of heterograft partners to analyse the possible exchange of small RNAs. We demonstrate that the type of grafting per se dramatically influences the small RNA populations independently of genotypes but also show genotype specific effects. In addition, we demonstrate that bilateral exchanges of small RNAs, mainly short interfering RNAs, may occur in heterograft with the preferential transfer of small RNAs from the scion to the rootstock. Altogether, the results suggest that small RNAs may have an important role in the phenotype modifications observed in heterografts.

Identifying early metabolite markers of successful graft union formation in grapevine

Grafting is an important horticultural technique used for many crop species. However, some scion/rootstock combinations are considered as incompatible due to poor graft union formation and subsequently high plant mortality. The early identification of graft incompatibility could allow the selection of non-viable plants before planting and would have a beneficial impact on research and development in the nursery sector. In general, visible phenotypes of grafted plants (size, root number, etc.) are poorly correlated with grafting success, but some studies have suggested that some polyphenols could be used as markers of graft incompatibility several months or years after grafting. However, much of the previous studies into metabolite markers of grafting success have not included all the controls necessary to unequivocally validate the markers proposed. In this study, we quantified 73 primary and secondary metabolites in nine hetero-grafts and six homo-grafted controls 33 days after grafting at the graft interface and in both the scion and rootstock woody tissues. Certain biomarker metabolites typical of a high stress status (such as proline, GABA and pallidol) were particularly accumulated at the graft interface of the incompatible scion/rootstock combination. We then used correlation analysis and generalized linear models to identify potential metabolite markers of grafting success measured one year after grafting. Here we present the first attempt to quantitatively predict graft compatibility and identify marker metabolites (especially asparagine, trans-resveratrol, trans-piceatannol and α-viniferin) 33 days after grafting, which was found to be particularly informative for homo-graft combinations.

Polyphenol Profiles of Just Pruned Grapevine Canes from Wild Vitis Accessions and Vitis vinifera Cultivars

Grapevine canes are an abundant byproduct of the wine industry. The stilbene contents of Vitis vinifera cultivars have been largely studied, but little is known about the stilbene contents of wild Vitis accessions. Moreover, there have only been few studies on the quantification of other phenolic compounds in just pruned grapevine canes. In our study, we investigated the polyphenol profile of 51 genotypes belonging to 15 Vitis spp. A total of 36 polyphenols (20 stilbenes, 6 flavanols, 7 flavonols, and 3 phenolic acids) were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Our results suggest that some wild Vitis accessions could be of interest in terms of the concentration of bioactive polyphenols and that flavanols contribute significantly to the antioxidant activity of grapevine cane extracts. To the best of our knowledge, this is the most exhaustive study of the polyphenolic composition of grapevine canes of wild Vitis spp.

Identifying Molecular Markers of Successful Graft Union Formation and Compatibility

Grafting is a technique used for millennia for vegetative propagation, especially in perennial fruit crops. This method, used on woody and herbaceous plants, can improve several agronomic characteristics, such as yield or vigor, as well as tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, some scion/rootstock combinations suffer from poor graft compatibility, i.e., they are unable to form and/or sustain a successful graft union. Identifying symptoms of graft incompatibility is difficult because they are not always present in the first years after grafting and in most cases the causes of incompatibility are still poorly understood. Studies of changes in transcript abundance during graft union formation indicate that grafting responses are similar to responses to wounding and include the differential expression of genes related to hormone signaling, oxidative stress, formation of new vascular vessels, cell development, and secondary metabolites, in particular polyphenols. This review summarizes current knowledge of the changes in transcript abundance, redox status and metabolites accumulation during graft union formation and in cases of graft incompatibility. The goal of this review is to discuss the possibility of identifying marker transcripts, enzyme activities and/or metabolites of grafting success and graft compatibility which could be used to score grafting success for genetic research and in breeding programs. We highlight gaps in current knowledge and potential research directions in this field.

Metabolite profiling during graft union formation reveals the reprogramming of primary metabolism and the induction of stilbene synthesis at the graft interface in grapevine

BACKGROUND

Grafting with rootstocks is essential for the culture of many perennial fruit crops and is increasing being used in the production of annual fruits and vegetables. Our previous work based on microarrays showed that transcripts encoding enzymes of both primary and secondary metabolism were differentially expressed during graft union formation in both homo-grafts (a genotype grafted with itself) and hetero-grafts (two different genotypes grafted together). The aim of this study was to profile primary and secondary metabolites, and quantify the activity of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) and neutral invertase (NI) in the scion and rootstock tissues and the graft interface of homo and hetero-grafts of grapevine 1 month after grafting. Table-top grafting was done on over-wintering stems (canes) of grapevine and the graft interface tissues (containing some woody stem tissues and callus) were compared to the surrounding rootstock and scion tissues. The objective was to identify compounds involved in graft union formation and hetero-grafting responses.

