Comparison of Number and Geographic Distribution of Pediatric Subspecialists and Patient Proximity to Specialized Care in the US Between 2003 and 2019

Pediatric subspecialty outreach clinics: reach and impact on access to care

BACKGROUND

Recent research highlighting a shortage of pediatric subspecialists in the United States has shown wide variations in the distance from children to the nearest subspecialists but has not accounted for subspecialty outreach clinics, in which specialists may improve access in rural areas by periodically staffing clinics there. This study aimed to determine the impact of pediatric subspecialty outreach clinics on the driving times to the nearest pediatric subspecialists for children in Maine.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study utilized administrative data on the schedule and location of pediatric subspecialty clinics in Maine in 2022 to estimate the driving time from each ZIP-code tabulation area to the nearest subspecialist, with and without the inclusion of outreach clinics. Using 2020 census data, we calculated the median and interquartile ranges of driving times for the state's overall child population, as well as for children living in urban and rural areas.

RESULTS

Of 207,409 individuals under 20 years old in Maine, 68% were located closer to an outreach location than to a clinical hub. Across the seven subspecialties offering outreach clinics, outreach clinics decreased median driving times to the nearest pediatric subspecialist by 5 to 26 minutes among all children, and by 16 to 46 minutes among rural children.

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric subspecialty outreach clinics can substantially reduce the driving time to the nearest pediatric subspecialist , especially for children living in rural areas. The use of outreach clinics should be accounted for in research describing the geographic access or barriers to care. Expanding the number of outreach clinics should be considered by policymakers hoping to improve access.

Outcomes of Referrals in Pediatric Patients With Peripheral Lymphadenopathy

Lymphadenopathy is a common reason for referral to a subspecialist, which may result in significant anxiety for parents. Understanding which patients require a subspecialty referral for lymphadenopathy is key to streamlining health care utilization for this common clinical entity. This is an IRB-approved retrospective study examining pediatric patients consecutively referred to pediatric hematology oncology, otolaryngology, or surgery for lymphadenopathy from 2012 to 2021 at a free-standing tertiary-care children's hospital. Logistic regression was fitted to examine the association between the maximum size of the lymph nodes (LN) and a diagnosis of malignancy. The odds ratio, area under the receiver operator curve, sensitivity, and specificity were estimated. We found a significant association between LN size and cancer diagnosis. For every centimeter increase in the maximal dimension of LN, there was an estimated 2.3 times increase in the odds of malignancy (OR=2.3, 95% CI: 1.65-3.11; P <0.0001). The estimated area under the curve (0.84, 95% CI: 0.78-0.90) indicated that LN size correlated well with cancer diagnosis. A LN cut-off size of 2 cm resulted in an estimated sensitivity of 1.0 (95% CI: 0.87-1.00) and specificity of 0.54 (95% CI: 0.46-0.61). Maximum LN size may be a predictor of malignancy among pediatric patients with lymphadenopathy.

Responding to the workforce crisis: consensus recommendations from the Second Workforce Summit of the American Society of Pediatric Nephrology

IMPORTANCE

Pediatric patients with complex medical problems benefit from pediatric sub-specialty care; however, a significant proportion of children live greater than 80 mi. away from pediatric sub-specialty care.

OBJECTIVE

To identify current knowledge gaps and outline concrete next steps to make progress on issues that have persistently challenged the pediatric nephrology workforce.

EVIDENCE REVIEW

Workforce Summit 2.0 employed the round table format and methodology for consensus building using adapted Delphi principles. Content domains were identified via input from the ASPN Workforce Committee, the ASPN's 2023 Strategic Plan survey, the ASPN's Pediatric Nephrology Division Directors survey, and ongoing feedback from ASPN members. Working groups met prior to the Summit to conduct an organized literature review and establish key questions to be addressed. The Summit was held in-person in November 2023. During the Summit, work groups presented their preliminary findings, and the at-large group developed the key action statements and future directions.

