351
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Stachowiak AN, Wang Y, Huang YC, Irvine DJ. Homeostatic Lymphoid Chemokines Synergize with Adhesion Ligands to Trigger T and B Lymphocyte Chemokinesis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:2340-8. [PMID: 16887995 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.4.2340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Homeostatic chemokines such as CCL19, CCL21, and CXCL13 are known to elicit chemotaxis from naive T and B cells and play a critical role in lymphocyte homing to appropriate zones within secondary lymphoid organs (SLO). Here we tested whether CCL21 and CXCL13 modulate murine lymphocyte motility in the absence of concentration gradients, using videomicroscopy to directly observe the migration of single cells. CCL21 treatment of T cells induced rapid polarization and sustained random migration with average speeds of 5.16 +/- 2.08 microm/min; B cell migration (average velocity 4.10 +/- 1.58 microm/min) was similarly induced by CXCL13. Migration required the presence of both chemokine and adhesion ligands and was sustained for >24 h. Furthermore, in in vitro assays modeling the relative infrequency of Ag-specific T cell-dendritic cell (DC) encounters during primary immune responses, we found that CCL21 addition to T-DC cocultures accelerated the kinetics of CD69 up-regulation and enhanced by 2-fold the proliferation of Ag-specific T cells in a manner dependent on G-protein-coupled receptor signaling in T cells. These results suggest that homeostatic chemokines could substantially impact the dynamics and priming of lymphocytes within SLO even in the absence of significant concentration gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka N Stachowiak
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, MA 02139, USA
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352
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Bagaeva LV, Rao P, Powers JM, Segal BM. CXC chemokine ligand 13 plays a role in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:7676-85. [PMID: 16751415 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.12.7676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a Tcell-mediated autoimmune disease of the CNS that is widely used as an animal model of multiple sclerosis. In this study, we investigate the role of CXCL13, a chemokine involved in the development and organization of secondary lymphoid tissues, in the pathogenesis of EAE. We detected CXCL13 mRNA and protein in spinal cords of mice with EAE. CXCL13-deficient mice exhibited a mild, self-limited form of disease. CXCL13 appeared to be important for the establishment of chronic white matter lesions. Furthermore, adoptive transfer experiments with CXCL13-deficient hosts indicate that the chemokine plays a distinct role during the effector phase. Our findings raise the possibility that reagents that antagonize or inhibit CXCL13 might be useful for the treatment of neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis.
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MESH Headings
- Acute Disease
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Cell Movement/genetics
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokine CXCL13
- Chemokines, CXC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CXC/deficiency
- Chemokines, CXC/genetics
- Chemokines, CXC/physiology
- Down-Regulation/genetics
- Down-Regulation/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/prevention & control
- Glycoproteins/administration & dosage
- Glycoproteins/immunology
- Immunity, Active
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/pathology
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein
- Peptide Fragments/administration & dosage
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, CXCR5
- Receptors, Chemokine
- Receptors, Cytokine/biosynthesis
- Recurrence
- Spinal Cord/immunology
- Spinal Cord/metabolism
- Spinal Cord/pathology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmila V Bagaeva
- Department of Neurology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, NY 14642, USA
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353
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Drayton DL, Liao S, Mounzer RH, Ruddle NH. Lymphoid organ development: from ontogeny to neogenesis. Nat Immunol 2006; 7:344-53. [PMID: 16550197 DOI: 10.1038/ni1330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 513] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The development of lymphoid organs can be viewed as a continuum. At one end are the 'canonical' secondary lymphoid organs, including lymph nodes and spleen; at the other end are 'ectopic' or tertiary lymphoid organs, which are cellular accumulations arising during chronic inflammation by the process of lymphoid neogenesis. Secondary lymphoid organs are genetically 'preprogrammed' and 'prepatterned' during ontogeny, whereas tertiary lymphoid organs arise under environmental influences and are not restricted to specific developmental 'windows' or anatomic locations. Between these two boundaries are other types of lymphoid tissues that are less developmentally but more environmentally regulated, such as Peyer's patches, nasal-associated lymphoid tissue, bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue and inducible bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue. Their regulation, functions and potential effects are discussed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle L Drayton
- Section of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8034, USA
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354
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Marchal-Sommé J, Uzunhan Y, Marchand-Adam S, Valeyre D, Soumelis V, Crestani B, Soler P. Cutting Edge: Nonproliferating Mature Immune Cells Form a Novel Type of Organized Lymphoid Structure in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:5735-9. [PMID: 16670278 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.10.5735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ectopic formation of secondary lymphoid tissue is initiated by the local attraction of naive T and B cells. In this study, we describe a novel type of organized lymphoid structure in the lung of human idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, with key features of lymphoid neogenesis, including: 1) recently activated CD40 ligand (CD40L)+ T cells; 2) variable numbers of activated CD40+/CD40L+ B cells, sometimes organized in follicles; 3) fully mature dendritic cells (DC) expressing CD40, CD83, CD86, and DC-lysosome-associated membrane protein; 4) the expression of the chemokine CCL21; 5) the presence of vessels with characteristics of high endothelial venules; and 6) a dense network of follicular DC. Surprisingly, these structures are devoid of CCR7+ naive T cells, proliferating lymphocytes, and germinal centers, suggesting that newly recruited activated DC and Ag-experienced lymphocytes can drive lymphoid neogenesis and that factors present within the lymphoid aggregates, such as CD40L, are essential to induce DC maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle Marchal-Sommé
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Unité 700, Université Paris 7, Faculté de Médecine Xavier Bichat, 75870 Paris Cedex 18, France
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355
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Abstract
The frequent observation of organized lymphoid structures that resemble secondary lymphoid organs in tissues that are targeted by chronic inflammatory processes, such as autoimmunity and infection, has indicated that lymphoid neogenesis might have a role in maintaining immune responses against persistent antigens. In this Review, we discuss recent progress in several aspects of lymphoid neogenesis, focusing on the similarities with lymphoid tissue development, the mechanisms of induction, functional competence and pathophysiological significance. As more information on these issues becomes available, a better understanding of the role of lymphoid neogenesis in promoting chronic inflammation might eventually lead to new strategies to target immunopathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Aloisi
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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356
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Okada T, Cyster JG. B cell migration and interactions in the early phase of antibody responses. Curr Opin Immunol 2006; 18:278-85. [PMID: 16516453 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2006.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2006] [Accepted: 02/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In the early phase of thymus-dependent antibody responses antigen-engaged B cells rapidly change their localization within the secondary lymphoid organs to access helper T cells. Central to this process is the tightly controlled distribution of chemokines, sphingosine-1-phosphate and other guidance cues within the lymphoid organ, determined in part by the stromal cells, and the changing responsiveness of activated lymphocytes to these cues. Studies that use the emerging technique of real-time two-photon imaging of intact lymphoid organs began to dissect the dynamics of B cell migration before and after antigen engagement in vivo. Recent studies also provided new insight into antigen transport mechanisms in lymphoid organs and examined signaling requirements for B lymphocyte positioning and motility. Taken together, these studies have provided a more detailed map of the steps involved in B cell migration to encounter antigen and helper T cells early during the adaptive immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takaharu Okada
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0414, USA.