RESULTS

A total of 54 compounds from primary and secondary metabolism (19 amino acids, five primary and 30 secondary compounds metabolites) and the activity of two enzymes were measured. The graft interface was associated with an increase in the accumulation of the branched-chain amino acids, basic amino acids, certain stilbene compounds and higher PAL and NI activity in comparison to the surrounding woody stem tissues. Some amino acids and stilbenes were identified as being accumulated differently between the graft interfaces of the scion/rootstock combinations in a manner which was unrelated to their concentrations in the surrounding woody stem tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the modification of primary metabolism to support callus cell formation and the stimulation of stilbene synthesis at the graft interface, and how these processes are modified by hetero-grafting. Knowledge of the metabolites and/or enzymes required for successful graft union formation offer us the potential to identify markers that could be used by nurseries and researchers for selection and breeding purposes.

Potential contribution of strigolactones in regulating scion growth and branching in grafted grapevine in response to nitrogen availability

In grafted plants, rootstocks assure the mineral nutrition of the scion and modify its development. In this study, we show that two grapevine rootstock genotypes have different shoot branching architectures when cultivated as cuttings and that this trait is transmitted to the scion when grafted. Shoot branching plasticity in response to nitrogen supply was also studied. As strigolactones are known to have a role in the regulation of shoot development in response to nutrient availability, their involvement in the control of scion architecture by the rootstock was investigated. Functional characterization of putative grapevine strigolactone biosynthetic genes in Arabidopsis mutants or grapevine cell suspensions showed similar functions to those of Arabidopsis. Both rootstocks produced strigolactone-like compounds; the quantity produced in response to nitrogen treatments differed between the two rootstock genotypes and correlated with the expression of putative strigolactone biosynthetic genes. Exudation of strigolactone-like compounds by both rootstocks was closely related to the developmental pattern of the scion in grafted plants. These results suggest that differential regulation of strigolactone biosynthesis in response to nitrogen availability may contribute to the control of scion development conferred by each rootstock genotype.

Root transcriptomic responses of grafted grapevines to heterogeneous nitrogen availability depend on rootstock genotype

In many fruit species, including grapevine, grafting is used to improve scion productivity and quality and to adapt the plant to environmental conditions. However, the mechanisms underlying the rootstock control of scion development are still poorly understood. The ability of rootstocks to regulate nitrogen uptake and assimilation may contribute to this control. A split-root system was used to grow heterografted grapevines and to investigate the molecular responses to changes in nitrate availability of two rootstocks known to affect scion growth differently. Transcriptome profiling by RNA sequencing was performed on root samples collected 3 and 24 h after nitrogen supply. The results demonstrated a common response involving nitrogen-related genes, as well as a more pronounced transcriptomic reprogramming in the genotype conferring the lower scion growth. A weighted gene co-expression network analysis allowed the identification of co-regulated gene modules, suggesting a role for nitrate transporter 2 family genes and some transcription factors as main actors controlling this genotype-dependent response to heterogeneous nitrogen supply. The relationship between nitrate, ethylene, and strigolactone hormonal pathways was found to differ between the two genotypes. These findings indicated that the genotypes responded differently to heterogeneous nitrogen availability, and this may contribute to their contrasting effect on scion growth.

Temporal kinetics of the transcriptional response to carbon depletion and sucrose readdition in Arabidopsis seedlings

To investigate whether the transcriptional response to carbon (C) depletion and sucrose resupply depends on the duration and severity of the C depletion, Arabidopsis seedlings were grown in liquid culture and harvested 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h after removing sucrose from the medium and 30 min after resupplying sucrose at each time. Expression profiling revealed early transcriptional inhibition of cell wall synthesis and remodelling of signalling, followed by induction of C recycling and photosynthesis and general inhibition of growth. The temporal sequence differed from the published response to progressive exhaustion of C during a night and extended night in vegetatively growing plants. The response to sucrose readdition was conserved across the C-depletion time course. Intriguingly, the vast majority of rapidly responding transcripts decreased rather than increased. The majority of transcripts that respond rapidly to sucrose and many transcripts that respond during C depletion also decrease after treating seedlings with the transcriptional inhibitor cordycepin A. Comparison with published responses to overexpression of otsA, AKIN10 and bZIP11 revealed that many genes that respond to C depletion, and especially sucrose resupply, respond to one or more of these C-signalling components. Thus, multiple factors contribute to C responsiveness, including many signalling components, transcriptional regulation and transcript turnover.