FINDINGS

A holistic appraisal of the effort required to cover inpatient and outpatient sub-specialty care will help define faculty effort and time distribution. Most pediatric nephrologists practice in academic settings, so work beyond clinical care including education, research, advocacy, and administrative/service tasks may form a substantial amount of a faculty member's time and effort. An academic relative value unit (RVU) may assist in creating a more inclusive assessment of their contributions to their academic practice. Pediatric sub-specialties, such as nephrology, contribute to the clinical mission and care of their institutions beyond their direct billable RVUs. Advocacy throughout the field of pediatrics is necessary in order for reimbursement of pediatric sub-specialist care to accurately reflect the time and effort required to address complex care needs. Flexible, individualized training pathways may improve recruitment into sub-specialty fields such as nephrology.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The workforce crisis facing the pediatric nephrology field is echoed throughout many pediatric sub-specialties. Efforts to improve recruitment, retention, and reimbursement are necessary to improve the care delivered to pediatric patients.

Barriers and facilitators to accessing pediatric specialty care for rural-dwelling children with complex chronic conditions: An integrative review

PROBLEM

Pediatric specialty services are often geographically concentrated in urban areas, leaving up to 1 in 5 rural-dwelling children in the United States without access to advanced care. The purpose of this review was to identify and review extant literature related to barriers and facilitators to accessing specialty care for rural-dwelling children with complex chronic conditions.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

The Whittemore and Knafl (2005) integrative review method guided the review which included a critical appraisal and analysis of relevant articles published between 2012 and 2023.

SAMPLE

Twenty-three studies were identified for inclusion in the integrative review.

RESULTS

Using the domains of the Levesque et al. (2013) conceptual framework, findings were categorized according to the access to care continuum. Barriers included broadband access, transportation, and inadequate care coordination. Facilitators included telehealth, social support, and outreach clinics.

CONCLUSIONS

To improve access to pediatric specialty care for rural-dwelling children, nurses, physicians, and policymakers will need to consider how the social determinants of health impact the healthcare access continuum from diagnosis to continuing healthcare.

IMPLICATIONS

The findings of this integrative review will aid researchers in developing interventions to improve access to pediatric specialty care for rural-dwelling children.

Tiny patients, huge impact: a call to action

The continuation of high-quality care is under threat for the over 70 million children in the United States. Inequities between Medicaid and Medicare payments and the current procedural-based reimbursement model have resulted in the undervaluing of pediatric medical care and lack of prioritization of children's health by institutions. The number of pediatricians, including pediatric subspecialists, and pediatric healthcare centers are declining due to mounting financial obstacles and this crucial healthcare supply is no longer able to keep up with demand. The reasons contributing to these inequities are clear and rational: Medicaid has significantly lower rates of reimbursement compared to Medicare, yet Medicaid covers almost half of children in the United States and creates the natural incentive for medical institutions to prioritize the care of adults. Additionally, certain aspects of children's healthcare are unique from adults and are not adequately covered in the current payment model. The result of decades of devaluing children's healthcare has led to a substantial decrease in the availability of services, medications, and equipment needed to provide healthcare to children across the nation. Fortunately, the solution is just as clear as the problem: we must value the healthcare of children as much as that of adults by increasing Medicaid funding to be on par with Medicare and appreciate the complexities of care beyond procedures. If these changes are not made, the high-quality care for children in the US will continue to decline and increase strain on the overall healthcare system as these children age into adulthood.

Parenting Stress, Community Support, and Unmet Health Care Needs of Children in the US

OBJECTIVES

In 2018, approximately 2.3 million children in the United States had unmet healthcare needs (UHCN). To date, studies examining associations between UHCN and parent stress and support have had limited generalizability. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between children's UHCN and parenting stress and support using a nationally representative sample. Additionally, this study aimed to assess associations between unmet mental health needs and these parental well-being measures.

METHODS

Households with children ages 0-17 and complete data on UHCN in the combined 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019 cohorts of the National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) met inclusion criteria. Logistic regressions were used to evaluate associations between overall UHCN and outcome measures of parental coping, aggravation, emotional support, and neighborhood support. Associations between mental UHCN and these outcome measures were analyzed in a subset limited to children with mental health conditions. Regressions were adjusted for potential confounders, including demographics, household income, medical home status, and health insurance (adequacy/type).

RESULTS

In our sample of 131,299 children, overall UHCN were associated with poorer parental coping (aOR = 5.35, 95% CI: [3.60, 7.95]), greater parental aggravation (aOR = 3.35, 95% CI: [2.73, 4.12]), and non-supportive neighborhood (aOR = 2.22, 95% CI: [1.86, 2.65]). Mental UHCN were similarly associated with parental coping and aggravation and neighborhood support in the mental health subset.

CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE

Healthcare professionals must address the needs of children with UHCN and collaborate with community organizations and child advocates to promote coordinated and comprehensive care and adequately support caregivers.

Access to Pediatric Eye Care by Practitioner Type, Geographic Distribution, and US Population Demographics

Importance

Investigating disparities in service coverage of pediatric optometrists and pediatric ophthalmologists in relation to patient demographics will illuminate vulnerable populations and inform future interventions.

Objective

To characterize the geographic distribution of pediatric eye care practitioners and analyze its association with population demographics.

Design, Setting, and Participants

In this cross-sectional study, 4 public databases were used to identify the addresses of pediatric optometrists and pediatric ophthalmologists in the US in April 2023. Addresses were geocoded, and population demographic data were collected. Pediatric optometrists and pediatric ophthalmologists listed in the public databases, as well as respondents to the 2020 US census, were included in this study. Data were analyzed from April to July 2023.

Exposures

Public databases and US census data of eye practitioners and their practice locations.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Geographic distribution of pediatric optometrists and pediatric ophthalmologists as listed in public databases and correlations between service coverage and US population demographics.

Results

A total of 586 pediatric optometrists (302 female [51.5%]) and 1060 pediatric ophthalmologists (590 male [55.7%]) were identified. Among US counties, 203 (6.5%) had at least 1 pediatric optometrist, and 308 (9.7%) had at least 1 pediatric ophthalmologist, showing substantial geographic overlap (odds ratio, 12.7; 95% CI, 9.4-17.4; P < .001). In the 2834 counties without pediatric ophthalmologists, 2731 (96.4%) lacked pediatric optometrists. There were more pediatric ophthalmologists per million people (3.3) compared with pediatric optometrists per million people (2.5) across all states (difference, 0.8; 95% CI, 0-1.9; P = .047). Among counties with practitioners, the median (IQR) number of pediatric optometrists per million people was 7.8 (0.4-245.0), surpassing the median (IQR) number of pediatric ophthalmologists per million people, 5.5 (1.0-117.0). Counties with pediatric ophthalmologists had higher mean (SD) household incomes than counties with pediatric optometrists ($76 126.87 [$21 879.23] vs $68 681.77 [$18 336.40]; difference, -$7445.10; 95% CI, $2519.51-$12 370.69; P = .003) and higher mean (SD) population with bachelor's degrees than counties with pediatric optometrists (79 016 [82 503] vs 23 076 [44 025]; difference, -55 940; 95% CI, -73 035 to -38 845; P < .001), whereas counties with neither specialist type had the lowest mean (SD) household income ($57 714.03 [$2731.00] vs $78 388.67 [$18 499.21]; difference, -$20 675.00; 95% CI, -$21 550.90 to -$19 799.10; P < .001) and mean (SD) population with bachelor's degrees (5113 [12 875] vs 167 015 [216 486]; difference, -161 902; 95% CI, -170 388.9 to -153 415.1; P < .001) compared with counties with practitioners.

Conclusions and Relevance

Geographic disparities in pediatric eye care access, compounded by socioeconomic differences, underscore the urgency of augmenting practitioner support in underserved areas.

Rurality of patient residence and access to transplantation among children with kidney failure in the United States

BACKGROUND

Residence in rural areas is often a barrier to health care access. To date, differences in access to kidney transplantation among children who reside in rural and micropolitan areas of the US have not been explored.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of children < 18 years who developed kidney failure between 2000 and 2019 according to the United States Renal Data System (USRDS). We examined the association between rurality of patient residence and time to living and/or deceased donor kidney transplantation (primary outcomes) and waitlist registration (secondary outcome) using Fine-Gray models.

