401
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Erpenbeck L, Gruhn AL, Kudryasheva G, Günay G, Meyer D, Busse J, Neubert E, Schön MP, Rehfeldt F, Kruss S. Effect of Adhesion and Substrate Elasticity on Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2320. [PMID: 31632402 PMCID: PMC6781793 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells. Upon stimulation, they are able to decondense and release their chromatin as neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). This process (NETosis) is part of immune defense mechanisms but also plays an important role in many chronic and inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, and cancer. For this reason, much effort has been invested into understanding biochemical signaling pathways in NETosis. However, the impact of the mechanical micro-environment and adhesion on NETosis is not well-understood. Here, we studied how adhesion and especially substrate elasticity affect NETosis. We employed polyacrylamide (PAA) gels with distinctly defined elasticities (Young's modulus E) within the physiologically relevant range from 1 to 128 kPa and coated the gels with integrin ligands (collagen I, fibrinogen). Neutrophils were cultured on these substrates and stimulated with potent inducers of NETosis: phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Interestingly, PMA-induced NETosis was neither affected by substrate elasticity nor by different integrin ligands. In contrast, for LPS stimulation, NETosis rates increased with increasing substrate elasticity (E > 20 kPa). LPS-induced NETosis increased with increasing cell contact area, while PMA-induced NETosis did not require adhesion at all. Furthermore, inhibition of phosphatidylinositide 3 kinase (PI3K), which is involved in adhesion signaling, completely abolished LPS-induced NETosis but only slightly decreased PMA-induced NETosis. In summary, we show that LPS-induced NETosis depends on adhesion and substrate elasticity while PMA-induced NETosis is completely independent of adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luise Erpenbeck
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Antonia Luise Gruhn
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Galina Kudryasheva
- Third Institute of Physics–Biophysics, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Gökhan Günay
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Julia Busse
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Elsa Neubert
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael P. Schön
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
- Lower Saxony Institute of Occupational Dermatology, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Florian Rehfeldt
- Third Institute of Physics–Biophysics, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kruss
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Göttingen University, Göttingen, Germany
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402
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Lazzaretto B, Fadeel B. Intra- and Extracellular Degradation of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps by Macrophages and Dendritic Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 203:2276-2290. [PMID: 31519860 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) composed of nuclear DNA associated with histones and granule proteins are involved in the extracellular killing of pathogens. Excessive NET formation has been implicated in several noninfectious pathological conditions. The disposal of NETs is, therefore, important to prevent inadvertent effects resulting from the continued presence of NETs in the extracellular environment. In this study, we investigated the interaction of NETs released by freshly isolated, PMA-stimulated primary human neutrophils with primary human monocyte-derived macrophages or dendritic cells (DCs). NETs were internalized by macrophages, and removal of the protein component prevented engulfment of NETs, whereas complexation with LL-37 restored the uptake of "naked" (protein-free) NETs. NETs were also found to dampen the bacterial LPS-induced maturation of DCs. Cytokine profiling was conducted by using a multiplex array following the interaction of NETs with macrophages or DCs, and NETs alone were found to be noninflammatory, whereas immunomodulatory effects were noted in the presence of LPS with significant upregulation of IL-1β secretion, and a marked suppression of other LPS-induced factors including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in both cell types. Moreover, macrophage digestion of NETs was dependent on TREX1 (also known as DNaseIII), but not DNaseII, whereas extracellular DNase1L3-mediated degradation of NETs was observed for DCs. Collectively, these findings shed light on the interactions between NETs and phagocytic cells and provide new insights regarding the clearance of NETs, double-edged swords of innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Lazzaretto
- Division of Molecular Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bengt Fadeel
- Division of Molecular Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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403
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Khan MA, D'Ovidio A, Tran H, Palaniyar N. Anthracyclines Suppress Both NADPH Oxidase- Dependent and -Independent NETosis in Human Neutrophils. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11091328. [PMID: 31500300 PMCID: PMC6770146 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11091328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are cytotoxic DNA-protein complexes that play positive and negative roles in combating infection, inflammation, organ damage, autoimmunity, sepsis and cancer. However, NETosis regulatory effects of most of the clinically used drugs are not clearly established. Several recent studies highlight the relevance of NETs in promoting both cancer cell death and metastasis. Here, we screened the NETosis regulatory ability of 126 compounds belonging to 39 classes of drugs commonly used for treating cancer, blood cell disorders and other diseases. Our studies show that anthracyclines (e.g., epirubicin, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, and idarubicin) consistently suppress both NADPH oxidase-dependent and -independent types of NETosis in human neutrophils, ex vivo. The intercalating property of anthracycline may be enough to alter the transcription initiation and lead NETosis inhibition. Notably, the inhibitory doses of anthracyclines neither suppress the production of reactive oxygen species that are necessary for antimicrobial functions nor induce apoptotic cell death in neutrophils. Therefore, anthracyclines are a major class of drug that suppresses NETosis. The dexrazoxane, a cardioprotective agent, used for limiting the side effects of anthracyclines, neither affect NETosis nor alter the ability of anthracyclines to suppress NETosis. Hence, at correct doses, anthracyclines together with dexrazoxane could be considered as a therapeutic candidate drug for suppressing unwanted NETosis in NET-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meraj A Khan
- Program in Translational Medicine, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, 686, Bay St., Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3K1 Canada
| | - Adam D'Ovidio
- Program in Translational Medicine, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, 686, Bay St., Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
- Applied Clinical Pharmacology Program, and 4 Institute of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3K1, Canada
| | - Harvard Tran
- Program in Translational Medicine, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, 686, Bay St., Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3K1 Canada
| | - Nades Palaniyar
- Program in Translational Medicine, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, 686, Bay St., Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada.
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3K1 Canada.
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404
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Silva JC, Rodrigues NC, Thompson‐Souza GA, Muniz VDS, Neves JS, Figueiredo RT. Mac‐1 triggers neutrophil DNA extracellular trap formation to
Aspergillus fumigatus
independently of PAD4 histone citrullination. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 107:69-83. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.4a0119-009rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Juliana C. Silva
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de GóesUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Najara C. Rodrigues
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de GóesUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | | | - Valdirene de S. Muniz
- Instituto de Ciências BiomédicasUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Josiane S. Neves
- Instituto de Ciências BiomédicasUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Rodrigo T. Figueiredo
- Campus de Duque de CaxiasUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Duque de Caxias Brazil
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405
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Mondal S, Gong X, Zhang X, Salinger AJ, Zheng L, Sen S, Weerapana E, Zhang X, Thompson PR. Halogen Bonding Increases the Potency and Isozyme Selectivity of Protein Arginine Deiminase 1 Inhibitors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201906334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Mondal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular PharmacologyUniversity of Massachusetts Medical School 364 Plantation street Worcester MA 01605 USA
| | - Xuefeng Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive MedicineNanjing Medical University Nanjing 211166 China
| | - Xiaoqian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive MedicineNanjing Medical University Nanjing 211166 China
| | - Ari J. Salinger
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular PharmacologyUniversity of Massachusetts Medical School 364 Plantation street Worcester MA 01605 USA
- Department of ChemistryBoston College Chestnut Hill MA 02467 USA
| | - Li Zheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular PharmacologyUniversity of Massachusetts Medical School 364 Plantation street Worcester MA 01605 USA
| | - Sudeshna Sen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular PharmacologyUniversity of Massachusetts Medical School 364 Plantation street Worcester MA 01605 USA
| | | | - Xuesen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive MedicineNanjing Medical University Nanjing 211166 China
| | - Paul R. Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular PharmacologyUniversity of Massachusetts Medical School 364 Plantation street Worcester MA 01605 USA
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406
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Moschonas IC, Tselepis AD. The pathway of neutrophil extracellular traps towards atherosclerosis and thrombosis. Atherosclerosis 2019; 288:9-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.06.919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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407
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Kalia N, Singh J, Kaur M. Immunopathology of Recurrent Vulvovaginal Infections: New Aspects and Research Directions. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2034. [PMID: 31555269 PMCID: PMC6722227 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Recurrent vulvovaginal infections (RVVI), a devastating group of mucosal infection, are severely affecting women's quality of life. Our understanding of the vaginal defense mechanisms have broadened recently with studies uncovering the inflammatory nature of bacterial vaginosis, inflammatory responses against novel virulence factors, innate Type 17 cells/IL-17 axis, neutrophils mediated killing of pathogens by a novel mechanism, and oxidative stress during vaginal infections. However, the pathogens have fine mechanisms to subvert or manipulate the host immune responses, hijack them and use them for their own advantage. The odds of hijacking increases, due to impaired immune responses, the net magnitude of which is the result of numerous genetic variations, present in multiple host genes, detailed in this review. Thus, by underlining the role of the host immune responses in disease etiology, modern research has clarified a major hypothesis shift in the pathophilosophy of RVVI. This knowledge can further be used to develop efficient immune-based diagnosis and treatment strategies for this enigmatic disease conditions. As for instance, plasma-derived MBL replacement, adoptive T-cell, and antibody-based therapies have been reported to be safe and efficacious in infectious diseases. Therefore, these emerging immune-therapies could possibly be the future therapeutic options for RVVI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namarta Kalia
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Jatinder Singh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
| | - Manpreet Kaur
- Department of Human Genetics, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
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408
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Apel F, Zychlinsky A, Kenny EF. The role of neutrophil extracellular traps in rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2019; 14:467-475. [PMID: 29930301 DOI: 10.1038/s41584-018-0039-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Rheumatic diseases are a collection of disorders defined by the presence of inflammation and destruction of joints and internal organs. A common feature of these diseases is the presence of autoantibodies targeting molecules commonly expressed in neutrophils. These preformed mediators are released by neutrophils but not by other immune cells such as macrophages. Neutrophils, major players in the host innate immune response, initiate a cell death mechanism termed neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation as a way to ensnare pathogens. NETs are also a source of released self-molecules found in rheumatic diseases. Subsequently, research on the role of NETs in the onset, progression and resolution of inflammation in rheumatic diseases has intensified. This Review has two aims. First, it aims to highlight the mechanisms required for the generation of NETs, the research landscape of which is rapidly changing. Second, it aims to discuss the role of neutrophils and NETs in systemic lupus erythematosus, vasculitis (specifically anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody-associated vasculitis), rheumatoid arthritis and gout. Our goal is to clarify the field of NET research in rheumatic diseases in the hope of improving the therapeutic approaches utilized for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Falko Apel
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Arturo Zychlinsky
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Elaine F Kenny
- Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.