Heterografting with nonself rootstocks induces genes involved in stress responses at the graft interface when compared with autografted controls

Although grafting is widely used in the agriculture of fruit-bearing crops, little is known about graft union formation in particular when two different species are grafted together. It is fascinating that two different plant species brought together can develop harmoniously as one organism for many decades. The objective of this study was to determine whether grafting two different grapevine genotypes alters gene expression at the graft interface in comparison to the presumably wound-like gene expression changes induced in autografts. Gene expression at the graft interface was studied 3, 7, 14, and 28 d after grafting in hetero- and autografts of grapevine (Vitis spp.). Genes differentially expressed between the hetero- and autografts during graft union formation were identified. These genes were clustered according to their expression profile over the time course. MapMan and Gene Ontology enrichment analysis revealed the coordinated upregulation of genes from numerous functional categories related to stress responses in the hetero- compared to the autografts. This indicates that heterografting with nonself rootstocks upregulates stress responses at the graft interface, potentially suggesting that the cells of the graft interface can detect the presence of a nonself grafting partner.

Developments at the graft interface in homo- and hetero-grafts: Gene expression and histological changes during the first month after grafting

Gene expression changes induced during graft union formation (the first month after grafting) in grapevine have been studied using whole genome microarrays. The genes differentially expressed between the rootstock and graft interface tissues of homo-grafts (Cabernet Sauvignon (CS) grafted onto CS) were compared at 3 and 28 days after grafting (dag). Graft union formation was associated with the upregulation of genes involved in secondary metabolism, cell wall, wound responses and hormone signaling. These gene expression differences were associated with the accumulation of lignin, cellulose and callose in the callus cells. Superimposed upon this, hetero-grafting between two different grapevine genotypes resulted in the further upregulation of stress and/or defense responses at the graft interface. Here we discuss the limitations of the techniques used to study the developments at the graft interface to date and future research directions to understand graft union formation in plants.

Developments at the graft interface in homo- and hetero-grafts: Gene expression and histological changes during the first month after grafting

Gene expression changes induced during graft union formation (the first month after grafting) in grapevine have been studied using whole genome microarrays. The genes differentially expressed between the rootstock and graft interface tissues of homo-grafts (Cabernet Sauvignon (CS) grafted onto CS) were compared at 3 and 28 days after grafting (dag). Graft union formation was associated with the upregulation of genes involved in secondary metabolism, cell wall, wound responses and hormone signaling. These gene expression differences were associated with the accumulation of lignin, cellulose and callose in the callus cells. Superimposed upon this, hetero-grafting between two different grapevine genotypes resulted in the further upregulation of stress and/or defense responses at the graft interface. Here we discuss the limitations of the techniques used to study the developments at the graft interface to date and future research directions to understand graft union formation in plants.

Grafting with rootstocks induces extensive transcriptional re-programming in the shoot apical meristem of grapevine

BACKGROUND

Grafting is widely used in the agriculture of fruit-bearing crops; rootstocks are known to confer differences in scion biomass in addition to improving other traits of agricultural interest. However, little is known about the effect of rootstocks on scion gene expression. The objective of this study was to determine whether hetero-grafting the grapevine variety Vitis vinifera cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon N' with two different rootstocks alters gene expression in the shoot apex in comparison to the auto-grafted control. Cabernet Sauvignon was hetero-grafted with two commercial rootstock genotypes and auto-grafted with itself. Vigor was quantified by measurements of root, stem, leaf and trunk biomass. Gene expression profiling was done using a whole genome grapevine microarray; four pools of five shoot apex samples were harvested 4 months after grafting for each scion/rootstock combination.

RESULTS

The rootstocks increased stem biomass or conferred increased vigor by the end of the first growth cycle. Globally hetero-grafting two different genotypes together triggered an increase in shoot apex gene expression; however no genes were differentially expressed between the two hetero-grafts. The functional categories related to DNA, chromatin structure, histones, flavonoids and leucine rich repeat containing receptor kinases were the most enriched in the up-regulated genes in the shoot apex of hetero-grafted plants.

CONCLUSIONS

The choice of rootstock genotype had little effect on the gene expression in the shoot apex; this could suggest that auto- and hetero-grafting was the major factor regulating gene expression.