RESULTS

We included 18,530 children, of whom 14,175 (76.5%) received a kidney transplant (39.8% from a living and 60.2% from a deceased donor). Residence in micropolitan (subhazard ratio (SHR) 1.16; 95% CI 1.06-1.27) and rural (SHR 1.18; 95% CI 1.06-1.3) areas was associated with better access to living donor transplantation compared with residence in metropolitan areas. There was no statistically significant association between residence in micropolitan (SHR, 0.95; 95%CI 0.88-1.03) and rural (SHR, 0.94; 95%CI 0.86-1.03) areas compared with metropolitan areas in the access of children to deceased donor transplantation. There was also no difference in the time to waitlist registration comparing micropolitan (SHR 1.04; 95%CI 0.98-1.10) and rural (SHR 1.05; 95% CI 0.98-1.13) versus metropolitan areas.

CONCLUSIONS

In children with kidney failure, residence in rural and micropolitan areas was associated with better access to living donor transplantation and similar access to deceased donor transplantation compared with residence in metropolitan areas.

Child Health Needs and the Pediatric Emergency Medicine Workforce: 2020-2040

Approximately 30 million ill and injured children annually visit emergency departments (EDs) in the United States. Data suggest that patients seen in pediatric EDs by board-certified pediatric emergency medicine (PEM) physicians receive higher-quality care than those cared for by non-PEM physicians. These benefits, coupled with the continued growth in PEM since its inception in the early 1990s, have impacted child health broadly. This article is part of a Pediatrics supplement focused on predicting the future pediatric subspecialty workforce supply by drawing on the American Board of Pediatrics workforce data and a microsimulation model of the future pediatric subspecialty workforce. The article discusses the utilization of acute care services in EDs, reviews the current state of the PEM subspecialty workforce, and presents projected numbers of PEM subspecialists at the national, census region, and census division on the basis of this pediatric subspecialty workforce supply model through 2040. Implications of this model on education and training, clinical practice, policy, and future workforce research are discussed. Findings suggest that, if the current growth in the field of PEM continues on the basis of the increasing number and size of fellowship programs, even with a potential reduction in percentage of clinical time and attrition of senior physicians, the PEM workforce is anticipated to increase nationally. However, the maldistribution of PEM physicians is likely to be perpetuated with the highest concentration in New England and Mid-Atlantic regions and "PEM deserts" in less populated areas.

Child Health Needs and the Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics Workforce Supply: 2020-2040

Developmental-behavioral pediatrics (DBP) subspecialists care for children with complex neurodevelopmental and behavioral health conditions; additional roles include education and training, advocacy, and research. In 2023, there were 1.0 DBP subspecialists per 100 000 US children aged 0 to 17 years (range 0.0-3.8), with wide variability in DBP subspecialist distribution. Given the prevalence of DB conditions, the current workforce is markedly inadequate to meet the needs of patients and families. The American Board of Pediatrics Foundation led a modeling project to forecast the US pediatric subspecialty workforce from 2020 to 2040 using current trends in each subspecialty. The model predicts workforce supply at baseline and across alternative scenarios and reports results in headcount (HC) and HC adjusted for percent time spent in clinical care, termed "clinical workforce equivalent." For DBP, the baseline model predicts HC growth nationally (+45%, from 669 to 958), but these extremely low numbers translate to minimal patient care impact. Adjusting for population growth over time, projected HC increases from 0.8 to 1.0 and clinical workforce equivalent from 0.5 to 0.6 DBP subspecialists per 100 000 children aged 0 to 18 years by 2040. Even in the best-case scenario (+12.5% in fellows by 2030 and +7% in time in clinical care), the overall numbers would be minimally affected. These current and forecasted trends should be used to shape much-needed solutions in education, training, practice, policy, and workforce research to increase the DBP workforce and improve overall child health.

Child Health Needs and the Pediatric Rheumatology Workforce: 2020-2040

The Pediatric Rheumatology (PRH) workforce supply in the United States does not meet the needs of children. Lack of timely access to PRH care is associated with poor outcomes for children with rheumatic diseases. This article is part of a Pediatrics supplement focused on anticipating the future pediatric subspecialty workforce supply. It draws on information in the literature, American Board of Pediatrics data, and findings from a model that estimates the future supply of pediatric subspecialists developed by the Sheps Center for Health Services Research at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Strategic Modeling and Analysis Ltd., and the American Board of Pediatrics Foundation. PRH has a smaller workforce per capita of children than most other pediatric subspecialties. The model demonstrates that the clinical workforce equivalent of pediatric rheumatologists in 2020 was only 0.27 per 100 000 children, with a predicted increase to 0.47 by 2040. Although the model predicts a 72% increase in providers, this number remains inadequate to provide sufficient care given the number of children with rheumatic diseases, especially in the South and West regions. The likely reasons for the workforce shortage are multifactorial, including lack of awareness of the field, low salaries compared with most other medical specialties, concerns about working solo or in small group practices, and increasing provider retirement. Novel interventions are needed to increase the workforce size. The American College of Rheumatology has recognized the dire consequences of this shortage and has developed a workforce solutions initiative to tackle these problems.