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357
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Carrière V, Colisson R, Jiguet-Jiglaire C, Bellard E, Bouche G, Al Saati T, Amalric F, Girard JP, M'Rini C. Cancer cells regulate lymphocyte recruitment and leukocyte-endothelium interactions in the tumor-draining lymph node. Cancer Res 2006; 65:11639-48. [PMID: 16357175 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-1190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The physiologic function of the secondary lymphoid organs to recruit large numbers of naïve lymphocytes increases the probability that antigens encounter their rare, sometimes unique, specific T lymphocytes and initiate a specific immune response. In peripheral lymph nodes (LNs), this recruitment is a multistep process, initiated predominantly within the high endothelial venules (HEVs), beginning with rolling and chemokine-dependent firm adhesion of the lymphocytes on the venular endothelium surface. We report here that, in C57BL/6 mice, the recruitment of naïve lymphocytes is impaired in LNs draining a B16 melanoma tumor. Intravital microscopy analysis of the tumor-draining LNs revealed that this effect is associated with an important defect in lymphocyte adhesion in the HEVs and a progressive decrease in the expression of the LN chemokine CCL21. In parallel with these effects, the tumor up-regulated, essentially through a P-selectin-dependent mechanism, the rolling and sticking of circulating polymorphonuclear cells within the LN low-order venules where few rolling and sticking events are usually observed. These effects of the tumor were independent of the presence of metastasis into the LN and occurred as long as the tumor developed. Together, these results indicate that the tumor proximity disturbs the LN physiology by modifying the molecular, spatial, and cellular rules that usually control leukocyte-endothelium interactions into the peripheral LNs. In addition, they emphasize a new role for the low-order venules of the peripheral LNs, which compared with the HEVs, seem to be the preferential port of entry for cells linked to inflammatory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Carrière
- Laboratoire de Biologie Vasculaire, Equipe labellisée La Ligue 2003, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS UMR 5089, Toulouse, France
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358
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Humby F, Manzo A, Pitzalis C. Chemokines in arthritis: key molecules in pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.2217/17460816.1.1.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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359
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Barone F, Bombardieri M, Manzo A, Blades MC, Morgan PR, Challacombe SJ, Valesini G, Pitzalis C. Association of CXCL13 and CCL21 expression with the progressive organization of lymphoid-like structures in Sjögren's syndrome. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 52:1773-84. [PMID: 15934082 DOI: 10.1002/art.21062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ectopic lymphoneogenesis can occur in the salivary glands of Sjögren's syndrome (SS) patients and is associated with local antigen-driven B cell responses, autoantibody formation, and potential lymphomatous transformation. CXCL13 and CCL21 have been identified in salivary glands, but their role in ectopic lymphoneogenesis in SS remains unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the microanatomic association between CXCL13 and CCL21 expression and the acquisition of lymphoid features in periductal foci. METHODS Salivary glands from 37 SS patients and 9 chronic sialadenitis patients were analyzed by immunohistochemistry for T cell/B cell segregation, CD21+ follicular dendritic cell networks, and peripheral lymph node addressin (PNAd)-positive high endothelial venules (HEVs) in relationship to the size of the aggregates and the expression of CXCL13 and CCL21 within infiltrating cells, epithelium, and endothelium. RESULTS Grade 1 aggregates (10-50 lymphocytes) demonstrated predominance of nonorganized CD3+ cells, while grade 2 (>50 lymphocytes) and grade 3 (>50 with germinal centers) showed a progressive increase in CD20+ B cells and T cell/B cell segregation. This higher degree of lymphoid organization was significantly related to an increased expression of CXCL13 within infiltrating cells and PNAd+ HEV-associated CCL21-producing cells. Conversely, no association between lymphoid organization and lymphoid chemokine expression by epithelial cells was observed. CONCLUSION The acquisition of lymphoid features by inflammatory foci in SS is critically associated with the enlargement of the inflammatory foci and with the expression of CXCL13 and CCL21 within the infiltrate, but is not associated with their expression by epithelial cells. These data strongly support an active participation of CXCL13 and CCL21 in regulating the progressive organization and maintenance of periductal foci.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Barone
- Guy's, King's, and St. Thomas' School of Medicine, Guy's Campus, London, UK
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360
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Kaiser A, Donnadieu E, Abastado JP, Trautmann A, Nardin A. CC Chemokine Ligand 19 Secreted by Mature Dendritic Cells Increases Naive T Cell Scanning Behavior and Their Response to Rare Cognate Antigen. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 175:2349-56. [PMID: 16081805 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.4.2349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
For immune responses to take place, naive T cells have to encounter, adhere to, and be stimulated by dendritic cells (DCs). In murine lymph nodes, T cells move randomly and scan the surface of multiple DCs. The factors controlling this motility as well as its consequences remain unclear. We have monitored by video-imaging the earliest steps of the interaction between human DCs and autologous naive CD4+ T cells in the absence of exogenous Ags. Mature, but not immature, DCs were able to elicit small calcium responses in naive T cells along with cell polarization and random motility, resulting in an efficient scanning of DC surfaces by T cells. We identified CCL19 as a key factor enabling all these early T cell responses, including the occurrence of calcium transients. Because this chemokine did not influence the strength of naive T cell adhesion to DCs, enhanced LFA-1 affinity for ICAM-1 was not the main mechanism by which CCL19 increased Ag-independent calcium transients. However, concomitantly to T cell motility, CCL19 augmented the frequency of T cell responses to rare anti-CD3/CD28-coated beads, used as surrogate APCs. We thus propose a new role for CCL19 in humans: by conditioning T cells into a motile DC-scanning state, this chemokine promotes Ag-independent responses and increases the probability of cognate MHC-peptide encounter.
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361
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Jimenez-Boj E, Redlich K, Türk B, Hanslik-Schnabel B, Wanivenhaus A, Chott A, Smolen JS, Schett G. Interaction between Synovial Inflammatory Tissue and Bone Marrow in Rheumatoid Arthritis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 175:2579-88. [PMID: 16081832 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.4.2579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) leads to destruction of cartilage and bone. Whether rheumatoid arthritis also affects the adjacent bone marrow is less clear. In this study, we investigated subcortical bone marrow changes in joints from patients with RA. We describe penetration of the cortical barrier by synovial inflammatory tissue, invasion into the bone marrow cavity and formation of mononuclear cell aggregates with B cells as the predominant cell phenotype. B cells expressed common B cell markers, such as CD20, CD45RA, and CD79a, and were mature B cells, as indicated by CD27 expression. Plasma cells were also present and were enriched in the regions between aggregates and inflammatory tissue. Moreover, molecules for B cell chemoattraction, such as BCA-1 and CCL-21, homing, mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 and survival, BAFF, were expressed. Endosteal bone next to subcortical bone marrow aggregates showed an accumulation of osteoblasts and osteoid deposition. In summary, we show that synovial inflammatory tissue can reach the adjacent bone marrow by fully breaking the cortical barrier, which results in formation of B cell-rich aggregates as well as increased formation of new bone. This suggests that bone marrow is an additional compartment in the disease process of RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Jimenez-Boj
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
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362
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Bouma G, Coppens JMC, Mourits S, Nikolic T, Sozzani S, Drexhage HA, Versnel MA. Evidence for an enhanced adhesion of DC to fibronectin and a role of CCL19 and CCL21 in the accumulation of DC around the pre-diabetic islets in NOD mice. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:2386-96. [PMID: 16047341 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200526251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse is a widely used animal model for the study of human diabetes. The lymphocytic (peri-)insulitis is preceded by an early accumulation of dendritic cells (DC) around the islets of Langerhans. This DC accumulation is thought to derive from an influx of monocytes attracted by pro-inflammatory chemokines. Besides chemokines, extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins play an important role in the accumulation of leukocytes in tissues. We studied the expression of the chemokines CCL2, CCL5, CXCL10, CCL19 and CCL21 over time in pancreases of NOD and control mice by ELISA on pancreas lysates as well as by immunohistochemistry. In addition, we studied the adhesive capacity of bone marrow-derived DC (BMDC) to ECM components. DC in the NOD pancreas accumulated at sites with an intense expression of fibronectin. In vitro, NOD BMDC showed increased fibronectin adhesion and increased VLA-5 expression. At the time of early DC accumulation (<10 wk), the lymphoid tissue-related chemokines CCL19 and CCL21 were increased. Our findings support the view that the early accumulation of DC around the NOD islets is not the consequence of an enhanced attraction of precursors and immature DC by pro-inflammatory chemokines. It rather might be the consequence of an aberrantly enhanced adhesion and retention of NOD DC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerben Bouma
- Department of Immunology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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363
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Abstract
Lymphotoxins (LT) provide essential communication links between lymphocytes and the surrounding stromal and parenchymal cells and together with the two related cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and LIGHT (LT-related inducible ligand that competes for glycoprotein D binding to herpesvirus entry mediator on T cells), form an integrated signaling network necessary for efficient innate and adaptive immune responses. Recent studies have identified signaling pathways that regulate several genes, including chemokines and interferons, which participate in the development and function of microenvironments in lymphoid tissue and host defense. Disruption of the LT/TNF/LIGHT network alleviates inflammation in certain autoimmune disease models, but decreases resistance to selected pathogens. Pharmacological disruption of this network in human autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis alleviates inflammation in a significant number of patients, but not in other diseases, a finding that challenges our molecular paradigms of autoimmunity and perhaps will reveal novel roles for this network in pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl F Ware
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California 92121, USA.