Graft union formation in grapevine induces transcriptional changes related to cell wall modification, wounding, hormone signalling, and secondary metabolism

Grafting is particularly important to the cultivation of perennial crops such as grapevine (Vitis vinifera) because rootstocks can provide resistance to soil-borne pests and diseases as well as improve tolerance to some abiotic stresses. Successful grafting is a complex biochemical and structural process beginning with the adhesion of the two grafted partners, followed by callus formation and the establishment of a functional vascular system. At the molecular level, the sequence of events underlying graft union formation remains largely uncharacterized. The present study investigates the transcriptome of grapevine rootstock and graft interface tissues sampled 3 d and 28 d after grafting of over-wintering stems in the spring. Many genes were differentially expressed over time, from 3 d to 28 d after grafting, which could be related to the activation of stem growth and metabolic activity in the spring. This hypothesis is supported by the up-regulation of many genes associated with cell wall synthesis, and phloem and xylem development. Generally, there was an up-regulation of gene expression in the graft interface tissue compared with the rootstock, particularly genes involved in cell wall synthesis, secondary metabolism, and signalling. Although there was overlap between the genes differentially expressed over time (from 3 d to 28 d after grafting) with the gene differentially expressed between the rootstock and the graft interface, numerous graft interface-specific genes were identified.

Grapevine rootstock effects on scion biomass are not associated with large modifications of primary shoot growth under nonlimiting conditions in the first year of growth

In grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.), rootstocks are known to alter scion development by modifying stem weight and yield. The aim of this work was to evaluate the contribution of primary growth to the rootstock effects on scion biomass. The shoot growth of Vitis vinifera cv. Cabernet Sauvignon N autografted and grafted onto Vitis riparia cv. Riparia Gloire de Montpellier and Vitis berlandieri×V. rupestris cv. 1103 Paulsen was studied in young plants grown in pots trained to one stem in two experiments. Stem elongation and phytomer emergence were studied from grafting until the end of the growth season. The elongation of the Cabernet Sauvignon N leaves, tendrils and internodes of each phytomer along the stem was fitted using sigmoid curves. The rootstocks studied slightly altered the growth dynamics of the leaves, internodes and tendrils of the scion. This is the first study to examine the effect of rootstocks on shoot growth dynamics in any species. The alterations in primary growth were small, suggesting that rootstocks may alter scion biomass principally by modifying secondary growth.

Thaxtomin A affects CESA-complex density, expression of cell wall genes, cell wall composition, and causes ectopic lignification in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings

Thaxtomin A, a phytotoxin produced by Streptomyces eubacteria, is suspected to act as a natural cellulose synthesis inhibitor. This view is confirmed by the results obtained from new chemical, molecular, and microscopic analyses of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings treated with thaxtomin A. Cell wall analysis shows that thaxtomin A reduces crystalline cellulose, and increases pectins and hemicellulose in the cell wall. Treatment with thaxtomin A also changes the expression of genes involved in primary and secondary cellulose synthesis as well as genes associated with pectin metabolism and cell wall remodelling, in a manner nearly identical to isoxaben. In addition, it induces the expression of several defence-related genes and leads to callose deposition. Defects in cellulose synthesis cause ectopic lignification phenotypes in A. thaliana, and it is shown that lignification is also triggered by thaxtomin A, although in a pattern different from isoxaben. Spinning disc confocal microscopy further reveals that thaxtomin A depletes cellulose synthase complexes from the plasma membrane and results in the accumulation of these particles in a small microtubule-associated compartment. The results provide new and clear evidence for thaxtomin A having a strong impact on cellulose synthesis, thus suggesting that this is its primary mode of action.

Day length affects the dynamics of leaf expansion and cellular development in Arabidopsis thaliana partially through floral transition timing

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Plant aerial development is well known to be affected by day length in terms of the timing and developmental stage of floral transition. Arabidopsis thaliana is a 'long day' plant in which the time to flower is delayed by short days and leaf number is increased. The aim of the work presented here was to determine the effects of different day lengths on individual leaf area expansion. The effect of flower emergence per se on the regulation of leaf expansion was also tested in this study.

METHODS

Care was taken to ensure that day length was the only source of micro-meteorological variation. The dynamics of individual leaf expansion were analysed in Ler and Col-0 plants grown under five day lengths in five independent experiments. Responses at cellular level were analysed in Ler plants grown under various day lengths and treatments to alter the onset of flowering.