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409
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Ravindran M, Khan MA, Palaniyar N. Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation: Physiology, Pathology, and Pharmacology. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9080365. [PMID: 31416173 PMCID: PMC6722781 DOI: 10.3390/biom9080365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), a unique DNA framework decorated with antimicrobial peptides, have been in the scientific limelight for their role in a variety of pathologies ranging from cystic fibrosis to cancer. The formation of NETs, as well as relevant regulatory mechanisms, physiological factors, and pharmacological agents have not been systematically discussed in the context of their beneficial and pathological aspects. Novel forms of NET formation including vital NET formation continue to be uncovered, however, there remain fundamental questions around established mechanisms such as NADPH-oxidase (Nox)-dependent and Nox-independent NET formation. Whether NET formation takes place in the tissue versus the bloodstream, internal factors (e.g. reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and transcription factor activation), and external factors (e.g. alkaline pH and hypertonic conditions), have all been demonstrated to influence specific NET pathways. Elements of neutrophil biology such as transcription and mitochondria, which were previously of unknown significance, have been identified as critical mediators of NET formation through facilitating chromatin decondensation and generating ROS, respectively. While promising therapeutics inhibiting ROS, transcription, and gasdermin D are being investigated, neutrophil phagocytosis plays a critical role in host defense and any therapies targeting NET formation must avoid impairing the physiological functions of these cells. This review summarizes what is known in the many domains of NET research, highlights the most relevant challenges in the field, and inspires new questions that can bring us closer to a unified model of NET formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mithunan Ravindran
- Program in Translational Medicine, SickKids Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G1X8, Canada
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S1A8, Canada
| | - Meraj A Khan
- Program in Translational Medicine, SickKids Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G1X8, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S1A8, Canada
| | - Nades Palaniyar
- Program in Translational Medicine, SickKids Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G1X8, Canada.
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S1A8, Canada.
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S1A8, Canada.
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410
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Hamam HJ, Palaniyar N. Post-Translational Modifications in NETosis and NETs-Mediated Diseases. Biomolecules 2019; 9:E369. [PMID: 31416265 PMCID: PMC6723044 DOI: 10.3390/biom9080369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
: Neutrophils undergo a unique form of cell death that generates neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that may help to neutralize invading pathogens and restore homeostasis. However, uncontrolled NET formation (NETosis) can result in numerous diseases that adversely affect health. Recent studies further elucidate the mechanistic details of the different forms of NETosis and their common end structure, as NETs were constantly found to contain DNA, modified histones and cytotoxic enzymes. In fact, emerging evidence reveal that the post translational modifications (PTMs) of histones in neutrophils have a critical role in regulating neutrophil death. Histone citrullination is shown to promote a rapid form of NET formation independent of NADPH oxidase (NOX), which relies on calcium influx. Interestingly, few studies suggest an association between histone citrullination and other types of PTMs to control cell survival and death, such as histone methylation. Even more exciting is the finding that histone acetylation has a biphasic effect upon NETosis, where histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors promote baseline, NOX-dependent and -independent NETosis. However, increasing levels of histone acetylation suppresses NETosis, and to switch neutrophil death to apoptosis. Interestingly, in the presence of NETosis-promoting stimuli, high levels of HDACis limit both NETosis and apoptosis, and promote neutrophil survival. Recent studies also reveal the importance of the PTMs of neutrophils in influencing numerous pathologies. Histone modifications in NETs can act as a double-edged sword, as they are capable of altering multiple types of neutrophil death, and influencing numerous NET-mediated diseases, such as acute lung injury (ALI), thrombosis, sepsis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and cancer progression. A clear understanding of the role of different PTMs in neutrophils would be important for an understanding of the molecular mechanisms of NETosis, and to appropriately treat NETs-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussein J Hamam
- Program in Translational Medicine, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Nades Palaniyar
- Program in Translational Medicine, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada.
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada.
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411
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Abstract
Neutrophils play a central role in innate immune defense. Advances in neutrophil biology have brought to light the capacity of neutrophils to release their decondensed chromatin and form large extracellular DNA networks called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs are produced in response to many infectious and noninfectious stimuli and, together with fibrin, block the invasion of pathogens. However, their formation in inflamed blood vessels produces a scaffold that supports thrombosis, generates neo-antigens favoring autoimmunity, and aggravates damage in ischemia/reperfusion injury. NET formation can also be induced by cancer and promotes tumor progression. Formation of NETs within organs can be immediately detrimental, such as in lung alveoli, where they affect respiration, or they can be harmful over longer periods of time. For example, NETs initiate excessive deposition of collagen, resulting in fibrosis, thus likely contributing to heart failure. Here, we summarize the latest knowledge on NET generation and discuss how excessive NET formation mediates propagation of thrombosis and inflammation and, thereby, contributes to various diseases. There are many ways in which NET formation could be averted or NETs neutralized to prevent their detrimental consequences, and we will provide an overview of these possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Sorvillo
- From the Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine (N.S., D.C., D.D.W.), Boston Children's Hospital, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (N.S., D.C., D.D.W.)
| | - Deya Cherpokova
- From the Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine (N.S., D.C., D.D.W.), Boston Children's Hospital, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (N.S., D.C., D.D.W.)
| | - Kimberly Martinod
- Laboratory for Thrombosis Research, KU Leuven Campus Kulak Kortrijk, Belgium (K.M.)
| | - Denisa D Wagner
- From the Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine (N.S., D.C., D.D.W.), Boston Children's Hospital, MA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology (D.D.W.), Boston Children's Hospital, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (N.S., D.C., D.D.W.)
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412
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Mondal S, Gong X, Zhang X, Salinger AJ, Zheng L, Sen S, Weerapana E, Zhang X, Thompson PR. Halogen Bonding Increases the Potency and Isozyme Selectivity of Protein Arginine Deiminase 1 Inhibitors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:12476-12480. [PMID: 31276611 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201906334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Protein arginine deiminases (PADs) hydrolyze the side chain of arginine to form citrulline. Aberrant PAD activity is associated with rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, lupus, and certain cancers. These pathologies established the PADs as therapeutic targets and multiple PAD inhibitors are known. Herein, we describe the first highly potent PAD1-selective inhibitors (1 and 19). Detailed structure-activity relationships indicate that their potency and selectivity is due to the formation of a halogen bond with PAD1. Importantly, these inhibitors inhibit histone H3 citrullination in HEK293TPAD1 cells and mouse zygotes with excellent potency. Based on this scaffold, we also developed a PAD1-selective activity-based probe that shows remarkable cellular efficacy and proteome selectivity. Based on their potency and selectivity we expect that 1 and 19 will be widely used chemical tools to understand PAD1 biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Mondal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Xuefeng Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Xiaoqian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Ari J Salinger
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.,Department of Chemistry, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
| | - Li Zheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Sudeshna Sen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | | | - Xuesen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Paul R Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
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413
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Keshavan S, Calligari P, Stella L, Fusco L, Delogu LG, Fadeel B. Nano-bio interactions: a neutrophil-centric view. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:569. [PMID: 31358731 PMCID: PMC6662811 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1806-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophils are key components of the innate arm of the immune system and represent the frontline of host defense against intruding pathogens. However, neutrophils can also cause damage to the host. Nanomaterials are being developed for a multitude of different purposes and these minute materials may find their way into the body through deliberate or inadvertent exposure; understanding nanomaterial interactions with the immune system is therefore of critical importance. However, whereas numerous studies have focused on macrophages, less attention is devoted to nanomaterial interactions with neutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes in the blood. We discuss the impact of engineered nanomaterials on neutrophils and how neutrophils, in turn, may digest certain carbon-based materials such as carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide. We also discuss the role of the corona of proteins adsorbed onto the surface of nanomaterials and whether nanomaterials are sensed as pathogens by cells of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Keshavan
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paolo Calligari
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Stella
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Fusco
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Lucia Gemma Delogu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Città della Speranza, Padua, Italy
| | - Bengt Fadeel
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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414
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Skopelja-Gardner S, Theprungsirikul J, Lewis KA, Hammond JH, Carlson KM, Hazlett HF, Nymon A, Nguyen D, Berwin BL, Hogan DA, Rigby WFC. Regulation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa-Mediated Neutrophil Extracellular Traps. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1670. [PMID: 31379861 PMCID: PMC6657737 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most prevalent opportunistic pathogen in the airways of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. The pulmonary disorder is characterized by recurrent microbial infections and an exaggerated host inflammatory immune response led primarily by influx of neutrophils. Under these conditions, chronic colonization with P. aeruginosa is associated with diminished pulmonary function and increased morbidity and mortality. P. aeruginosa has a wide array of genetic mechanisms that facilitate its persistent colonization of the airway despite extensive innate host immune responses. Loss of function mutations in the quorum sensing regulatory gene lasR have been shown to confer survival advantage and a more pathogenic character to P. aeruginosa in CF patients. However, the strategies used by LasR-deficient P. aeruginosa to modulate neutrophil-mediated bactericidal functions are unknown. We sought to understand the role of LasR in P. aeruginosa-mediated neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation, an important anti-microbial mechanism deployed by neutrophils, the first-line responder in the infected airway. We observe mechanistic and phenotypic differences between NETs triggered by LasR-sufficient and LasR-deficient P. aeruginosa strains. We uncover that LasR-deficient P. aeruginosa strains fail to induce robust NET formation in both human and murine neutrophils, independently of bacterial motility or LPS expression. LasR does not mediate NET release via downstream quorum sensing signaling pathways but rather via transcriptional regulation of virulence factors, including, but not restricted to, LasB elastase and LasA protease. Finally, our studies uncover the differential requirements for NADPH oxidase in NET formation triggered by different P. aeruginosa strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sladjana Skopelja-Gardner
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Jomkuan Theprungsirikul
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Kimberley A Lewis
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - John H Hammond
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Kyrsten M Carlson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Haley F Hazlett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Amanda Nymon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Dao Nguyen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Brent L Berwin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - Deborah A Hogan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
| | - William F C Rigby
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States.,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, United States
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415
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Thålin C, Hisada Y, Lundström S, Mackman N, Wallén H. Neutrophil Extracellular Traps: Villains and Targets in Arterial, Venous, and Cancer-Associated Thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2019; 39:1724-1738. [PMID: 31315434 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.119.312463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated a role of neutrophils in both venous and arterial thrombosis. A key prothrombotic feature of neutrophils is their ability to release web-like structures composed of DNA filaments coated with histones and granule proteins referred to as neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs were discovered over a decade ago as part of our first line of host defense against invading microorganisms. Although NETs have a protective role against pathogens, recent data suggest that an uncontrolled and excessive NET formation within the vasculature may contribute to pathological thrombotic disorders. In vitro studies suggest that NETs promote vessel occlusion by providing a scaffold for platelets, red blood cells, extracellular vesicles, and procoagulant molecules, such as von Willebrand factor and tissue factor. In addition, NET components enhance coagulation by both activating the intrinsic pathway and degrading an inhibitor of the extrinsic pathway (tissue factor pathway inhibitor). NET formation has, therefore, been proposed to contribute to thrombus formation and propagation in arterial, venous, and cancer-associated thrombosis. This review will describe animal and human studies suggesting a role of NETs in the pathogenesis of various thrombotic disorders. Targeting NETs may be a novel approach to reduce thrombosis without affecting hemostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Thålin
- From the Division of Internal Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital (C.T.), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yohei Hisada
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (Y.H., N.M.)