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364
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Abstract
Secondary lymphoid organs serve as hubs for the adaptive immune system, bringing together antigen, antigen-presenting cells, and lymphocytes. Two families of G protein-coupled receptors play essential roles in lymphocyte migration through these organs: chemokine receptors and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptors. Chemokines expressed by lymphoid stromal cells guide lymphocyte and dendritic cell movements during antigen surveillance and the initiation of adaptive immune responses. S1P receptor-1 is required for lymphocyte egress from thymus and secondary lymphoid organs and is downregulated by the immunosuppressive drug FTY720. Here, we review the steps associated with the initiation of adaptive immune responses in secondary lymphoid organs, highlighting the roles of chemokines and S1P.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason G Cyster
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0414, USA.
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365
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Manzo A, Paoletti S, Carulli M, Blades MC, Barone F, Yanni G, Fitzgerald O, Bresnihan B, Caporali R, Montecucco C, Uguccioni M, Pitzalis C. Systematic microanatomical analysis of CXCL13 and CCL21 in situ production and progressive lymphoid organization in rheumatoid synovitis. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:1347-59. [PMID: 15832291 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200425830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
CXCL13 and CCL21 have been functionally implicated in lymphoid tissue organization both in the upstream phases of lymphoid tissue embryogenesis and in ectopic lymphoid neogenesis in transgenic mice. Here, we analyzed the relationship between CXCL13 and CCL21 production and lymphoid tissue organization in rheumatoid synovitis as a model of a naturally occurring ectopic lymphoneogenesis. Through systematic analysis of mRNA and protein expression, we defined the microanatomical relationship between CXCL13 and CCL21 in progressive aggregational and structural phases of synovial inflammatory infiltrate. We provide the first direct in situ evidence that production of CXCL13 and CCL21 (rather than simply protein binding) is associated with inflammatory lymphoid tissue formation and development with the demonstration, in organized aggregates, of a secondary lymphoid organ-like compartmentalization and vascular association. Notably, the presence of CXCL13 and CCL21 (protein and mRNA) was also demonstrated in non-organized clusters and minor aggregational stages, providing evidence that their induction can take place independently and possibly upstream of T-B compartmentalization, CD21(+) follicular dendritic cell network differentiation and germinal center formation. Our data support the concept that, under inflammatory conditions, CXCL13 and CCL21 participate in lymphoid tissue microanatomical organization, attempting to recapitulate, in an aberrant lymphoid neogenetic process, their homeostatic and morphogenetic physiologic functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Manzo
- Rheumatology Unit, Guy's, King's and St Thomas' School of Medicine, Guy's Campus, London, UK
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366
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McDonald KG, McDonough JS, Newberry RD. Adaptive immune responses are dispensable for isolated lymphoid follicle formation: antigen-naive, lymphotoxin-sufficient B lymphocytes drive the formation of mature isolated lymphoid follicles. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:5720-8. [PMID: 15843574 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.9.5720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Isolated lymphoid follicles (ILFs) are recently appreciated members of the mucosal immune system. The architecture, composition, and inducible nature of these structures indicates that these structures are tertiary lymphoid structures. The process leading to the formation of tertiary lymphoid structures, lymphoid neogenesis, has been observed in a number of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions. Given this association, there is considerable interest in identifying the factors promoting lymphoid neogenesis, and understanding the steps in this process. Using murine ILF formation as a model, we have examined the roles of different cellular sources of lymphotoxin (LT) and the adaptive immune response in lymphoid neogenesis. In this study, we report that, although other cellular sources of LT may supplant B lymphocytes in the formation of immature ILFs (loosely organized clusters of B lymphocytes), LT-sufficient B lymphocytes are required for the progression of immature ILFs to mature ILFs (organized lymphoid aggregates with a follicle-associated epithelium). ILF formation occurs in the absence of T lymphocytes and Ag-specific B lymphocyte responses, and ILF B lymphocytes express elevated levels of LT in the absence of antigenic stimulation. Consistent with a role for chemokines inducing LT expression in Ag-naive B lymphocytes, and a chemokine-driven positive-feedback loop driving mature ILF formation, mature ILFs express elevated levels of B lymphocyte chemoattractant in the absence of Ag-specific B lymphocyte stimulation. These observations indicate that ILFs contain Ag-naive lymphocytes, and suggest that events occurring within ILFs shape subsequent immune responses mediated by these lymphocytes.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/cytology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cell Membrane/genetics
- Cell Membrane/immunology
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Chemokines/biosynthesis
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/physiology
- Female
- Homeostasis/genetics
- Homeostasis/immunology
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Immunophenotyping
- Intestine, Small/cytology
- Intestine, Small/immunology
- Intestine, Small/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphoid Tissue/cytology
- Lymphoid Tissue/immunology
- Lymphoid Tissue/metabolism
- Lymphotoxin-alpha/deficiency
- Lymphotoxin-alpha/genetics
- Lymphotoxin-alpha/physiology
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Organ Culture Techniques
- Resting Phase, Cell Cycle/genetics
- Resting Phase, Cell Cycle/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Keely G McDonald
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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367
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Kabashima K, Banks TA, Ansel KM, Lu TT, Ware CF, Cyster JG. Intrinsic lymphotoxin-beta receptor requirement for homeostasis of lymphoid tissue dendritic cells. Immunity 2005; 22:439-50. [PMID: 15845449 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2005.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2004] [Revised: 01/27/2005] [Accepted: 02/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The factors regulating dendritic cell (DC) development and homeostasis are incompletely understood. Here, we demonstrate that DCs express the lymphotoxin (LT)-beta receptor (LT beta R) and that in mice lacking the LT beta R in hematopoietic cells, spleen, and lymph node, CD8- DC numbers are reduced. B cells are a key source of LT alpha 1 beta 2 for splenic DC homeostasis, and transgenic overexpression of LT alpha 1 beta 2 on B cells leads to expansion of the CD8- DC compartment. Furthermore, we find that about 5% of splenic DCs are undergoing cell division, and the number of dividing CD8- DCs is disproportionately reduced in the absence of the LT beta R. In parabiosis experiments, splenic DCs were only partially replaced by circulating precursors over a 6 week period. We conclude that LT alpha 1 bet a2 acts on DCs or DC precursors to promote DC homeostasis, and we suggest that DC proliferation is an important pathway for locally maintaining these cells in the steady state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Kabashima
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
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368
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Gombert M, Dieu-Nosjean MC, Winterberg F, Bünemann E, Kubitza RC, Da Cunha L, Haahtela A, Lehtimäki S, Müller A, Rieker J, Meller S, Pivarcsi A, Koreck A, Fridman WH, Zentgraf HW, Pavenstädt H, Amara A, Caux C, Kemeny L, Alenius H, Lauerma A, Ruzicka T, Zlotnik A, Homey B. CCL1-CCR8 Interactions: An Axis Mediating the Recruitment of T Cells and Langerhans-Type Dendritic Cells to Sites of Atopic Skin Inflammation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:5082-91. [PMID: 15814739 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.8.5082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Atopic dermatitis represents a chronically relapsing skin disease with a steadily increasing prevalence of 10-20% in children. Skin-infiltrating T cells, dendritic cells (DC), and mast cells are thought to play a crucial role in its pathogenesis. We report that the expression of the CC chemokine CCL1 (I-309) is significantly and selectively up-regulated in atopic dermatitis in comparison to psoriasis, cutaneous lupus erythematosus, or normal skin. CCL1 serum levels of atopic dermatitis patients are significantly higher than levels in healthy individuals. DC, mast cells, and dermal endothelial cells are abundant sources of CCL1 during atopic skin inflammation and allergen challenge, and Staphylococcus aureus-derived products induce its production. In vitro, binding and cross-linking of IgE on mast cells resulted in a significant up-regulation of this inflammatory chemokine. Its specific receptor, CCR8, is expressed on a small subset of circulating T cells and is abundantly expressed on interstitial DC, Langerhans cells generated in vitro, and their monocytic precursors. Although DC maintain their CCR8+ status during maturation, brief activation of circulating T cells recruits CCR8 from intracytoplamic stores to the cell surface. Moreover, the inflammatory and atopy-associated chemokine CCL1 synergizes with the homeostatic chemokine CXCL12 (SDF-1alpha) resulting in the recruitment of T cell and Langerhans cell-like DC. Taken together, these findings suggest that the axis CCL1-CCR8 links adaptive and innate immune functions that play a role in the initiation and amplification of atopic skin inflammation.