KEY RESULTS

When the same leaf position was compared, the final leaf area and both the relative and absolute rates of leaf expansion were decreased by short days, whereas the duration of leaf expansion was increased. Epidermal cell number and cell area were also altered by day-length treatments and some of these responses could be mimicked by manipulating the date of flowering.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the dynamics and cellular bases of leaf development are altered by differences in day length even when visible phenotypes are absent. To some extent, cell area and its response to day length are controlled by whole plant control mechanisms associated with the onset of flowering.

Plasticity to soil water deficit in Arabidopsis thaliana: dissection of leaf development into underlying growth dynamic and cellular variables reveals invisible phenotypes

Genetic variability in the plasticity of leaf area expansion in response to water deficit has been reported in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, the objective was to identify the underlying dynamic and cellular processes involved in this variability. Twenty-five accessions were subjected to identical soil water deficit treatments. In all accessions, the plasticity of leaf production was low compared with that of individual leaf expansion. A subset of accessions was selected for further dissection of individual leaf expansion into its underlying variables: the rate and duration of leaf expansion and epidermal cell number and area. In all accessions, water deficit had opposite effects on the rate and duration of leaf expansion. The accumulation of these effects was reflected in changes in final leaf area. At the cellular level, moderate water deficits had opposite effects on cell number and cell size, but more severe ones reduced both variables. The importance of these opposing effects is highlighted by the behaviour of the accession An-1, for which the compensation between the decrease in leaf expansion rate and the increase in the duration of expansion is total. This dynamic plasticity in response to water deficit is not detectable when only final measurements are done.

Cell and leaf size plasticity in Arabidopsis: what is the role of endoreduplication?

Leaf area expansion is affected by environmental conditions because of differences in cell number and/or cell size. Increases in the DNA content (ploidy) of a cell by endoreduplication are related to its size. The aim of this work was to determine how cell ploidy interacts with the regulation of cell size and with leaf area expansion. The approach used was to grow Arabidopsis thaliana plants performing increased or decreased rounds of endoreduplication under shading and water deficit. The shading and water deficit treatments reduced final leaf area and cell number; however, cell area was increased and decreased, respectively. These differences in cell size were unrelated to alterations of the endocycle, which was reduced by these treatments. The genetic modification of the extent of endoreduplication altered leaf growth responses to shading and water deficit. An increase in the extent of endoreduplication in a leaf rendered it more sensitive to the shade treatment but less sensitive to water deficit conditions. The link between the control of whole organ and individual cell expansion under different environmental conditions was demonstrated by the correlation between the plasticity of cell size and the changes in the duration of leaf expansion.

PHENOPSIS, an automated platform for reproducible phenotyping of plant responses to soil water deficit in Arabidopsis thaliana permitted the identification of an accession with low sensitivity to soil water deficit

The high-throughput phenotypic analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana collections requires methodological progress and automation. Methods to impose stable and reproducible soil water deficits are presented and were used to analyse plant responses to water stress. Several potential complications and methodological difficulties were identified, including the spatial and temporal variability of micrometeorological conditions within a growth chamber, the difference in soil water depletion rates between accessions and the differences in developmental stage of accessions the same time after sowing. Solutions were found. Nine accessions were grown in four experiments in a rigorously controlled growth-chamber equipped with an automated system to control soil water content and take pictures of individual plants. One accession, An1, was unaffected by water deficit in terms of leaf number, leaf area, root growth and transpiration rate per unit leaf area. Methods developed here will help identify quantitative trait loci and genes involved in plant tolerance to water deficit.

The use of microelectrodes to investigate compartmentation and the transport of metabolized inorganic ions in plants

Microelectrode measurements can be used to investigate both the intracellular pools of ions and membrane transport processes of single living cells. Microelectrodes can report these processes in the surface layers of root and leaf cells of intact plants. By careful manipulation of the plant, a minimum of disruption is produced and therefore the information obtained from these measurements most probably represents the 'in vivo' situation. Microelectrodes can be used to assay for the activity of particular transport systems in the plasma membrane of cells. Compartmental concentrations of inorganic metabolite ions have been measured by several different methods and the results obtained for the cytosol are compared. Ion-selective microelectrodes have been used to measure the activities of ions in the apoplast, cytosol and vacuole of single cells. New sensors for these microelectrodes are being produced which offer lower detection limits and the opportunity to measure other previously unmeasured ions. Measurements can be used to determine the intracellular steady-state activities or report the response of cells to environmental changes.