| | - Staffan Lundström
- Department of Oncology-Pathology (S.L.), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Palliative Care Services and R&D-Unit, Stockholms Sjukhem Foundation, Sweden (S.L.)
| | - Nigel Mackman
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (Y.H., N.M.)
| | - Håkan Wallén
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine (H.W.), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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416
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van Breda SV, Vokalova L, Neugebauer C, Rossi SW, Hahn S, Hasler P. Computational Methodologies for the in vitro and in situ Quantification of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1562. [PMID: 31354718 PMCID: PMC6635468 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are a neutrophil defensive mechanism where chromatin is expelled together with antimicrobial proteins in response to a number of stimuli. Even though beneficial in many cases, their dysfunction has been implicated in many diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. Accurate quantification of NETs is of utmost importance for correctly studying their role in various diseases, especially when considering them as therapeutic targets. Unfortunately, NET quantification has a number of limitations. However, recent developments in computational methodologies for quantifying NETs have vastly improved the ability to study NETs. Methods range from using ImageJ to user friendly applications and to more sophisticated machine-learning approaches. These various methods are reviewed and discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane V van Breda
- Laboratory for Prenatal Medicine, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Division of Rheumatology, Kantonsspital Aarau, Aarau, Switzerland
| | - Lenka Vokalova
- Laboratory for Prenatal Medicine, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Claire Neugebauer
- Laboratory for Prenatal Medicine, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Simona W Rossi
- Laboratory for Prenatal Medicine, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sinuhe Hahn
- Laboratory for Prenatal Medicine, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Paul Hasler
- Division of Rheumatology, Kantonsspital Aarau, Aarau, Switzerland
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417
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Petretto A, Bruschi M, Pratesi F, Croia C, Candiano G, Ghiggeri G, Migliorini P. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NET) induced by different stimuli: A comparative proteomic analysis. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218946. [PMID: 31283757 PMCID: PMC6613696 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NET) formation is part of the neutrophil response to infections, but excessive or inappropriate NETosis may trigger the production of autoantibodies and cause organ damage in autoimmune disorders. Spontaneously netting neutrophils are not frequent and induction of NET in vitro by selected stimuli is necessary to investigate their structure. In the present work, the protein composition and post-translational modifications of NET produced under different stimuli have been studied by means of proteomic analysis. Neutrophils from healthy donors were stimulated by PMA, A23187, Escherichia coli LPS or untreated; after three hours, cells were washed, treated with DNase and supernatants collected for mass spectrometry. Data were analyzed by unsupervised hierarchical clustering analyses. We identified proteins contained in NETs of any source or exclusive of one stimulus: LPS-induced and spontaneous NET diverge in protein composition, while PMA- and A23187-induced NET appear more similar. Among the post-translational modifications we examined, methionine sulfoxidation is frequent especially in PMA- and LPS-induced NETs. Myeloperoxidase is the protein more extensively modified. Thus, proteomic analysis indicates that NETs induced by different stimuli are heterogeneous in terms of both protein composition and post-translational modifications, suggesting that NET induced in different conditions may have different biological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petretto
- Core Facilities-Proteomics Laboratory, Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Maurizio Bruschi
- Laboratory of Molecular Nephrology, Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Federico Pratesi
- Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Cristina Croia
- Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giovanni Candiano
- Laboratory of Molecular Nephrology, Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Gianmarco Ghiggeri
- Division of Nephrology, Dialysis, and Transplantation, Scientific Institute for Research and Health Care (IRCCS), Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genoa, Italy
| | - Paola Migliorini
- Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- * E-mail:
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418
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Hook JS, Cao M, Potera RM, Alsmadi NZ, Schmidtke DW, Moreland JG. Nox2 Regulates Platelet Activation and NET Formation in the Lung. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1472. [PMID: 31338092 PMCID: PMC6626916 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The mortality rate of patients with critical illness has decreased significantly over the past two decades, but the rate of decline has slowed recently, with organ dysfunction as a major driver of morbidity and mortality. Among patients with the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), acute lung injury is a common component with serious morbidity. Previous studies in our laboratory using a murine model of SIRS demonstrated a key role for NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2)-derived reactive oxygen species in the resolution of inflammation. Nox2-deficient (gp91phox−/y) mice develop profound lung injury secondary to SIRS and fail to resolve inflammation. Alveolar macrophages from gp91phox−/y mice express greater levels of chemotactic and pro-inflammatory factors at baseline providing evidence that Nox2 in alveolar macrophages is critical for homeostasis. Based on the lung pathology with increased thrombosis in gp91phox−/y mice, and the known role of platelets in the inflammatory process, we hypothesized that Nox2 represses platelet activation. In the mouse model, we found that platelet-derived chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 4 (CXCL4) and CXCL7 were increased in the bronchoalveolar fluid of gp91phox−/y mice at baseline and 24 h post intraperitoneal zymosan-induced SIRS consistent with platelet activation. Activated platelets interact with leukocytes via P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 (PSGL-1). Within 2 h of SIRS induction, alveolar neutrophil PSGL-1 expression was higher in gp91phox−/y mice. Platelet-neutrophil interactions were decreased in the peripheral blood of gp91phox−/y mice consistent with movement of activated platelets to the lung of mice lacking Nox2. Based on the severe lung pathology and the role of platelets in the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), we evaluated NET production. In contrast to previous studies demonstrating Nox2-dependent NET formation, staining of lung sections from mice 24 h post zymosan injection revealed a large number of citrullinated histone 3 (H3CIT) and myeloperoxidase positive cells consistent with NET formation in gp91phox−/y mice that was virtually absent in WT mice. In addition, H3CIT protein expression and PAD4 activity were higher in the lung of gp91phox−/y mice post SIRS induction. These results suggest that Nox2 plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating platelet activation and NET formation in the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica S Hook
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Mou Cao
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Renee M Potera
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Nesreen Z Alsmadi
- Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, United States
| | - David W Schmidtke
- Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, United States
| | - Jessica G Moreland
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States.,Department of Microbiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
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419
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Extracellular DNA traps in inflammation, injury and healing. Nat Rev Nephrol 2019; 15:559-575. [PMID: 31213698 DOI: 10.1038/s41581-019-0163-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Following strong activation signals, several types of immune cells reportedly release chromatin and granular proteins into the extracellular space, forming DNA traps. This process is especially prominent in neutrophils but also occurs in other innate immune cells such as macrophages, eosinophils, basophils and mast cells. Initial reports demonstrated that extracellular traps belong to the bactericidal and anti-fungal armamentarium of leukocytes, but subsequent studies also linked trap formation to a variety of human diseases. These pathological roles of extracellular DNA traps are now the focus of intensive biomedical research. The type of pathology associated with the release of extracellular DNA traps is mainly determined by the site of trap formation and the way in which these traps are further processed. Targeting the formation of aberrant extracellular DNA traps or promoting their efficient clearance are attractive goals for future therapeutic interventions, but the manifold actions of extracellular DNA traps complicate these approaches.
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420
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Nanosecond pulsed electric fields induce extracellular release of chromosomal DNA and histone citrullination in neutrophil-differentiated HL-60 cells. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8451. [PMID: 31186478 PMCID: PMC6559984 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44817-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEFs) have gained attention as a novel physical stimulus for life sciences. Although cancer therapy is currently their promising application, nsPEFs have further potential owing to their ability to elicit various cellular responses. This study aimed to explore stimulatory actions of nsPEFs, and we used HL-60 cells that were differentiated into neutrophils under cultured conditions. Exposure of neutrophil-differentiated HL-60 cells to nsPEFs led to the extracellular release of chromosomal DNA, which appears to be equivalent to neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that serve as a host defense mechanism against pathogens. Fluorometric measurement of extracellular DNA showed that DNA extrusion was rapidly induced after nsPEF exposure and increased over time. Western blot analysis demonstrated that nsPEFs induced histone citrullination that is the hydrolytic conversion of arginine to citrulline on histones and facilitates chromatin decondensation. DNA extrusion and histone citrullination by nsPEFs were cell type-specific and Ca2+-dependent events. Taken together, these observations suggest that nsPEFs drive the mechanism for neutrophil-specific immune response without infection, highlighting a novel aspect of nsPEFs as a physical stimulus.
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421
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Yin K, Yang Z, Gong Y, Wang D, Lin H. The antagonistic effect of Se on the Pb-weakening formation of neutrophil extracellular traps in chicken neutrophils. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2019; 173:225-234. [PMID: 30772712 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Neutrophils represent an important part of the body's innate immunity and can resist the invasion of pathogenic microorganisms by releasing neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). In this study, we investigated the toxic effects of lead (Pb) on the release of NETs, the antagonism of selenium (Se) on Pb toxicity and the potential molecular mechanisms. Our model was an in vitro exposure model for the addition of Se, Pb or both in the culture medium and was based on the separation of neutrophils from the peripheral blood of healthy chickens. Phorbol-myristate-acetate (PMA) was used as a stimulant. The scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy results showed that Pb weakened the PMA-induced formation of NETs. Exposure to Pb reduced the expression of the extracellular regulated protein kinase (ERK) pathway and the respiratory burst. Exposure to Pb also attenuated the release of Ca2+ in the endoplasmic reticulum mediated by the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R). These are two ways by which Pb decreases the formation of NETs. Pb also attenuates the expression levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and neutrophil elastase (NE), and attenuates histone removal by affecting the expression of different protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms. In contrast, Se can reduce the toxic damage caused by Pb. These results indicate that exposure to Pb decreases the formation of NETs, while Se can antagonize the toxicity of Pb to allow the formation of NETs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Yin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Zijiang Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Yingzheng Gong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Dongxu Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Hongjin Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China; Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China.