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MESH Headings
- Allergens/administration & dosage
- Animals
- Antigens, Bacterial
- Case-Control Studies
- Cell Differentiation
- Cell Movement
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokine CCL1
- Chemokine CCL17
- Chemokine CXCL12
- Chemokines, CC/blood
- Chemokines, CC/metabolism
- Chemokines, CXC/metabolism
- Child
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Dermatitis, Atopic/etiology
- Dermatitis, Atopic/immunology
- Dermatitis, Atopic/pathology
- Humans
- Immunoglobulin E/metabolism
- In Vitro Techniques
- Inflammation Mediators/metabolism
- Langerhans Cells/immunology
- Langerhans Cells/pathology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/pathology
- Mast Cells/immunology
- Mice
- Monocytes/immunology
- Monocytes/pathology
- Psoriasis/immunology
- Psoriasis/pathology
- Receptors, CCR8
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Staphylococcus aureus/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Gombert
- Department of Dermatology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
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369
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Abstract
Lymphotoxins (LT alpha and LT beta), LIGHT [homologous to LT, inducible expression, competes with herpes simplex virus (HSV) glycoprotein D for HSV entry mediator (HVEM), a receptor expressed on T lymphocytes], tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and their specific receptors LT beta R, HVEM, and TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) and TNFR2, form the immediate family of the larger TNF superfamily. These cytokines establish a critical communication system required for the development of secondary lymphoid tissues; however, knowledge of the target genes activated by these signaling pathways is limited. Target genes regulated by the LT alpha beta-LT beta R pathway include the tissue-organizing chemokines, CXCL13, CCL19, and CCL21, which establish cytokine circuits that regulate LT expression on lymphocytes, leading to organized lymphoid tissue. Infectious disease models have revealed that LT alpha beta pathways are also important for innate and adaptive immune responses involved in host defense. Here, regulation of interferon-beta by LT beta R and TNFR signaling may play a crucial role in certain viral infections. Regulation of autoimmune regulator in the thymus via LT beta R implicates LT/LIGHT involvement in central tolerance. Dysregulated expression of LIGHT overrides peripheral tolerance leading to T-cell-driven autoimmune disease. Blockade of TNF/LT/LIGHT pathways as an intervention in controlling autoimmune diseases is attractive, but such therapy may have risks. Thus, identifying and understanding the target genes may offer an opportunity to fine-tune inhibitory interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Schneider
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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370
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Pablos JL, Santiago B, Tsay D, Singer MS, Palao G, Galindo M, Rosen SD. A HEV-restricted sulfotransferase is expressed in rheumatoid arthritis synovium and is induced by lymphotoxin-alpha/beta and TNF-alpha in cultured endothelial cells. BMC Immunol 2005; 6:6. [PMID: 15752429 PMCID: PMC1079838 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-6-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2005] [Accepted: 03/07/2005] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The recruitment of lymphocytes to secondary lymphoid organs relies on interactions of circulating cells with high endothelial venules (HEV). HEV are exclusive to these organs under physiological conditions, but they can develop in chronically-inflamed tissues. The interaction of L-selectin on lymphocytes with sulfated glycoprotein ligands on HEV results in lymphocyte rolling, which represents the initial step in lymphocyte homing. HEV expression of GlcNAc6ST-2 (also known as HEC-GlcNAc6ST, GST-3, LSST or CHST4), an HEV-restricted sulfotransferase, is essential for the elaboration of L-selectin functional ligands as well as a critical epitope recognized by MECA-79 mAb. RESULTS We examined the expression of GlcNAc6ST-2 in relationship to the MECA-79 epitope in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial vessels. Expression of GlcNAc6ST-2 was specific to RA synovial tissues as compared to osteoarthritis synovial tissues and localized to endothelial cells of HEV-like vessels and small flat-walled vessels. Double MECA-79 and GlcNAc6ST-2 staining showed colocalization of the MECA-79 epitope and GlcNAc6ST-2. We further found that both TNF-alpha and lymphotoxin-alphabeta induced GlcNAc6ST-2 mRNA and protein in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells. CONCLUSION These observations demonstrate that GlcNAc6ST-2 is induced in RA vessels and provide potential cytokine pathways for its induction. GlcNAc6ST-2 is a novel marker of activated vessels within RA ectopic lymphoid aggregates. This enzyme represents a potential therapeutic target for RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L Pablos
- Servicio de Reumatología y Unidad de Investigación, Hospital 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain
| | - Begoña Santiago
- Servicio de Reumatología y Unidad de Investigación, Hospital 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain
| | - Durwin Tsay
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Mark S Singer
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Guillermo Palao
- Servicio de Reumatología y Unidad de Investigación, Hospital 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain
| | - María Galindo
- Servicio de Reumatología y Unidad de Investigación, Hospital 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain
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371
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Parsonage G, Filer AD, Haworth O, Nash GB, Rainger GE, Salmon M, Buckley CD. A stromal address code defined by fibroblasts. Trends Immunol 2005; 26:150-6. [PMID: 15745857 PMCID: PMC3121558 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2004.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
To navigate into and within tissues, leukocytes require guidance cues that enable them to recognize which tissues to enter and which to avoid. Such cues are partly provided at the time of extravasation from blood by an endothelial address code on the luminal surface of the vascular endothelium. Here, we review the evidence that fibroblasts help define an additional stromal address code that directs leukocyte behaviour within tissues. We examine how this stromal code regulates site-specific leukocyte accumulation, differentiation and survival in a variety of physiological stromal niches, and how the aberrant expression of components of this code in the wrong tissue at the wrong time contributes to the persistence of chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg Parsonage
- Rheumatology Research Group, Institute of Biomedical Research, MRC Center for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, UK, B15 2TT
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372
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Flanagan K, Moroziewicz D, Kwak H, Hörig H, Kaufman HL. The lymphoid chemokine CCL21 costimulates naive T cell expansion and Th1 polarization of non-regulatory CD4+ T cells. Cell Immunol 2005; 231:75-84. [PMID: 15919372 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2004.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2004] [Revised: 12/05/2004] [Accepted: 12/08/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
CCL21 (SLC/6Ckine) is constitutively expressed by secondary lymphoid tissue and attracts CCR7-expressing mature dendritic cells and naive T cells. Recent studies demonstrated that intra-tumoral delivery of CCL21 induces tumor regression in a T cell dependent manner. CCL21 is known to mediate T cell trafficking but little is known about its function as a costimulatory molecule. Herein, we demonstrate that CCL21 costimulates expansion of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and induces Th1 polarization. These effects were specific for naive T cells, and we show that CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells were hyporesponsive to CCL21 induced migration, and unresponsive to CCL21 costimulation. These unique functions of CCL21 to both attract naive T cells as well as costimulate their proliferation and differentiation, suggests that CCL21 is a pivotal molecule for priming T cell responses and has therapeutic implications for local delivery of CCL21. The coordinated effects of CCL21 on T cell migration and activation may also represent a more comprehensive paradigm for the activity of other chemokines as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Flanagan
- Department of Pathology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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373
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Okada N. Cell Delivery System: A Novel Strategy to Improve the Efficacy of Cancer Immunotherapy by Manipulation of Immune Cell Trafficking and Biodistribution. Biol Pharm Bull 2005; 28:1543-50. [PMID: 16141513 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.28.1543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tumor cells that generally accumulate mutations in the genome express molecules different both qualitatively and quantitatively from normal cells. An immunosurveillance system for these molecules, known as the tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), plays an important role in the elimination of cancer cells during the initial stage. Although cancer immunotherapy targeting TAAs has progressed steadily with the development of various vaccine strategies, satisfactory efficacy, such as marked tumor regression and complete response, has not been previously reported in a clinical setting. To improve the therapeutic effects of cancer immunotherapy, the application of chemokine-chemokine receptor coupling, which controls the trafficking and biodistribution of immune cells in the living body, is an attractive potential approach. This review introduces our novel "cell delivery system," which employs an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) fiber-mutant adenovirus vector encoding the chemokine or chemokine receptor gene in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Okada
- Department of Biopharmaceutics, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, 5 Nakauchi-cho, Kyoto, Japan.
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374
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Abstract
The organized accumulation of lymphocytes is a biological phenomenon used to optimize both homeostatic immune surveillance, as well as chronic responses to pathogenic stimuli. During embryonic development, circulating hemopoietic cells gather at predestined sites throughout the body, where they are subsequently arranged in T and B cell-specific areas characteristic of secondary lymphoid organs. In contrast, the body seems to harbor a limited second set of selected sites that support formation of organized lymphoid aggregates. However, these are only revealed at times of local, chronic inflammation, when so-called tertiary lymphoid structures appear. Once thought of as two distinct phenomena, recent insights suggest that highly similar networks of paracrine interactions regulate the formation of both secondary and tertiary lymphoid structures. This review will focus on these cellular interactions between organizing and inducing cell populations leading to the formation of lymph nodes or organized inflammatory infiltrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Cupedo
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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375
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Abstract
FTY720, a synthetic myriocin analogue derived from culture filtrates of Isaria sinclairii, is a novel immunosuppressant that in experimental animals and nonhuman primates produces lymphocytopenia and prolongs allograft survival in dose-dependent fashion. FTY720 exerts synergistic interactions not only with calcineurin antagonists, but also with proliferation signal inhibitors. These interactions offer the possibility of reducing exposure to and mitigating toxicity of existing drugs. The mechanism of drug action is not entirely clear. FTY720 appears to undergo phosphorylation by sphingosine phosphokinase 2, rendering it capable of interacting with the specific G protein-linked receptors for its structural homologue-sphingosine-1-phosphate. However, it is not clear how this interaction leads to emigration of lymphocytes from the peripheral blood and sequestration in secondary lymphoid structures. Present theories suggest that the drug prevents emigration rather than directing the onset of sequestration. Thus, the drug is the archetype of a new class of agents that alter lymphocyte homing patterns: the adhesion-migration paradigm. These modalities reduce interstitial infiltration of grafts and attenuate their release from lymph nodes. Since FTY720 seems to spare nonspecific elements of host resistance, it may not only represent a useful addition to the immunosuppressive armamentarium but also address the not infrequent complications of infections associated with existing therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- B D Kahan
- University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Division of Immunology and Organ Transplantation, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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376
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Suematsu S, Watanabe T. Generation of a synthetic lymphoid tissue-like organoid in mice. Nat Biotechnol 2004; 22:1539-45. [PMID: 15568019 DOI: 10.1038/nbt1039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2004] [Accepted: 10/19/2004] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Stromal cells play an important role in the formation of the normal organized microarchitecture of secondary lymphoid organs. Here we demonstrate that a tissue-engineered, lymphoid tissue-like organoid, which was constructed by transplantation of stromal cells embedded in biocompatible scaffolds into the renal subcapsular space in mice, had an organized tissue structure similar to secondary lymphoid organs. This organoid contained compartmentalized B-cell and T-cell clusters, high endothelial venule-like vessels, germinal centers and follicular dendritic cell networks. Furthermore, the organoid was transplantable to naive normal or severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice, and antigen-specific, IgG-isotype antibody formation could be induced soon after intravenous administration of the antigen. This simplified system of lymphoid tissue-like organoid construction will facilitate analyses of cell-cell interactions required for development of secondary lymphoid organs and efficient induction of adaptive immune responses, and may have possible applications in the treatment of immune deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachiko Suematsu
- Research Unit for Immune Surveillance, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, 1-7-22 Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama City, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan.
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377
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Martin AP, Coronel EC, Sano GI, Chen SC, Vassileva G, Canasto-Chibuque C, Sedgwick JD, Frenette PS, Lipp M, Furtado GC, Lira SA. A novel model for lymphocytic infiltration of the thyroid gland generated by transgenic expression of the CC chemokine CCL21. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:4791-8. [PMID: 15470018 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.8.4791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocytic infiltrates and lymphoid follicles with germinal centers are often detected in autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), but the mechanisms underlying lymphocyte entry and organization in the thyroid remain unknown. We tested the hypothesis that CCL21, a chemokine that regulates homeostatic lymphocyte trafficking, and whose expression has been detected in AITD, is involved in the migration of lymphocytes to the thyroid. We show that transgenic mice expressing CCL21 from the thyroglobulin promoter (TGCCL21 mice) have significant lymphocytic infiltrates, which are topologically segregated into B and T cell areas. Although high endothelial venules expressing peripheral lymph node addressin were frequently observed in the thyroid tissue, lymphocyte recruitment was independent of L-selectin or lymphotoxin-alpha but required CCR7 expression. Taken together, these results indicate that CCL21 is sufficient to drive lymphocyte recruitment to the thyroid, suggest that CCL21 is involved in AITD pathogenesis, and establish TGCCL21 transgenic mice as a novel model to study the formation and function of lymphoid follicles in the thyroid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea P Martin
- Immunobiology Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
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378
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Chamian F, Krueger JG. Psoriasis vulgaris: an interplay of T lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and inflammatory cytokines in pathogenesis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2004; 16:331-7. [PMID: 15201593 DOI: 10.1097/01.bor.0000129715.35024.50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Discuss and update concepts and hypotheses for the pathogenesis of psoriasis based on new research reports (primarily from 2003 and early 2004). RECENT FINDINGS Increases in newly defined dendritic cell subsets, cytokines, and chemokines have been identified in psoriasis lesions and have modified views of T-cell-mediated pathogenesis. In addition, the psoriasis transcriptome has been defined by large-scale genomic expression studies, and these data suggest distinct molecular mechanisms of type 1 T-cell-mediated inflammation. Somewhat surprisingly, therapeutic clinical trials suggest that tumor necrosis factor is a major pathogenic cytokine in psoriasis, whereas translational studies point to roles of other innate pathways mediated by heat shock proteins, glycolipids, natural killer T cells, or dendritic cells in disease pathogenesis. SUMMARY An interactive network of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, dendritic cells, and type 1 T cells or natural killer T cells potentially drives pathogenic inflammation in psoriasis vulgaris. Continued clinical studies with defined immune antagonists provide a critical means to dissect the contribution of different cell subsets and genomic pathways to the pathogenesis of psoriasis vulgaris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Chamian
- Laboratory for Investigative Dermatology, Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021, USA
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379
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Abstract
There is much evidence to support the concept that psoriasis is a type 1 autoimmune disease, primarily mediated by interferon gamma and other inflammatory cytokines. There has been renewed interest in the role of components of the innate immune system, however,and it may be that overlap between the innate and acquired arms of the immune system can better explain immunopathogenesis in psoriasis. Relevant cell types, receptors, and immune mediators within these traditional boundaries of the immune system are discussed.Finally, pathogenic contributions from important psoriatic mouse models and recent genomic data using the new gene chip technology are elaborated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Lowes
- Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, Box 178, New York, NY 10021, USA
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380
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Abstract
A central feature of the immune response is the precise spatio-temporal convergence of T cells and antigen presenting cells (APC) in particular microenvironments within secondary lymphoid organs (SLO). CCR7 and its ligands CCL19 and CCL21 have been identified as the gatekeepers for both naïve T lymphocytes and dendritic cells (DC) to these defined anatomical compartments. A new perception on the regulation of lymphocyte traffic in lymph nodes (LN) has come from observations that sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor agonists affect T cell entry and exit from these organs. Recent developments in intravital microscopy (IVM) techniques reveal unexpected autonomous random motion of lymphocytes within secondary lymphoid tissues, and provoke questions about the mechanisms that guide their compartmental navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Weninger
- CBR Institute for Biomedical Research and the Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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381
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Abstract
Organogenesis of lymph nodes and Peyer's patches is initiated during embryonic development and depends on the correct expression of a wide variety of molecules. Essential for this process is the paracrine triggering of stromal cells by CD45+CD4+CD3- cells. Hereto CD45+CD4+CD3- cells and stromal cells need to be spatially positioned in close proximity to each other. Expression of adhesion molecules and chemokines is thought to be essential for this process. During adult life, similar processes might also be at the basis of development of organized tertiary lymphoid structures often seen in inflammatory lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Cupedo
- VU Medical Center, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, van der Boechorststraat 7, Amsterdam, BT 1081, The Netherlands
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382