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422
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Driouich A, Smith C, Ropitaux M, Chambard M, Boulogne I, Bernard S, Follet-Gueye ML, Vicré M, Moore J. Root extracellular traps versus neutrophil extracellular traps in host defence, a case of functional convergence? Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:1685-1700. [PMID: 31134732 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The root cap releases cells that produce massive amounts of mucilage containing polysaccharides, proteoglycans, extracellular DNA (exDNA) and a variety of antimicrobial compounds. The released cells - known as border cells or border-like cells - and mucilage secretions form networks that are defined as root extracellular traps (RETs). RETs are important players in root immunity. In animals, phagocytes are some of the most abundant white blood cells in circulation and are very important for immunity. These cells combat pathogens through multiple defence mechanisms, including the release of exDNA-containing extracellular traps (ETs). Traps of neutrophil origin are abbreviated herein as NETs. Similar to phagocytes, plant root cap-originating cells actively contribute to frontline defence against pathogens. RETs and NETs are thus components of the plant and animal immune systems, respectively, that exhibit similar compositional and functional properties. Herein, we describe and discuss the formation, molecular composition and functional similarities of these similar but different extracellular traps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azeddine Driouich
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, Normandie Université, Université de Rouen, 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76000, Rouen, France.,Structure Fédérative de Recherche « Normandie-Végétal » - FED4277, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Carine Smith
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Science Faculty, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Marc Ropitaux
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, Normandie Université, Université de Rouen, 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76000, Rouen, France.,Structure Fédérative de Recherche « Normandie-Végétal » - FED4277, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Marie Chambard
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, Normandie Université, Université de Rouen, 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76000, Rouen, France.,Structure Fédérative de Recherche « Normandie-Végétal » - FED4277, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Isabelle Boulogne
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, Normandie Université, Université de Rouen, 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76000, Rouen, France.,Structure Fédérative de Recherche « Normandie-Végétal » - FED4277, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Sophie Bernard
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, Normandie Université, Université de Rouen, 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76000, Rouen, France.,Structure Fédérative de Recherche « Normandie-Végétal » - FED4277, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Marie-Laure Follet-Gueye
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, Normandie Université, Université de Rouen, 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76000, Rouen, France.,Structure Fédérative de Recherche « Normandie-Végétal » - FED4277, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Maïté Vicré
- Laboratoire de Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale, EA4358, Normandie Université, Université de Rouen, 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76000, Rouen, France.,Structure Fédérative de Recherche « Normandie-Végétal » - FED4277, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - John Moore
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
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423
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Zhou E, Conejeros I, Velásquez ZD, Muñoz-Caro T, Gärtner U, Hermosilla C, Taubert A. Simultaneous and Positively Correlated NET Formation and Autophagy in Besnoitia besnoiti Tachyzoite-Exposed Bovine Polymorphonuclear Neutrophils. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1131. [PMID: 31191523 PMCID: PMC6540735 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Given that B. besnoiti tachyzoites infect host endothelial cells of vessels in vivo, they become potential targets for professional phagocytes [e.g., polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN)] when in search for adequate host cells or in case of host cell lysis. It was recently reported that B. besnoiti-tachyzoites can efficiently be trapped by neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) released by bovine PMN. So far, the potential role of autophagy in parasite-triggered NET formation is unclear. Thus, we here analyzed autophagosome formation and activation of AMP-activated protein kinase α (AMPKα) in potentially NET-forming innate leukocytes being exposed to B. besnoiti tachyzoites. Blood was collected from healthy adult dairy cows, and bovine PMN were isolated via density gradient centrifugation. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed PMN to undergo NET formation upon contact with B. besnoiti tachyzoites. Nuclear area expansion (NAE) analysis and cell-free and anchored NETs quantification were performed in B. besnoiti-induced NET formation. Interestingly, tachyzoites of B. besnoiti additionally induced LC3B-related autophagosome formation in parallel to NET formation in bovine PMN. Notably, both rapamycin- and wortmannin-treatments failed to influence B. besnoiti-triggered NET formation and autophagosome formation. Also, isolated NETs fail to induce autophagy suggesting independence between both cellular processes. Finally, enhanced phosphorylation of AMP activated kinase α (AMPKα), a key regulator molecule of autophagy, was observed within the first minutes of interaction in tachyzoite-exposed PMN thereby emphasizing that B. besnoiti-triggered NET formation indeed occurs in parallel to autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ershun Zhou
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Iván Conejeros
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Zahady D Velásquez
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Tamara Muñoz-Caro
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Ulrich Gärtner
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Carlos Hermosilla
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Anja Taubert
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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424
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Dahlgren C, Karlsson A, Bylund J. Intracellular Neutrophil Oxidants: From Laboratory Curiosity to Clinical Reality. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 202:3127-3134. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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425
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UVA and UVB radiation induce the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps by human polymorphonuclear cells. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2019; 196:111511. [PMID: 31129510 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2019.111511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Prolonged exposure of the skin to ultraviolet radiation (UV) leads to its damage and loss of protective properties. This condition called photoaging of the skin is caused by a number of destructive factors, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and proteolytic enzymes that cause damage to the extracellular matrix, e.g. collagen fibers. Many cells of the immune system, including neutrophils, are involved in the photoaging process. The presence of neutrophils in the skin exposed to UV irradiation is known; however, the mechanism of neutrophil activity at these conditions remains unclear. In our study, we focused on the ability of neutrophils to release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and the role of these structures in the photoaging process. NET release occurs in response to various stimuli; however, we hereby showed that the UVA and UVB radiation that reaches the Earth's surface could activate the mechanism of netosis. UV-induced netosis was much faster than that activated by chemical or biological factors; however, it also occurred due to the production of ROS, known signal mediators in netosis. In this work, we also identified the probable netosis signaling pathway involved in the neutrophil response to UV. The participation of NET components may explain the ongoing process of skin photoaging, but it is also important to indicate netosis as a potential target for skin protection therapy. Antioxidants tested in this work, such as N-acetylcysteine, ethamsylate, as well as vitamin B1 (thiamine), can successfully inhibit UV-induced netosis, and thus be used as protective components against the negative effects of solar radiation.
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426
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Petchakup C, Tay HM, Li KHH, Hou HW. Integrated inertial-impedance cytometry for rapid label-free leukocyte isolation and profiling of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). LAB ON A CHIP 2019; 19:1736-1746. [PMID: 31020286 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00250b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Circulating leukocytes are indispensable components of the immune system, and rapid analysis of their native state or functionalities can help to unravel their pathophysiological roles and identify novel prognostic biomarkers in health and diseases. Herein we report a novel high throughput "sample-in-answer-out" integrated platform for continuous leukocyte sorting and single-cell electrical profiling in a label-free manner. The multi-staged platform enables isolation of neutrophils and monocytes from diluted or lysed blood samples directly within minutes based on Dean flow fractionation (DFF) (stage 1). Next DFF-purified leukocytes are inertially focused in serpentine channels into a single stream (stage 2) prior to impedance detection (stage 3). As a proof-of-concept for neutrophil functional characterization towards diabetes testing, we characterized the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETosis) of healthy and glucose-treated neutrophils and observed significant changes in dielectric properties (size and opacity) between both groups. Interestingly, the NETosis profiles induced by calcium ionophore (CaI) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) were also electrically different, which could be attributed to the differential rates of cell enlargement and attenuated membrane permeability. Taken together, these results clearly demonstrated the potential of the developed platform for rapid (∼mins) and label-free leukocyte profiling and the use of impedance signatures as novel functional biomarkers for point-of-care testing in diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chayakorn Petchakup
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Block N3, 639798 Singapore.
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427
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Nakabo S, Ohmura K, Akizuki S, Murakami K, Nakashima R, Hashimoto M, Yoshifuji H, Tanaka M, Mimori T. Activated neutrophil carbamylates albumin via the release of myeloperoxidase and reactive oxygen species regardless of NETosis. Mod Rheumatol 2019; 30:345-349. [PMID: 30789095 DOI: 10.1080/14397595.2019.1583819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Objective: An anti-carbamylated albumin antibody was detected in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients, and its presence was associated with serum myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels, as we reported previously. Since MPO is a key enzyme for carbamylation and is released by neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), we aimed to demonstrate that NETosis induces carbamylation.Methods: Human neutrophils were isolated from a healthy donor, pre-treated with or without diphenyleneiodonium (DPI, an inhibitor for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS)), Cl-amidine (a peptidylarginine deiminase inhibitor), 4-aminobenzoic acid hydrazide (4-ABAH, an MPO inhibitor), or GW311616A (a neutrophil elastase (NE) inhibitor), and incubated for 8 h with or without phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Proteins in the medium were collected and the carbamylation of albumin was evaluated by Western blotting.Results: The carbamylation of albumin was detected in the culture medium of activated neutrophils. NETosis was observed under the stimulation by PMA. DPI and 4-ABAH inhibited the carbamylation of albumin and NETosis. GW311616A inhibited NETosis, but not carbamylation. Neither carbamylation nor NETosis was inhibited by Cl-amidine.Conclusion: Activated neutrophils may carbamylate ambient albumin, and this is dependent on ROS and MPO, but does not require NETosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuichiro Nakabo
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Systemic Autoimmunity Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Koichiro Ohmura
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shuji Akizuki
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kosaku Murakami
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ran Nakashima
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Motomu Hashimoto
- Department of Advanced Medicine for Rheumatic Diseases, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hajime Yoshifuji
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Masao Tanaka
- Department of Advanced Medicine for Rheumatic Diseases, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tsuneyo Mimori
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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428
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Ahn MH, Han JH, Chwae YJ, Jung JY, Suh CH, Kwon JE, Kim HA. Neutrophil Extracellular Traps May Contribute to the Pathogenesis in Adult-onset Still Disease. J Rheumatol 2019; 46:1560-1569. [PMID: 31043551 DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.181058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NET) has been described as an effector mechanism of polymorphonuclear neutrophils in several inflammatory diseases. Thus, this study was performed to evaluate the role of NET in the pathogenesis of adult-onset Still disease (AOSD). METHODS We determined the serum levels of NET molecules and investigated their associations with clinical disease activities in patients with AOSD. Further, we analyzed the differences in the NETosis response in AOSD patients compared to healthy controls (HC). To explore the in vivo involvement of NET in AOSD, we performed immunohistochemical analysis of skin and lymph node (LN) biopsies for proteins related to NET in patients with active AOSD. RESULTS Serum levels of cell-free DNA, myeloperoxidase (MPO)-DNA complex, and α-defensin were significantly increased in patients with AOSD compared to HC. Serum levels of the NET molecules, cell-free DNA, MPO-DNA, and α-defensin were correlated with several disease activity markers for AOSD. In followup of patients with AOSD after treatment with corticosteroid, the levels of cell-free DNA and α-defensin decreased significantly. On immunohistochemistry, neutrophil elastase-positive and MPO-positive inflammatory cells were detected in skin and LN of patients with AOSD, and were expressed in fiber form in the lesions. The serum from patients with active AOSD induced NETosis in neutrophils from HC. NET molecules induced interleukin 1β production in monocytes, representing a novel mechanism in the pathogenesis of AOSD. CONCLUSION The findings presented here suggest that NET may contribute to the inflammatory response and pathogenesis in AOSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Hyun Ahn
- From the departments of Rheumatology, Pathology, and Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,M.H. Ahn, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.H. Han, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; Y.J. Chwae, MD, PhD, Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.Y. Jung, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; C.H. Suh, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.E. Kwon, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; H.A. Kim, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine. M.H. Ahn and J.H. Han contributed equally to this work
| | - Jae Ho Han
- From the departments of Rheumatology, Pathology, and Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,M.H. Ahn, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.H. Han, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; Y.J. Chwae, MD, PhD, Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.Y. Jung, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; C.H. Suh, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.E. Kwon, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; H.A. Kim, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine. M.H. Ahn and J.H. Han contributed equally to this work
| | - Young-Jun Chwae
- From the departments of Rheumatology, Pathology, and Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,M.H. Ahn, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.H. Han, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; Y.J. Chwae, MD, PhD, Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.Y. Jung, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; C.H. Suh, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.E. Kwon, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; H.A. Kim, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine. M.H. Ahn and J.H. Han contributed equally to this work
| | - Ju-Yang Jung
- From the departments of Rheumatology, Pathology, and Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,M.H. Ahn, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.H. Han, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; Y.J. Chwae, MD, PhD, Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.Y. Jung, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; C.H. Suh, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.E. Kwon, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; H.A. Kim, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine. M.H. Ahn and J.H. Han contributed equally to this work
| | - Chang-Hee Suh
- From the departments of Rheumatology, Pathology, and Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,M.H. Ahn, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.H. Han, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; Y.J. Chwae, MD, PhD, Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.Y. Jung, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; C.H. Suh, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.E. Kwon, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; H.A. Kim, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine. M.H. Ahn and J.H. Han contributed equally to this work
| | - Ji Eun Kwon
- From the departments of Rheumatology, Pathology, and Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,M.H. Ahn, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.H. Han, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; Y.J. Chwae, MD, PhD, Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.Y. Jung, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; C.H. Suh, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.E. Kwon, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; H.A. Kim, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine. M.H. Ahn and J.H. Han contributed equally to this work
| | - Hyoun-Ah Kim
- From the departments of Rheumatology, Pathology, and Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea. .,M.H. Ahn, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.H. Han, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; Y.J. Chwae, MD, PhD, Department of Microbiology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.Y. Jung, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; C.H. Suh, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine; J.E. Kwon, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine; H.A. Kim, MD, PhD, Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine. M.H. Ahn and J.H. Han contributed equally to this work.