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Carragher D, Johal R, Button A, White A, Eliopoulos A, Jenkinson E, Anderson G, Caamaño J. A stroma-derived defect in NF-kappaB2-/- mice causes impaired lymph node development and lymphocyte recruitment. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2004; 173:2271-9. [PMID: 15294939 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.4.2271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The NF-kappaB family of transcription factors is vital to all aspects of immune function and regulation in both the hemopoietic and stromal compartments of immune environments. Recent studies of mouse models deficient for specific members of the NF-kappaB family have revealed critical roles for these proteins in the process of secondary lymphoid tissue organogenesis. In this study, we investigate the role of NF-kappaB family member NF-kappaB2 in lymph node development and lymphocyte recruitment. Inguinal lymph nodes in nfkappab2(-/-) mice are reduced in size and cellularity, most notably in the B cell compartment. Using in vitro and in vivo lymph node grafting assays, we show that the defect resides in the stromal compartment. Further examination of the nfkappab2(-/-) inguinal lymph nodes revealed that expression of peripheral node addressin components CD34 and glycosylation-dependent cell adhesion molecule-1 along with the high endothelial venule-restricted sulfotransferase HEC-GlcNAc6ST was markedly reduced. Furthermore, expression of the lymphocyte homing chemokines CCL19, CCL21, and CXCL13 was down-regulated. These data highlight the role of NF-kappaB2 in inguinal lymph node organogenesis and recruitment of lymphocytes to these organs due to its role in up-regulation of essential cell adhesion molecules and chemokines, while suggesting a potential role for NF-kappaB2 in organization of lymph node endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Carragher
- Department of Anatomy, Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, United Kingdom
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383
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Carlsen HS, Baekkevold ES, Morton HC, Haraldsen G, Brandtzaeg P. Monocyte-like and mature macrophages produce CXCL13 (B cell-attracting chemokine 1) in inflammatory lesions with lymphoid neogenesis. Blood 2004; 104:3021-7. [PMID: 15284119 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-02-0701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The homeostatic chemokine CXCL13 (also called B cell-attracting chemokine 1 [BCA-1] or B-lymphocyte chemoattractant [BLC]) is constitutively expressed in secondary lymphoid tissue and initiates lymphoid neogenesis when expressed aberrantly in mice. CXCL13 has also been detected in chronic inflammation associated with human lymphoid neogenesis, suggesting a pathogenic role. Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) are generally considered to be the major source of CXCL13 both in normal and aberrant lymphoid tissue. We show here, instead, that most CXCL13-expressing cells in rheumatoid arthritis and ulcerative colitis are of monocyte/macrophage lineage. They are located in irregular lymphoid aggregates within an FDC network, but also within and near smaller collections of B cells in diseased tissue where no FDCs are detected. Some of these CXCL13-expressing cells are CD14(+), suggesting derivation from recently extravasated monocytes. Interestingly, monocytes from healthy donors stimulated in vitro with lipopolysaccharide secrete CXCL13. This induced production is enhanced after in vitro maturation of the monocytes toward macrophages but markedly decreased after maturation toward dendritic cells. Together, our findings strongly suggest that newly recruited monocytes/macrophages play a role for lymphoid neogenesis in human inflammatory diseases. Circulating monocytes are therefore potential candidates for future targeted therapy of chronic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hege S Carlsen
- Laboratory for Immunohistochemistry and Immunopathology, Institute of Pathology, Department of Surgery, Rikshospitalet University Hospital, N-0027 Oslo, Norway.
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384
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Schirrmacher V, Feuerer M, Fournier P, Ahlert T, Umansky V, Beckhove P. T-cell priming in bone marrow: the potential for long-lasting protective anti-tumor immunity. Trends Mol Med 2004; 9:526-34. [PMID: 14659467 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2003.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Volker Schirrmacher
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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385
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Abstract
The pathogenic roles of B cells in human autoimmune diseases involve a multitude of mechanistic pathways and include the well-established contributions of autoantibodies and immune complexes that induce local inflammatory reactions and tissue destruction. Recent results using several novel B cell-directed therapies have provided new insights into additional roles of B cells in human autoimmunity. In this review, we will highlight some of these studies and discuss how clinical insights parallel murine models of normal immunity and autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavius Martin
- Department of Immunology, One DNA Way, MS-34, South San Francisco, CA 94080 USA.
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386
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Garnica MR, Silva JS, de Andrade Junior HF. Stromal cell-derived factor-1 production by spleen cells is affected by nitric oxide in protective immunity against blood-stage Plasmodium chabaudi CR in C57BL/6j mice. Immunol Lett 2004; 89:133-42. [PMID: 14556970 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2003.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Malaria, a major endemic tropical disease, is caused by the infection of blood cells by Plasmodium protozoa. Most patients control their parasitemia by a not fully understood spleen-dependent mechanism. SDF-1alpha is a chemokine produced by stromal cells such as reticular spleen cells. Nitric oxide (NO) has several immune functions, including killing of intracellular pathogens and its function in malaria is debated. We have previously shown that SDF-1alpha production peaks during the ascending parasitemia in Plasmodium chabaudi infection and its supplementation in lethal models could reduce the parasitemia. In the present study, we analyzed SDF-1 production by spleen cells as related to NO metabolism in the P. chabaudi rodent malaria model using IFN-gamma; TNFR and iNOS-knockout mice or iNOS-blocked, L-NAME- or aminoguanidine-treated mice. Parasitemia and production of SDF-1alpha and SDF-1beta were determined by RT-PCR. In vitro NO production by spleen adherent cells was also tested. The data showed that parasitemia was less intense in both iNOS(-/-) or NO-inhibited mice than in controls, with increased and long-lasting production of SDF-1alpha mRNA. In the absence of cytokines involved in the final regulation of NO production by effector cells, as is the case for TNFR(-/-) and GKO mice, the infection progressed in an uncontrolled manner regardless of SDF-1alpha production, suggesting that these cytokines must be involved in the control of parasitemia after the SDF-1alpha dependent process. The SDF-1beta isoform was constitutive in all experiments, with elevated levels only clearly seen in TNFR(-/-) mice. We conclude that SDF-1 is involved in the promotion of parasitemia control in malaria, and excessive NO could affect its production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margoth Ramos Garnica
- Lab. Protozoologia, lnstituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Dr.E.C. Aguiar 470, 05403-000, SP, São Paulo, Brazil
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387
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Lew W, Bowcock AM, Krueger JG. Psoriasis vulgaris: cutaneous lymphoid tissue supports T-cell activation and ‘Type 1’ inflammatory gene expression. Trends Immunol 2004; 25:295-305. [PMID: 15145319 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2004.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wook Lew
- Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Yongdong Severance Hospital, 146-29 Dogok-Dong, Kangman-Ku, Seoul, South Korea
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388
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Albright JW, Bream JH, Bere EW, Young HA, Winkler-Pickett R, Ortaldo JR. Aging of innate immunity: functional comparisons of NK/LAK cells obtained from bulk cultures of young and aged mouse spleen cells in high concentrations of interleukin-2. Exp Gerontol 2004; 39:73-82. [PMID: 14724067 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2003.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The technique of bulk cultivation of aged mouse spleen cells in high concentration of IL-2 was employed to obtain NK/LAK cells in sufficient number and enrichment for studies on the effects of aging on their functions. The yield and enrichment were equivalent to that of young mouse spleen cells. The aged and young mouse NK/LAK cells were equivalent also in their functional competence to proliferate, kill target cells and produce IFNgamma; i.e. they did not display age-associated defects typical of freshly-isolated NK/LAK cells. In two respects, however, the NK/LAK cells derived from aged mouse spleen were altered: (a) in the efficiency of nuclear translocation of transcription factors STAT 5A and 5B, and (b) in the deficiency in production of mRNA transcripts representing several chemokines. We recommend caution in the use of bulk cultivation in IL-2 to obtain NK/LAK cells for studies on aging. However, it does appear from this study that aging may severely affect chemokine production, at least in the case of NK/LAK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia W Albright
- Department of Microbiology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, School of Medicine, 2300 I Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
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389
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Bistrup A, Tsay D, Shenoy P, Singer MS, Bangia N, Luther SA, Cyster JG, Ruddle NH, Rosen SD. Detection of a sulfotransferase (HEC-GlcNAc6ST) in high endothelial venules of lymph nodes and in high endothelial venule-like vessels within ectopic lymphoid aggregates: relationship to the MECA-79 epitope. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2004; 164:1635-44. [PMID: 15111310 PMCID: PMC1615668 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)63722-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/21/2004] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The interaction of L-selectin on lymphocytes with sulfated ligands on high endothelial venules (HEVs) of lymph nodes results in lymphocyte rolling and is essential for lymphocyte homing. The MECA-79 monoclonal antibody reports HEV-expressed ligands for L-selectin by recognizing a critical sulfation-dependent determinant on these ligands. HEC-GlcNAc6ST, a HEV-localized sulfotransferase, is essential for the elaboration of functional ligands within lymph nodes, as well as the generation of the MECA-79 epitope. Here, we use an antibody against murine HEC-GlcNAc6ST to study its expression in relationship to the MECA-79 epitope. In lymph nodes, the enzyme is expressed in the Golgi apparatus of high endothelial cells, in close correspondence with luminal staining by MECA-79. In lymph node HEVs of HEC-GlcNAc6ST-null mice, luminal staining by MECA-79 is almost abolished, whereas abluminal staining persists although reduced in intensity. HEV-like vessels in several examples of inflammation-associated lymphoid neogenesis, including nonobese diabetic mice, also exhibit concomitant expression of the sulfotransferase and luminal MECA-79 reactivity. The correlation extends to ectopic lymphoid aggregates within the pancreas of RIP-BLC mice, in which CXCL13 is expressed in islets. Analysis of the progeny of RIP-BLC by HEC-GlcNAc6ST-null mice establishes that the enzyme is responsible for the MECA-79 defined luminal ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Bistrup
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0452, USA
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390
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Subudhi SK, Zhou P, Yerian LM, Chin RK, Lo JC, Anders RA, Sun Y, Chen L, Wang Y, Alegre ML, Fu YX. Local expression of B7-H1 promotes organ-specific autoimmunity and transplant rejection. J Clin Invest 2004; 113:694-700. [PMID: 14991067 PMCID: PMC351315 DOI: 10.1172/jci19210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2003] [Accepted: 12/10/2003] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of studies have suggested B7-H1, a B7 family member, inhibits T cell responses. Therefore, its expression on nonlymphoid tissues has been proposed to prevent T cell-mediated tissue destruction. To test this hypothesis, we generated transgenic mice that expressed B7-H1 on pancreatic islet beta cells. Surprisingly, we observed accelerated rejection of transplanted allogeneic B7-H1-expressing islet beta cells. Furthermore, transgenic B7-H1 expression broke immune tolerance, as some of the mice spontaneously developed T cell-dependent autoimmune diabetes. In addition, B7-H1 expression increased CD8+ T cell proliferation and promoted autoimmunity induction in a T cell adoptive transfer model of diabetes. Consistent with these findings, B7-H1.Ig fusion protein augmented naive T cell priming both in vitro and in vivo. Our results demonstrate that B7-H1 can provide positive costimulation for naive T cells to promote allograft rejection and autoimmune disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumit K Subudhi
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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391
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Magliozzi R, Columba-Cabezas S, Serafini B, Aloisi F. Intracerebral expression of CXCL13 and BAFF is accompanied by formation of lymphoid follicle-like structures in the meninges of mice with relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 148:11-23. [PMID: 14975582 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2003.10.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2003] [Revised: 10/06/2003] [Accepted: 10/22/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Given the abnormalities in B-cell activity occurring in the central nervous system (CNS) of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), we have explored the possibility that CNS inflammation induced in mouse models of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) triggers expression of molecules that control the development and functional organization of lymphoid follicles, the sites where B-cell responses are initiated. By reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we find that gene expression of CXCL13, a chemokine involved in B-cell recruitment into lymphoid follicles, and BAFF, a key regulator of B-cell survival, is markedly and persistently upregulated in the CNS of mice with relapsing-remitting and chronic-relapsing EAE. Using immunohistochemical techniques, we also show the presence of lymphoid follicle-like structures containing B cells and a reticulum of CXCL13+ and FDC-M1+ follicular dendritic cells within the meninges of several mice undergoing progressive relapsing EAE. These observations indicate that, under chronic inflammatory conditions, the less immunoprivileged meningeal compartment is the site where ectopic lymphoid follicles preferentially develop and where pathogenic B-cell responses could be sustained in autoimmune disorders of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Magliozzi
- Neurophysiology Unit, Laboratory Organ, System Pathophysiology, Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Roma, Italy
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392
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Badolato R. Leukocyte circulation: one-way or round-trip? Lessons from primary immunodeficiency patients. J Leukoc Biol 2004; 76:1-6. [PMID: 15075352 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1103529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The identification of chemokines has profoundly changed the way we interpret the immune response, elucidating the mechanism by which inflammatory cells are recruited to the site of infection by local secretion of chemoattractants such as CXC chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8)/interleukin-8, chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2)/monocyte chemoattractant protein 1. This novel view of the immune response has been remodeled further following observations that lymphoid tissue development derives from the coordinated secretion of homeostatic chemokines such as CCL19, CCL21, and CXCL13, which mediate recruitment and clustering of the cells involved in lymphoid organogenesis. The study of primary immunodeficiencies has demonstrated that the number of circulating leukocytes is dependent on migration amongst bone marrow, blood circulation, and inflamed tissues. Defects of leukocyte adhesion and chemotaxis as a result of mutations of beta2-integrins lead to abnormal leukocytosis and susceptibility to skin infections, as observed in leukocyte adhesion deficiency. Conversely, neutropenia in children with myelokathexis is a result of leukocyte retention in the bone marrow because of the mutations of CXC chemokine receptor 4, which affect the capacity of cells to recirculate between blood and bone marrow. Moreover, the identification of the genetic basis of primary immunodeficiencies has shown that many primary immunodeficiencies such as Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome and common variable immunodeficiencies are characterized by altered migration of leukocytes and/or disregulation of cellular response to chemokines. This paper will be focused on the interpretation of primary immunodeficiencies as defects in leukocyte circulation between blood and primary and secondary organs.
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393
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Qu P, Ji RC, Kato S. Histochemical analysis of lymphatic endothelial cells in the pancreas of non-obese diabetic mice. J Anat 2004; 203:523-30. [PMID: 14635805 PMCID: PMC1571181 DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00234.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the relationship between insulitic development and function-structural changes of pancreatic lymphatics in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice using combined 5'-nucleotidase (5'-Nase) enzyme histochemical and secondary lymphoid tissue chemokine (SLC/CCL21) immunohistochemical methods. Interlobular lymphatic vessels were positive for 5'-Nase throughout the pancreas, and dependent on both blood vessels and pancreatic ducts. Intralobular initial lymphatics were rare and occasionally ran in the neighbourhood of islets. During the non-insulitic stage, the 5'-Nase-reactive product was evenly distributed on the surface of lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) with weak expression of CCL21. The activity of 5'-Nase on lymphatic vessels became slightly reduced as insulitis developed. The increasing blood glucose values appeared to be consistent with an increasing CCL21 expression by the endothelial lining, especially on the surface of LECs adjacent to the infiltrated islets and tissues. Lymphocytes and dendritic cells (DCs) were frequently located in the connective tissue, surrounding the lymphatic wall with deposition of 5'-Nase precipitates. As the infiltration became severe, lymphocytes and DCs accumulated within lymphatic vessels and expressed high levels of CCL21. The most significant finding was that many DCs adhered to lymphatic vessels, transmigrating via the thin and indented endothelial walls. The activity of 5'-Nase was increased on the adhesion surface between DCs (or lymphocytes) and LECs. The latter were characterized by open intercellular junctions and obvious cytoplasmic protrusions. These results suggest that LECs closely interact with DCs and lymphocytes, and play a key role in the migration of DCs and lymphocytes via lymphatic vessels during the pathological processes of insulitis in NOD mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Qu
- Division of Morphological Analysis, Department of Anatomy, Biology and Medicine, Oita Medical University, Japan
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394
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Kobayashi H, Miura S, Nagata H, Tsuzuki Y, Hokari R, Ogino T, Watanabe C, Azuma T, Ishii H. In situ demonstration of dendritic cell migration from rat intestine to mesenteric lymph nodes: relationships to maturation and role of chemokines. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 75:434-42. [PMID: 14673014 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0603250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are continuously transported from the intestine to mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs). The objective of this study was to determine the migration kinetics of DCs via intestinal lymph and to investigate regulatory factors affecting their migration in vivo. DCs were obtained from spleen or thoracic duct lymph of mesenteric lymphadenectomized rats. The DCs were fluorescently labeled and injected into the subserosa of the small intestine near the cecum, and their migration patterns into MLNs were determined. Isolated DCs from intestinal lymph express intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), CD11b/c, CD80/86, and major histocompatibility complex class II but maintain their ability to phagocytize latex particles, suggesting the presence of immature DCs. The isolated DCs accumulated in MLNs in a time-dependent manner with maximal accumulation at 48 h. Cytokine-induced maturation of lymph DCs did not cause a change in cell number but accelerated their transport into MLNs with a maximum at 24 h. Splenic DCs showed an intermediate level of maturation and a migration pattern similar to mature DCs. Inhibition of ICAM-1 or CD11b/c did not affect DC migration. Migration of mature DCs to MLNs was specifically blocked by desensitization of CCR7 with CCL21. In contrast, freshly isolated lymph DCs were not chemotactic for CCL21, but their migration to MLNs was mainly inhibited by desensitization of CCR6 with CCL20. The migratory ability of DCs correlates well with their degree of maturation, and different chemokine/chemokine receptor use may be the main regulator of DC migration kinetics through intestinal lymph.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisashi Kobayashi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University, School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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395
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Abstract
B lymphocytes play several critical roles in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. They are the source of the rheumatoid factors and anticitrullinated protein antibodies, which contribute to immune complex formation and complement activation in the joints. B cells are also very efficient antigen-presenting cells, and can contribute to T cell activation through expression of costimulatory molecules. B cells both respond to and produce the chemokines and cytokines that promote leukocyte infiltration into the joints, formation of ectopic lymphoid structures, angiogenesis, and synovial hyperplasia. The success of B cell depletion therapy in rheumatoid arthritis may depend on disruption of all these diverse functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregg J Silverman
- Rheumatic Disease Core Center and Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.