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429
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Sondo E, Bertelli R, Pesce E, Ghiggeri GM, Pedemonte N. High-Content Screening Identifies Vanilloids as a Novel Class of Inhibitors of NET Formation. Front Immunol 2019; 10:963. [PMID: 31114589 PMCID: PMC6503056 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils migrate to sites of infection where they phagocytose, degranulate, and/or, in the presence of appropriate stimuli, release decondensed chromatin strands (called neutrophil extracellular traps, NETs) for trapping and possibly killing microorganisms. NET formation is characterized by marked morphological cell changes, in particular within the nucleus. Lytic NET formation can be observed in neutrophils undergoing cell death, which is referred to as NETosis. Dysregulation of NET production and/or degradation can exert pathogenic effects, contributing to the pathogenesis of various diseases, including cystic fibrosis, autoimmune diseases and inflammatory conditions. By employing a phenotypic assay based on high-content imaging and analysis, we screened a library of biologically active compounds and identified vanilloids as a novel class of chemical compounds able to hinder NETosis induction and NET release. Vanilloids also markedly decrease cytosolic ROS production. The identification of novel vanilloid NET inhibitors, able to stop excessive or aberrant NET production might offer new therapeutic options for those disorders displaying NET overproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvira Sondo
- UOC Genetica Medica, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genova, Italy
| | | | - Emanuela Pesce
- UOC Genetica Medica, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genova, Italy
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430
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Castillo LA, Birnberg-Weiss F, Rodriguez-Rodrigues N, Martire-Greco D, Bigi F, Landoni VI, Gomez SA, Fernandez GC. Klebsiella pneumoniae ST258 Negatively Regulates the Oxidative Burst in Human Neutrophils. Front Immunol 2019; 10:929. [PMID: 31105712 PMCID: PMC6497972 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The epidemic clone of Klebsiella pneumoniae (Kpn), sequence type 258 (ST258), carbapenamase producer (KPC), commonly infects hospitalized patients that are left with scarce therapeutic option since carbapenems are last resort antibiotics for life-threatening bacterial infections. To improve prevention and treatment, we should better understand the biology of Kpn KPC ST258 infections. Our hypothesis was that Kpn KPC ST258 evade the first line of defense of innate immunity, the polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN), by decreasing its functional response. Therefore, our aim was to evaluate how the ST258 Kpn clone affects PMN responses, focusing on the respiratory burst, compared to another opportunistic pathogen, Escherichia coli (Eco). We found that Kpn KPC ST258 was unable to trigger bactericidal responses as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and NETosis, compared to the high induction observed with Eco, but both bacterial strains were similarly phagocytized and cause increases in cell size and CD11b expression. The absence of ROS induction was also observed with other Kpn ST258 strains negative for KPC. These results reflect certain selectivity in terms of the functions that are triggered in PMN by Kpn, which seems to evade specifically those responses critical for bacterial survival. In this sense, bactericidal mechanisms evasion was associated with a higher survival of Kpn KPC ST258 compared to Eco. To investigate the mechanisms and molecules involved in ROS inhibition, we used bacterial extracts (BE) and found that BE were able to inhibit ROS generation triggered by the well-known ROS inducer, fMLP. A sequence of experiments led us to elucidate that the polysaccharide part of LPS was responsible for this inhibition, whereas lipid A mediated the other responses that were not affected by bacteria, such as cell size increase and CD11b up-regulation. In conclusion, we unraveled a mechanism of immune evasion of Kpn KPC ST258, which may contribute to design more effective strategies for the treatment of these multi-resistant bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A Castillo
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de los Procesos Inflamatorios, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)- Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET)/Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Federico Birnberg-Weiss
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de los Procesos Inflamatorios, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)- Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET)/Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nahuel Rodriguez-Rodrigues
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de los Procesos Inflamatorios, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)- Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET)/Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Daiana Martire-Greco
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de los Procesos Inflamatorios, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)- Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET)/Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fabiana Bigi
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Veronica I Landoni
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de los Procesos Inflamatorios, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)- Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET)/Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sonia A Gomez
- Servicio de Antimicrobianos, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán (INEI), Administración Nacional de Laboratorios e Institutos de Salud (ANLIS), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gabriela C Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de los Procesos Inflamatorios, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)- Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET)/Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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431
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Wang JJ, Wei ZK, Han Z, Liu ZY, Zhu XY, Li XW, Wang K, Yang ZT. Zearalenone Induces Estrogen-Receptor-Independent Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Release in Vitro. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:4588-4594. [PMID: 30939243 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin synthesized in Fusarium species, mainly Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum, and it has strong estrogenic activity and causes genotoxic effects, reproductive disorders, and immunosuppressive effects. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) has been studied for many years. Initially, NET was considered a form of the innate response that combats invading microorganisms. However, NET is involved in a series of pathophysiological mechanisms, including thrombosis, tissue necrosis, autoinflammation, and even autoimmunity. We recently found that polymorphonuclear neutrophils response to ZEA exposure by undergoing NET formation. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in this process remain poorly characterized. Here, we analyze whether estrogen receptors (ERs) can affect NET formation after ZEA stimulation. The involvement of ERs is investigated with the selective ER antagonists. Moreover, we investigate the mechanisms of NET formation using immunofluorescence staining, fluorescence microplate, and western blot analysis. Our results show that ERs (ERα and ERβ) are not involved in ZEA-induced NET formation, but reactive oxygen species (ROS), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and p38 are postulated to be involved. Specifically, we provide data demonstrating that ZEA-induced ROS may promote activation of ERK and p38 as well as subsequent NET release. We are the first to demonstrate this new mechanism of ZEA-induced NET formation, which may help in understanding the role of ZEA in overexposure diseases and provide a relevant basis for therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Jing Wang
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine , Jilin University , Changchun , Jilin 130062 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng-Kai Wei
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine , Jilin University , Changchun , Jilin 130062 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zhen Han
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine , Jilin University , Changchun , Jilin 130062 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zi-Yi Liu
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine , Jilin University , Changchun , Jilin 130062 , People's Republic of China
| | - Xing-Yi Zhu
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Wen Li
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Wang
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng-Tao Yang
- College of Life Science and Engineering , Foshan University , Foshan , Guangdong 528231 , People's Republic of China
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432
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Ode Y, Aziz M, Jin H, Arif A, Nicastro JG, Wang P. Cold-inducible RNA-binding Protein Induces Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in the Lungs during Sepsis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6252. [PMID: 31000768 PMCID: PMC6472421 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42762-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular cold-inducible RNA-binding protein (CIRP) exaggerates inflammation and tissue injury in sepsis. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are released by activated neutrophils during sepsis. NETs contribute to pathogen clearance, but excessive NET formation (NETosis) causes inflammation and tissue damage. Peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) is associated with NETosis by increasing histone citrullination and chromatin decondensation. We hypothesized that CIRP induces NETosis in the lungs during sepsis via upregulating PAD4 expression. Sepsis was induced in C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) and CIRP−/− mice by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). After 20 h of CLP induction, NETs in the lungs of WT and CIRP−/− mice were quantified by flow cytometry by staining the single cell suspensions with MPO and CitH3 Abs. PAD4 expression in the lungs of WT and CIRP−/− mice after sepsis was assessed by Western blotting. In vitro effects of recombinant mouse (rm) CIRP for NETosis and PAD4 expression in the bone marrow-derived neutrophils (BMDN) were assessed by flow cytometry and Western blotting, respectively. After 20 h of CLP, NETosis in the lungs was significantly decreased in CIRP−/− mice compared to WT mice, which also correlated with the decreased PAD4 expression. Intratracheal administration of rmCIRP into WT mice significantly increased NETosis and PAD4 expression in the lungs compared to vehicle-injected mice. In vitro culture of BMDN with rmCIRP significantly increased NETosis and PAD4 expression compared to PBS-treated control. Fluorescence microscopy revealed typical web-like structures consistent with NETs in rmCIRP-treated BMDN. Thus, CIRP serves as a novel inducer of NETosis via PAD4 during sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasumasa Ode
- Center for Immunology and Inflammation, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
| | - Monowar Aziz
- Center for Immunology and Inflammation, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
| | - Hui Jin
- Center for Immunology and Inflammation, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
| | - Adnan Arif
- Center for Immunology and Inflammation, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
| | - Jonathan G Nicastro
- Center for Immunology and Inflammation, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
| | - Ping Wang
- Center for Immunology and Inflammation, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA. .,Department of Surgery and Molecular Medicine, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Manhasset, NY, USA.