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396
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Buckley CD. Michael Mason prize essay 2003. Why do leucocytes accumulate within chronically inflamed joints? Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003; 42:1433-44. [PMID: 12832715 DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/keg413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is characterized by the accumulation of leucocytes within tissues. In rheumatoid arthritis the inflammatory infiltrate shares many architectural features with lymphoid tissue. For example, CD4 T cells and B cells accumulate in perivascular lymphoid structures within synovial tissue. CD8 T cells and neutrophils are found predominantly within synovial fluid. What drives these distinctive lymphoid microstructures and the relative contribution of lymphocytes and stromal cells such as fibroblasts to this process is the subject of this review. Cellular interactions between leucocytes and stromal cells such as macrophages and fibroblasts are important in generating tumour necrosis factor-alpha within the inflamed synovium. Therefore understanding how leucocytes accumulate within the inflamed synovium is likely to provide new therapeutic approaches to modify the inflammatory process. We have found that fibroblasts play a dominant role in defining the disordered synovial microenvironment in rheumatoid arthritis. Through their production of a variety of cytokines (interferon-beta, transforming growth factor-beta) and constitutive chemokines (stromal cell-derived factor-1, CXCL12) they directly alter the behaviour of lymphocytes that accumulate within chronically inflamed joints leading to their inappropriate survival and retention. We have extended these observations to another chronic persistent rheumatic disease, Sjögren's syndrome, and found that ectopic production of the constitutive B cell-attracting chemokine BCA-1 (CXCL13) is associated with lymphocyte accumulation and lymphoid tissue formation. These findings suggest that stromal cells such as fibroblasts play an important role in the switch from acute resolving to chronic persistent arthritis by allowing lymphocytes to accumulate in the wrong place at the wrong time.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Buckley
- Department of Rheumatology, MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, UK.
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397
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich H von Andrian
- The CBR Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, Massachusettes 02115, USA.
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398
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Lo JC, Chin RK, Lee Y, Kang HS, Wang Y, Weinstock JV, Banks T, Ware CF, Franzoso G, Fu YX. Differential regulation of CCL21 in lymphoid/nonlymphoid tissues for effectively attracting T cells to peripheral tissues. J Clin Invest 2003; 112:1495-505. [PMID: 14617751 PMCID: PMC259130 DOI: 10.1172/jci19188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2003] [Accepted: 09/02/2003] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
CC chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21)/secondary lymphoid chemokine (SLC), a ligand for CC chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), has been demonstrated to play a vital role in the homing and localization of immune cells to lymphoid tissues, but its role in nonlymphoid tissues largely remains undefined. Here, we provide evidence that CCL21 in lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues is differentially regulated by lymphotoxin-dependent (LT-dependent) and -independent mechanisms, respectively. This differential regulation is due to the selective regulation of the CCL21-Ser/CCL21a but not the CCL21-Leu/CCL21b gene by the LT and noncanonical NF-kappaB pathways. This alternate pathway, not dependent on LT or lymphocytes, leading to constitutive expression of CCL21 in nonlymphoid tissues, is critical for the initial recruitment of T lymphocytes to peripheral effector sites. CCL21 expression is subsequently further enhanced in a LT-dependent fashion following airway challenge, potentially facilitating a positive feedback loop to attract additional CCR7+ effector cells. These findings establish an essential role for CCL21 in the recruitment of effector T cells to peripheral tissues and suggest that LT-dependent and -independent regulation of CCL21 plays a role in balancing the central and peripheral immune responses between lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Lo
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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399
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Tumanov AV, Grivennikov SI, Shakhov AN, Rybtsov SA, Koroleva EP, Takeda J, Nedospasov SA, Kuprash DV. Dissecting the role of lymphotoxin in lymphoid organs by conditional targeting. Immunol Rev 2003; 195:106-16. [PMID: 12969314 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065x.2003.00071.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Mice with inactivation of lymphotoxin beta receptor (LTbetaR) system have profound defects in the development and maintenance of peripheral lymphoid organs. As surface LT is expressed by lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and lymphoid tissue-initiating cells as well as by some other cell types, we dissected cell type-specific LT contribution into the complex LT-deficient phenotype by conditional gene targeting. B-LTbeta knockout (KO) mice displayed an intermediate phenotype in spleen as compared with mice with complete LTbeta deficiency. In contrast, T-LTbeta KO mice displayed normal structure of the spleen. However, inactivation of LTbeta in both T and B cells resulted in additional defects in the structure of the marginal zone and in the development of follicular dendritic cells in spleen. Structure of lymph nodes (LN) and Peyer's patches (PP) was normal in both B-LTbeta KO and T- and B-LTbeta KO mice, except that PPs were of reduced size. When compared across the panel of lymphocyte-specific LT KOs, the defects in antibody responses to T-cell-dependent antigens correlated with the severity of defects in spleen structure. Expression of CCL21 and CCL19 chemokines was not affected in spleen, LN and PP of B-LTbeta KO and T- and B-LTbeta KO mice, while CXCL13 was slightly reduced only in spleen. Collectively, our data suggest the following: (i). requirements for LT signaling to support architecture of spleen, LN and PP are different; (ii). LT complex expressed by B cells plays a major role in the maintenance of spleen structure, while surface LT expressed by T cells provides a complementary but distinct signal; and (iii). in a non-transgenic model, expression of lymphoid tissue chemokines is only minimally dependent on the expression of surface LT complex on B and T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei V Tumanov
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology,Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
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400
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Müller G, Höpken UE, Lipp M. The impact of CCR7 and CXCR5 on lymphoid organ development and systemic immunity. Immunol Rev 2003; 195:117-35. [PMID: 12969315 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065x.2003.00073.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The development of secondary lymphoid organs is a complex process dependent on a coordinated interaction of cells of hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic origin. In this context, chemokines and cytokines belonging to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)/lymphotoxin (LT) family are critical signaling molecules during the initial steps of lymph node and Peyer's patch organogenesis. Homeostatic chemokines, such as CXCL13, CCL21, and CCL19, as well as their corresponding receptors, CXCR5 and CCR7, have now been shown to closely cooperate in the development of lymphoid organs and the maintenance of lymphoid tissue microarchitecture. We summarize recent data on the function of CXCR5 and CCR7 and their intricate connection to the TNF/LT system in order to refine the current model of lymphoid organ development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerd Müller
- Department of Molecular Tumor Genetics and Immunogenetics, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Berlin, Germany
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