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433
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Lelliott PM, Momota M, Lee MSJ, Kuroda E, Iijima N, Ishii KJ, Coban C. Rapid Quantification of NETs In Vitro and in Whole Blood Samples by Imaging Flow Cytometry. Cytometry A 2019; 95:565-578. [PMID: 30985081 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.23767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation involves the release of DNA outside the cell to neutralize pathogens. Techniques such as live microscopy, flow cytometry, and intravital imaging allow the characterization of NETs, but these either cannot be applied in vivo, lack specificity or require invasive procedures. We developed an automated analysis method to rapidly acquire and characterize cells as NETs or NET precursors, as opposed to cells undergoing other forms of cell death, using imaging flow cytometry. NETs were maintained in solution using a novel three-dimensional cell culture system in which cells are suspended at the interface of two liquids of different density. Critically, we identify NETs using an image analysis algorithm based on morphological data showing the extrusion of DNA beyond the cell boundaries. In vitro, we used this technique to demonstrate different requirements for NET formation in human and mouse neutrophils. We also measured NETs in whole blood during infection of mice with the malaria parasite Plasmodium yoelii. We expect this technique will provide a valuable approach to better understand the process of NET formation and its importance in disease. © 2019 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M Lelliott
- Laboratory of Malaria Immunology, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita City, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Momota
- Laboratory of Vaccine Science, Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita City, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan.,Laboratory of Adjuvant Innovation, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition (NIBIOHN), 7-6-8, Saito-Asagi, Ibaraki City, Osaka 567-0085, Japan
| | - Michelle S J Lee
- Laboratory of Malaria Immunology, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita City, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
| | - Etsushi Kuroda
- Laboratory of Vaccine Science, Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita City, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan.,Laboratory of Adjuvant Innovation, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition (NIBIOHN), 7-6-8, Saito-Asagi, Ibaraki City, Osaka 567-0085, Japan
| | - Norifumi Iijima
- Laboratory of Vaccine Science, Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita City, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan.,Laboratory of Adjuvant Innovation, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition (NIBIOHN), 7-6-8, Saito-Asagi, Ibaraki City, Osaka 567-0085, Japan
| | - Ken J Ishii
- Laboratory of Vaccine Science, Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita City, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan.,Laboratory of Adjuvant Innovation, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition (NIBIOHN), 7-6-8, Saito-Asagi, Ibaraki City, Osaka 567-0085, Japan
| | - Cevayir Coban
- Laboratory of Malaria Immunology, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita City, 565-0871, Osaka, Japan
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434
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Nanoparticles Equipped with α2,8-Linked Sialic Acid Chains Inhibit the Release of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps. NANOMATERIALS 2019; 9:nano9040610. [PMID: 31013834 PMCID: PMC6523985 DOI: 10.3390/nano9040610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophils can combat the invasion of pathogens by the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). The NET mechanism is not only an effective tool for combating pathogens, but is also associated with diseases. Therefore, NETs are a potential target for combating pathologies, such as cystic fibrosis and thrombosis. We investigated the potential of nanoparticles, which were modified with α2,8-linked sialic acid chains, to modulate NET release during phorbol myristate acetate stimulation. Interestingly, when these nanoparticles were applied, the formation of reactive oxygen species was partly inhibited and the release of NET was counteracted. However, although the release of NET fibers was prevented, the nuclei still lost their characteristic segmented structure and became swollen, indicating that only the release, and not complete activation was suppressed. Intriguingly, coincubation of α2,8-sialylated particles with free sialic acid chains prevented the outlined inhibitory effects. Thus, the sialic acid chains must be attached to a linker molecule to generate an active bioconjugate that is able to inhibit the release of NET.
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435
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Neutrophil extracellular traps in the central nervous system hinder bacterial clearance during pneumococcal meningitis. Nat Commun 2019; 10:1667. [PMID: 30971685 PMCID: PMC6458182 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-09040-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are crucial mediators of host defense that are recruited to the central nervous system (CNS) in large numbers during acute bacterial meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Neutrophils release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) during infections to trap and kill bacteria. Intact NETs are fibrous structures composed of decondensed DNA and neutrophil-derived antimicrobial proteins. Here we show NETs in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with pneumococcal meningitis, and their absence in other forms of meningitis with neutrophil influx into the CSF caused by viruses, Borrelia and subarachnoid hemorrhage. In a rat model of meningitis, a clinical strain of pneumococci induced NET formation in the CSF. Disrupting NETs using DNase I significantly reduces bacterial load, demonstrating that NETs contribute to pneumococcal meningitis pathogenesis in vivo. We conclude that NETs in the CNS reduce bacterial clearance and degrading NETs using DNase I may have significant therapeutic implications. Neutrophils play critical roles in the host response to bacteria, including the production neutrophil extracellular traps (NET). Here the authors show that NET formation in the context of pneumococcal meningitis impairs bacterial clearance and targeting NET formation in this context could be a potential therapeutic option.
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436
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Meier A, Chien J, Hobohm L, Patras KA, Nizet V, Corriden R. Inhibition of Human Neutrophil Extracellular Trap (NET) Production by Propofol and Lipid Emulsion. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:323. [PMID: 31024300 PMCID: PMC6460395 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Uncontrolled bacteremia is a common and life threatening condition that can lead to sepsis and septic shock with significant morbidity and mortality. Neutrophil granulocytes, the most abundant phagocytic leukocyte of the innate immune system, play an essential role in capturing and killing invading pathogens. Their antimicrobial repertoire includes the formation of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs), chromatin-based, web-like structures of DNA that facilitate the capture and killing of bacteria. In sepsis, however, it has been suggested that the uncontrolled release of NETs worsens disseminated coagulation and promotes venous thrombosis. Here, we describe how clinically relevant concentrations of the commonly used sedative propofol as well as a lipid composition similar to the propofol carrier impair NET production by human neutrophils. Drugs commonly administered in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) may impact the inflammatory response to either worsen or improve clinical outcomes and may therefore be considered for additional therapeutic effects if clinical studies confirm such findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Meier
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Jason Chien
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Laura Hobohm
- Institut für Physiologische Chemie, Stiftung Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Kathryn Ann Patras
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Ross Corriden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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437
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Campos-Garcia L, Jimenez-Valdes RJ, Hernandez-Bello R, Palma-Nicolas J, Gonzalez GM, Sanchez-Gonzalez A. Candida albicans and non- albicans Isolates from Bloodstream Have Different Capacities to Induce Neutrophil Extracellular Traps. J Fungi (Basel) 2019; 5:jof5020028. [PMID: 30939757 PMCID: PMC6616947 DOI: 10.3390/jof5020028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils activated with pathogens or their products induce formation of extracellular traps (NETs), but if this constitutes a general response against all pathogenic species in a single genus or intrageneric differences exist remains unknown, yet this is of great importance for the establishment of effective treatments. To determine this, we analyzed neutrophil extracellular traps formation after the stimulation with bloodstream isolates from different Candida species (Candida albicans, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, and C. glabrata), and found that each species has a different capacity to induce DNA extrusion, which is independent of their morphology (yeast or hyphae). We observed that phospholipase producer's strains and their secretion products were able to induce NETs, a property not observed with phospholipase deficient strains, with exception of some Candida glabrata sensu stricto isolates, which showed no NETs induction although they did show phospholipase production. To further analyze this, we extended our study to include Candida glabrata cryptic species (C. bracarensis and C. nivariensis) and no extracellular traps formation was observed. Here, we contribute to the understanding of how neutrophils initiate NETs, and we found that certain strains may have a differential capacity to trigger these structures, which may explain the high mortality of some isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizbeth Campos-Garcia
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64460, Mexico.
| | - Rocio Jimena Jimenez-Valdes
- Unidad Monterrey, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Vía del Conocimiento 201, Parque PIIT, Apodaca, Monterrey 66628, Mexico.
| | - Romel Hernandez-Bello
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64460, Mexico.
| | - Jose Palma-Nicolas
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64460, Mexico.
| | - Gloria Maria Gonzalez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64460, Mexico.
| | - Alejandro Sanchez-Gonzalez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey 64460, Mexico.
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438
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Xu K, Cooney KA, Shin EY, Wang L, Deppen JN, Ginn SC, Levit RD. Adenosine from a biologic source regulates neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). J Leukoc Biol 2019; 105:1225-1234. [PMID: 30907983 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3vma0918-374r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are implicated in autoimmune, thrombotic, malignant, and inflammatory diseases; however, little is known of their endogenous regulation under basal conditions. Inflammatory effects of neutrophils are modulated by extracellular purines such as adenosine (ADO) that is inhibitory or ATP that generally up-regulates effector functions. In order to evaluate the effects of ADO on NETs, human neutrophils were isolated from peripheral venous blood from healthy donors and stimulated to make NETs. Treatment with ADO inhibited NET production as quantified by 2 methods: SYTOX green fluorescence and human neutrophil elastase (HNE)-DNA ELISA assay. Specific ADO receptor agonist and antagonist were tested for their effects on NET production. The ADO 2A receptor (A2A R) agonist CSG21680 inhibited NETs to a similar degree as ADO, whereas the A2A R antagonist ZM241385 prevented ADO's NET-inhibitory effects. Additionally, CD73 is a membrane bound ectonucleotidase expressed on mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) that allows manipulation of extracellular purines in tissues such as bone marrow. The effects of MSCs on NET formation were evaluated in coculture. MSCs reduced NET formation in a CD73-dependent manner. These results imply that extracellular purine balance may locally regulate NETosis and may be actively modulated by stromal cells to maintain tissue homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Xu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Changsha, China
| | - Kimberly A Cooney
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Eric Y Shin
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Lanfang Wang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Juline N Deppen
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Sydney C Ginn
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Rebecca D Levit
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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439
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Neutrophils: back in the thrombosis spotlight. Blood 2019; 133:2186-2197. [PMID: 30898858 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2018-10-862243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive and clonal neutrophil expansion has been associated with thrombosis, suggesting that neutrophils play a role in this process. However, although there is no doubt that activated monocytes trigger coagulation in a tissue factor-dependent manner, it remains uncertain whether stimulated neutrophils can also directly activate coagulation. After more than a decade of debate, it is now largely accepted that normal human neutrophils do not synthetize tissue factor, the initiator of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. However, neutrophils may passively acquire tissue factor from monocytes. Recently, the contact system, which initiates coagulation via the intrinsic pathway, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of thrombosis. After the recent description of neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) release by activated neutrophils, some animal models of thrombosis have demonstrated that coagulation may be enhanced by direct NET-dependent activation of the contact system. However, there is currently no consensus on how to assess or quantify NETosis in vivo, and other experimental animal models have failed to demonstrate a role for neutrophils in thrombogenesis. Nevertheless, it is likely that NETs can serve to localize other circulating coagulation components and can also promote vessel occlusion independent of fibrin formation. This article provides a critical appraisal of the possible roles of neutrophils in thrombosis and highlights some existing knowledge gaps regarding the procoagulant activities of neutrophil-derived extracellular chromatin and its molecular components. A better understanding of these mechanisms could guide future approaches to prevent and/or treat thrombosis.
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440
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Mondal S, Thompson PR. Protein Arginine Deiminases (PADs): Biochemistry and Chemical Biology of Protein Citrullination. Acc Chem Res 2019; 52:818-832. [PMID: 30844238 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Proteins are well-known to undergo a variety of post-translational modifications (PTMs). One such PTM is citrullination, an arginine modification that is catalyzed by a group of hydrolases called protein arginine deiminases (PADs). Hundreds of proteins are known to be citrullinated and hypercitrullination is associated with autoimmune diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), lupus, ulcerative colitis (UC), Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis (MS), and certain cancers. In this Account, we summarize our efforts to understand the structure and mechanism of the PADs and to develop small molecule chemical probes of protein citrullination. PAD activity is highly regulated by calcium. Structural studies with PAD2 revealed that calcium-binding occurs in a stepwise fashion and induces a series of dramatic conformational changes to form a catalytically competent active site. These studies also identified the presence of a calcium-switch that controls the overall calcium-dependence and a gatekeeper residue that shields the active site in the absence of calcium. Using biochemical and site-directed mutagenesis studies, we identified the key residues (two aspartates, a cysteine, and a histidine) responsible for catalysis and proposed a general mechanism of citrullination. Although all PADs follow this mechanism, substrate binding to the thiolate or thiol form of the enzyme varies for different isozymes. Substrate-specificity studies revealed that PADs 1-4 prefer peptidyl-arginine over free arginine and certain citrullination sites on a peptide substrate. Using high-throughput screening and activity-based protein profiling (ABPP), we identified several reversible (streptomycin, minocycline, and chlorotetracycline) and irreversible (streptonigrin, NSC 95397) PAD-inhibitors. Screening of a DNA-encoded library and lead-optimization led to the development of GSK199 and GSK484 as highly potent PAD4-selective inhibitors. Furthermore, use of an electrophilic, cysteine-targeted haloacetamidine warhead to mimic the guanidinium group in arginine afforded several mechanism-based pan-PAD-inhibitors including Cl-amidine and BB-Cl-amidine. These compounds are highly efficacious in various animal models, including those mimicking RA, UC, and lupus. Structure-activity relationships identified numerous covalent PAD-inhibitors with different bioavailability, in vivo stability, and isozyme-selectivity (PAD1-selective: D-Cl-amidine; PAD2-selective: compounds 16-20; PAD3-selective: Cl4-amidine; and PAD4-selective: TDFA). Finally, this Account describes the development of PAD-targeted and citrulline-specific chemical probes. While PAD-targeted probes were utilized for identifying off-targets and developing high-throughput inhibitor screening platforms, citrulline-specific probes enabled the proteomic identification of novel diagnostic biomarkers of hypercitrullination-related autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Mondal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, UMass Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
- Program in Chemical Biology, UMass Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
| | - Paul R. Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, UMass Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
- Program in Chemical Biology, UMass Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
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441
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Orchestration of Adaptive T Cell Responses by Neutrophil Granule Contents. Mediators Inflamm 2019; 2019:8968943. [PMID: 30983883 PMCID: PMC6431490 DOI: 10.1155/2019/8968943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in peripheral blood and respond rapidly to danger, infiltrating tissues within minutes of infectious or sterile injury. Neutrophils were long thought of as simple killers, but now we recognise them as responsive cells able to adapt to inflammation and orchestrate subsequent events with some sophistication. Here, we discuss how these rapid responders release mediators which influence later adaptive T cell immunity through influences on DC priming and directly on the T cells themselves. We consider how the release of granule contents by neutrophils—through NETosis or degranulation—is one way in which the innate immune system directs the phenotype of the adaptive immune response.
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442
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Villagra-Blanco R, Silva LMR, Conejeros I, Taubert A, Hermosilla C. Pinniped- and Cetacean-Derived ETosis Contributes to Combating Emerging Apicomplexan Parasites ( Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum) Circulating in Marine Environments. BIOLOGY 2019; 8:biology8010012. [PMID: 30857289 PMCID: PMC6466332 DOI: 10.3390/biology8010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Leukocytes play a major role in combating infections either by phagocytosis, release of antimicrobial granules, or extracellular trap (ET) formation. ET formation is preceded by a certain leukocyte cell death form, known as ETosis, an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of the innate immune system also observed in marine mammals. Besides several biomolecules and microbial stimuli, marine mammal ETosis is also trigged by various terrestrial protozoa and metazoa, considered nowadays as neozoan parasites, which are circulating in oceans worldwide and causing critical emerging marine diseases. Recent studies demonstrated that pinniped- and cetacean-derived polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) and monocytes are able to form different phenotypes of ET structures composed of nuclear DNA, histones, and cytoplasmic peptides/proteases against terrestrial apicomplexan parasites, e.g., Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum. Detailed molecular analyses and functional studies proved that marine mammal PMNs and monocytes cast ETs in a similar way as terrestrial mammals, entrapping and immobilizing T. gondii and N. caninum tachyzoites. Pinniped- and cetacean leukocytes induce vital and suicidal ETosis, with highly reliant actions of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX), generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and combined mechanisms of myeloperoxidase (MPO), neutrophil elastase (NE), and DNA citrullination via peptidylarginine deiminase IV (PAD4).This scoping review intends to summarize the knowledge on emerging protozoans in the marine environment and secondly to review limited data about ETosis mechanisms in marine mammalian species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liliana M R Silva
- Institute of Parasitology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Iván Conejeros
- Institute of Parasitology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Anja Taubert
- Institute of Parasitology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Carlos Hermosilla
- Institute of Parasitology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
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443
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Boeltz S, Amini P, Anders HJ, Andrade F, Bilyy R, Chatfield S, Cichon I, Clancy DM, Desai J, Dumych T, Dwivedi N, Gordon RA, Hahn J, Hidalgo A, Hoffmann MH, Kaplan MJ, Knight JS, Kolaczkowska E, Kubes P, Leppkes M, Manfredi AA, Martin SJ, Maueröder C, Maugeri N, Mitroulis I, Munoz LE, Nakazawa D, Neeli I, Nizet V, Pieterse E, Radic MZ, Reinwald C, Ritis K, Rovere-Querini P, Santocki M, Schauer C, Schett G, Shlomchik MJ, Simon HU, Skendros P, Stojkov D, Vandenabeele P, Berghe TV, van der Vlag J, Vitkov L, von Köckritz-Blickwede M, Yousefi S, Zarbock A, Herrmann M. To NET or not to NET:current opinions and state of the science regarding the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps. Cell Death Differ 2019; 26:395-408. [PMID: 30622307 PMCID: PMC6370810 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-018-0261-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery and definition of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) 14 years ago, numerous characteristics and physiological functions of NETs have been uncovered. Nowadays, the field continues to expand and novel mechanisms that orchestrate formation of NETs, their previously unknown properties, and novel implications in disease continue to emerge. The abundance of available data has also led to some confusion in the NET research community due to contradictory results and divergent scientific concepts, such as pro- and anti-inflammatory roles in pathologic conditions, demarcation from other forms of cell death, or the origin of the DNA that forms the NET scaffold. Here, we present prevailing concepts and state of the science in NET-related research and elaborate on open questions and areas of dispute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Boeltz
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Poorya Amini
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Joachim Anders
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Felipe Andrade
- Division of Rheumatology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Rostyslav Bilyy
- Danylo Halytsky Lviv National Medical University, Lviv, Ukraine
| | - Simon Chatfield
- Inflammation Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Iwona Cichon
- Department of Experimental Hematology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Danielle M Clancy
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, University of Gent, Gent, Belgium
| | - Jyaysi Desai
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Tetiana Dumych
- Danylo Halytsky Lviv National Medical University, Lviv, Ukraine
| | - Nishant Dwivedi
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rachael Ann Gordon
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jonas Hahn
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andrés Hidalgo
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Fundación Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC) Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Markus H Hoffmann
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Mariana J Kaplan
- Systemic Autoimmunity Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Jason S Knight
- Division of Rheumatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Elzbieta Kolaczkowska
- Department of Experimental Hematology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Paul Kubes
- Snyder institute of Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Moritz Leppkes
- Department of Medicine 1 - Gastroenterology, Pulmonology and Endocrinology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Angelo A Manfredi
- Università Vita Salute San Raffaele and IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Seamus J Martin
- Molecular Cell Biology Laboratory, Department of Genetics, The Smurfit Institute, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Christian Maueröder
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, University of Gent, Gent, Belgium
| | - Norma Maugeri
- Università Vita Salute San Raffaele and IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Ioannis Mitroulis
- Laboratory of Molecular Hematology, Department of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Alexandroupolis, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Luis E Munoz
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Daigo Nakazawa
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Indira Neeli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Victor Nizet
- UC San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Elmar Pieterse
- Department of Nephrology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marko Z Radic
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Christiane Reinwald
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Konstantinos Ritis
- Laboratory of Molecular Hematology, Department of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Alexandroupolis, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | | | - Michal Santocki
- Department of Experimental Hematology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Christine Schauer
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Georg Schett
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Mark Jay Shlomchik
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Hans-Uwe Simon
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Panagiotis Skendros
- Laboratory of Molecular Hematology, Department of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Alexandroupolis, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Darko Stojkov
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Vandenabeele
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, University of Gent, Gent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Methusalem platform, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tom Vanden Berghe
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, University of Gent, Gent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Johan van der Vlag
- Department of Nephrology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ljubomir Vitkov
- Department of Biosciences, Vascular & Exercise Biology Unit, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Periodontology and Preventive Dentistry, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Maren von Köckritz-Blickwede
- Department of Physiological Chemistry & Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonosis (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Shida Yousefi
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Zarbock
- University of Münster, Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Herrmann
- Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
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444
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Liang Y, Wang X, He D, You Q, Zhang T, Dong W, Fei J, Xing Y, Wu J. Ameliorating gut microenvironment through staphylococcal nuclease-mediated intestinal NETs degradation for prevention of type 1 diabetes in NOD mice. Life Sci 2019; 221:301-310. [PMID: 30776371 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Recent studies have revealed that neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) provide negative feedback in the progression to chronic inflammation and contribute to the pathogenesis of multiple autoimmune diseases including type 1 diabetes (T1D). In addition, accumulating evidences suggest that gut immunity play a key role in T1D pathogenesis. Our study aimed to evaluate whether staphylococcal nuclease (SNase) targeting intestinal NETs can ameliorate the intestinal inflammatory environment and protect against T1D development in non-obese diabetic(NOD) mice. MAIN METHODS Degradation of NETs with SNase in vitro was examined using SYTOX green assay. NOD/LtJ mice were oral administration of Lactococcus lactisl (L. lactis) pCYT: SNase and blood glucose levels were monitored weekly. Several biomarkers of NETs formation, gut leakage and inflammation were determined using a commercial ELISA kit. T Cell phenotypes in peripheral immune system were analyzed in flow cytometry and fecal samples were isolated to investigate intestinal microbiota. KEY FINDINGS The oral delivery of SNase by L. lactis can decrease the NETs levels and ameliorate inflammation both in the intestine and pancreatic islets and finally effectively regulate the blood glucose levels of NOD mice. Meanwhile, zonulin and lipopolysaccharide levels also reduced in SNase-fed NOD mice, suggesting SNase could improve gut barrier function via intestinal NETs degradation. Furthermore, the abundances of the intestinal microbiota and butyrate-producing gut bacteria were also increased with SNase treatment. SIGNIFICANCE SNase shows potential for intestinal NETs to prevent T1D based on the gut-pancreas axis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Qi You
- China Pharmaceutical University, China
| | | | | | | | - Yun Xing
- China Pharmaceutical University, China.
| | - Jie Wu
- China Pharmaceutical University, China.
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445
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Chlorpyrifos Suppresses Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Carp by Promoting Necroptosis and Inhibiting Respiratory Burst Caused by the PKC/MAPK Pathway. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2019; 2019:1763589. [PMID: 30881588 PMCID: PMC6383406 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1763589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are reticular structures formed by myeloperoxidase (MPO), histones, and neutrophil elastase (NE) that are released from neutrophils in response to pathogenic stimuli. Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is wildly used as an organophosphorus pesticide that causes a range of toxicological and environmental problems. Exposure to CPF can increase the production of neutrophils in carps, and this increase can be considered a biomarker of water pollution. To explore a relationship between NETs and CPF and its mechanism of influence, we treated neutrophils from the blood of carp with 1 μg/mL phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), 0.325 mg/L CPF, or 20 μM necrostatin-1 (Nec-1). The production of MPO and NETs was reduced in the CPF+PMA group compared with that in the PMA group. CPF can cause an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), while inhibiting respiratory burst caused by PMA stimulation. We found that the expression levels of protein-coupled receptor 84 (gpr84), dystroglycan (DAG), proto-oncogene serine/threonine kinase (RAF), protein kinase C (PKC), and mitogen-activated protein kinase 3 (MAPK3) in the CPF+PMA group were lower than those in the PMA group, indicating that the PKC-MAPK pathway was suppressed. The expression levels of cylindromatosis (CYLD), mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL), receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 1 (RIP1), and receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 3 (RIP3) were increased, and the expression levels of caspase 8 were reduced by CPF, indicating that CPF may cause necroptosis. The addition of Nec-1 restored the number of NETs in the CPF+PMA group. The results indicate that CPF reduced the production of NETs by inhibiting respiratory burst and increasing necroptosis. The results contribute to the understanding of the immunotoxicological mechanism of CPF and provide a reference for comparative medical studies.
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446
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Díaz-Godínez C, Carrero JC. The state of art of neutrophil extracellular traps in protozoan and helminthic infections. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20180916. [PMID: 30498092 PMCID: PMC6328873 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20180916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are DNA fibers associated with histones, enzymes from neutrophil granules and anti-microbial peptides. NETs are released in a process denominated NETosis, which involves sequential steps that culminate with the DNA extrusion. NETosis has been described as a new mechanism of innate immunity related to defense against different pathogens. The initial studies of NETs were carried out with bacteria and fungi, but currently a large variety of microorganisms capable of inducing NETs have been described including protozoan and helminth parasites. Nevertheless, we have little knowledge about how NETosis process is carried out in response to the parasites, and about its implication in the resolution of this kind of disease. In the best case, the NETs entrap and kill parasites in vitro, but in others, immobilize the parasites without affecting their viability. Moreover, insufficient studies on the NETs in animal models of infections that would help to define their role, and the association of NETs with chronic inflammatory pathologies such as those occurring in several parasitic infections have left open the possibility of NETs contributing to pathology instead of protection. In this review, we focus on the reported mechanisms that lead to NET release by protozoan and helminth parasites and the evidence that support the role of NETosis in the resolution or pathogenesis of parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Díaz-Godínez
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
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447
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You Y, Liu Y, Li F, Mu F, Zha C. Anti-β2GPI/β2GPI induces human neutrophils to generate NETs by relying on ROS. Cell Biochem Funct 2019; 37:56-61. [PMID: 30701573 PMCID: PMC6590372 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophils participate in the regulation of pathogens by phagocytosis as well as by generating neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Antiphospholipid antibodies, particularly those targeting beta-2-glycoprotein I (β2GPI), stimulate monocytes, platelets, and endothelial cells with prothrombotic participation. This study aimed to explore NET generation in response to anti-β2GPI/β2GPI. A series of experiments involving the separation of primary human leukocytes, NETosis quantification using propidium iodide, exploration of NETosis by fluorescence microscopy, western blotting, examination of free Zn2+ using FluoZin-3, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) examination with dihydrorhodamine 123 were performed in this study. We found that anti-β2GPI/β2GPI triggered NETosis, resembling phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced NETosis in magnitude and morphology. The anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI complex in isolation stimulated NETs without relying on p38, protein kinase B (AKT), extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) 1/2, and zinc signals. NET generation was unaffected by the NADPH oxidase suppressor DP1. The anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI complex stimulated ROS generation without relying on NADPH oxidase, which may participate in NET generation triggered via the anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI complex. In summary, our results indicate that the anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI complex reinforced NET generation by relying on ROS. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PAPER IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE: Neutrophils as one of the first lines of defence and essential in the response to pathogen invasion. They eradicate bacteria via phagocytosis or by releasing antimicrobial proteins in degranulation. In this study, we explored the capability of anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI to stimulate NETosis, demonstrating that anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI is a promising method for triggering NET. Anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI induced ROS generation without relying on NADPH oxidase, which contributes to NETosis independently of ERK1/2, Zn2+ , or AKT. Our results showed that anti-β2GPI/β2GPI triggered NETosis, resembling PMA-induced NETosis in magnitude as well as morphology. The anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI complex in isolation stimulated NETs without relying on p38, AKT, ERK1/2, or zinc signals. The anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI complex stimulated ROS generation without relying on NADPH oxidase, which may participate in NET generation triggered via the anti-β2 GPI/β2 GPI complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqiu You
- Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Yanhong Liu
- Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Fujun Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Fengyun Mu
- Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Caijun Zha
- Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
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448
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Neubert E, Senger-Sander SN, Manzke VS, Busse J, Polo E, Scheidmann SEF, Schön MP, Kruss S, Erpenbeck L. Serum and Serum Albumin Inhibit in vitro Formation of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs). Front Immunol 2019; 10:12. [PMID: 30733715 PMCID: PMC6354573 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is an immune defense mechanism of neutrophilic granulocytes. Moreover, it is also involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmune, inflammatory, and neoplastic diseases. For that reason, the process of NET formation (NETosis) is subject of intense ongoing research. In vitro approaches to quantify NET formation are commonly used and involve neutrophil stimulation with various activators such as phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), lipopolysaccharides (LPS), or calcium ionophores (CaI). However, the experimental conditions of these experiments, particularly the media and media supplements employed by different research groups, vary considerably, rendering comparisons of results difficult. Here, we present the first standardized investigation of the influence of different media supplements on NET formation in vitro. The addition of heat-inactivated (hi) fetal calf serum (FCS), 0.5% human serum albumin (HSA), or 0.5% bovine serum albumin (BSA) efficiently prevented NET formation of human neutrophils following stimulation with LPS and CaI, but not after stimulation with PMA. Thus, serum components such as HSA, BSA and hiFCS (at concentrations typically found in the literature) inhibit NET formation to different degrees, depending on the NETosis inducer used. In contrast, in murine neutrophils, NETosis was inhibited by FCS and BSA, regardless of the inducer employed. This shows that mouse and human neutrophils have different susceptibilities toward the inhibition of NETosis by albumin or serum components. Furthermore, we provide experimental evidence that albumin inhibits NETosis by scavenging activators such as LPS. We also put our results into the context of media supplements most commonly used in NET research. In experiments with human neutrophils, either FCS (0.5–10%), heat-inactivated (hiFCS, 0.1–10%) or human serum albumin (HSA, 0.05–2%) was commonly added to the medium. For murine neutrophils, serum-free medium was used in most cases for stimulation with LPS and CaI, reflecting the different sensitivities of human and murine neutrophils to media supplements. Thus, the choice of media supplements greatly determines the outcome of experiments on NET-formation, which must be taken into account in NETosis research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Neubert
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Susanne N Senger-Sander
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Veit S Manzke
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Julia Busse
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Elena Polo
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sophie E F Scheidmann
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael P Schön
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Lower Saxony Institute of Occupational Dermatology, University Medical Center Göttingen and University of Osnabrück, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kruss
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Luise Erpenbeck
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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449
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Weckbach LT, Grabmaier U, Uhl A, Gess S, Boehm F, Zehrer A, Pick R, Salvermoser M, Czermak T, Pircher J, Sorrelle N, Migliorini M, Strickland DK, Klingel K, Brinkmann V, Abu Abed U, Eriksson U, Massberg S, Brunner S, Walzog B. Midkine drives cardiac inflammation by promoting neutrophil trafficking and NETosis in myocarditis. J Exp Med 2019; 216:350-368. [PMID: 30647120 PMCID: PMC6363424 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20181102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Heart failure due to dilated cardiomyopathy is frequently caused by myocarditis. However, the pathogenesis of myocarditis remains incompletely understood. Here, we report the presence of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in cardiac tissue of patients and mice with myocarditis. Inhibition of NET formation in experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) of mice substantially reduces inflammation in the acute phase of the disease. Targeting the cytokine midkine (MK), which mediates NET formation in vitro, not only attenuates NET formation in vivo and the infiltration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) but also reduces fibrosis and preserves systolic function during EAM. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) acts as the functionally relevant receptor for MK-induced PMN recruitment as well as NET formation. In summary, NETosis substantially contributes to the pathogenesis of myocarditis and drives cardiac inflammation, probably via MK, which promotes PMN trafficking and NETosis. Thus, MK as well as NETs may represent novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of cardiac inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludwig T Weckbach
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany .,Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research, Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Ulrich Grabmaier
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research, Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Uhl
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Sebastian Gess
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Felicitas Boehm
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Annette Zehrer
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Robert Pick
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Melanie Salvermoser
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Thomas Czermak
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Joachim Pircher
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Noah Sorrelle
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX
| | - Mary Migliorini
- Center for Vascular and Inflammatory Disease, Departments of Surgery and Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Dudley K Strickland
- Center for Vascular and Inflammatory Disease, Departments of Surgery and Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Karin Klingel
- Cardiopathology, Institute for Pathology and Neuropathology, University Hospital Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Volker Brinkmann
- Microscopy Core Facility, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ulrike Abu Abed
- Microscopy Core Facility, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Cellular Microbiology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Urs Eriksson
- Cardioimmunology, Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Medicine, Gesundheitsversorgung Zürcher Oberland-Zurich Regional Health Center, Wetzikon, Switzerland
| | - Steffen Massberg
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research, Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Brunner
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Barbara Walzog
- Walter Brendel Centre of Experimental Medicine, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany .,Institute of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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450
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Yousefi S, Stojkov D, Germic N, Simon D, Wang X, Benarafa C, Simon HU. Untangling "NETosis" from NETs. Eur J Immunol 2019; 49:221-227. [PMID: 30629284 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201747053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation is a cellular function of neutrophils that facilitates the immobilization and killing of invading microorganisms in the extracellular milieu. To form NETs, neutrophils release a DNA scaffold consisting of mitochondrial DNA binding granule proteins. This process does not depend on cell death, but requires glycolytic ATP production for rearrangements in the microtubule network and F-actin. Such cytoskeletal rearrangements are essential for both mitochondrial DNA release and degranulation. However, the formation of NETs has also been described as a distinct form of programed, necrotic cell death, a process designated "NETosis." Necrotic cell death of neutrophils is associated with the permeabilization of both plasma and nuclear membranes resulting in a kind of extracellular cloud of nuclear DNA. The molecular mechanisms eliciting necrotic neutrophil death have been investigated and appear to be different from those responsible for NET formation following mitochondrial DNA release. Here, we discriminate between the mechanisms responsible for the release of mitochondrial versus nuclear DNA and address their respective functions. Our aim is to clarify existing differences of opinion in the fields of NET formation and neutrophil death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shida Yousefi
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Darko Stojkov
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nina Germic
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Dagmar Simon
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Xiaoliang Wang
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Charaf Benarafa
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Uwe Simon
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov University, Moscow, Russia
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