Child Health Needs and the Pediatric Nephrology Subspecialty Workforce: 2020-2040

Pediatric nephrology is dedicated to caring for children with kidney disease, a unique blend of acute care and chronic longitudinal patient relationships. Though historically a small field, trainee interest has declined over the past 2 decades. This has led to growing alarm about the health of the pediatric nephrology workforce, although concerns have been hampered by a lack of available data to enable feasible projections. This article is part of a supplement that anticipates the future pediatric subspecialty workforce supply. It draws on existing literature, data from the American Board of Pediatrics, and findings from a model that estimates the future supply of pediatric subspecialists developed by the Carolina Health Workforce Research Center at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill's Cecil G. Sheps Center for Health Services Research and Strategic Modeling Analytics & Planning Ltd. The workforce projections from 2020 to 2040 incorporate population growth, clinical effort, and geographic trends and model alternate scenarios adjusting for changes in trainee interest, clinical efforts, and workforce attrition. The baseline model predicts growth of clinical work equivalents by 26% by 2040, but further widening geographic disparities worsen the existing mismatch between supply, clinical need, and market demand. The worst-case scenario projects 13% growth by 2040 which, at best, maintains the status quo of an already strained workforce. The models do not account for many factors expected to heighten demand over the coming decades. Urgent reforms are necessary now. Proposed solutions require multipronged changes in education and training pathways, remuneration, clinical practice models, and government policy.

Forecasting the Future Supply of Pediatric Subspecialists in the United States: 2020-2040

Concerns persist about whether the United States has an adequate supply of pediatric subspecialists and whether they are appropriately distributed across the nation to meet children's health needs. This article describes the data and methods used to develop a workforce projection model that estimates the future supply of 14 pediatric subspecialities certified by the American Board of Pediatrics at the national and US census region and division levels from 2020 to 2040. The 14 subspecialties include adolescent medicine, pediatric cardiology, child abuse pediatrics, pediatric critical care medicine, developmental-behavioral pediatrics, pediatric emergency medicine, pediatric endocrinology, pediatric gastroenterology, pediatric hematology-oncology, pediatric infectious diseases, neonatal-perinatal medicine, pediatric nephrology, pediatric pulmonology, and pediatric rheumatology. Hospital medicine was excluded because of the lack of historical data needed for the model. This study addresses the limitations of prior models that grouped adult and pediatric physician subspecialty workforces together and aggregated pediatric subspecialties. The model projects supply at national and subnational levels while accounting for geographic moves that pediatric subspecialists make after training and during their career. Ten "what if" scenarios included in the model simulate the effect of changes in the number of fellows entering training, the rate at which subspecialists leave the workforce, and changes in hours worked in direct and indirect clinical care. All model projections and scenarios are available on a public, interactive Web site. The model's projections can also be examined with other data to provide insight into the possible future of the pediatric subspecialty workforce and offer data to inform decision-making.

Child Health Needs and the Pediatric Critical Care Medicine Workforce: 2020-2040

This article, focused on the current and future pediatric critical care medicine (PCCM) workforce, is part of a supplement in Pediatrics anticipating the future supply of the pediatric subspecialty workforce. It draws on information available in the literature, data from the American Board of Pediatrics, and findings from a model that estimates the future supply of pediatric subspecialists developed by the American Board of Pediatrics Foundation in collaboration with the Carolina Workforce Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill's Cecil G. Sheps Center for Health Services Research and Strategic Modeling and Analysis Ltd. A brief history of the field of PCCM is provided, followed by an in-depth examination of the current PCCM workforce and a subsequent evaluation of workforce forecasts from 2020 to 2040. Under baseline conditions, the PCCM workforce is expected to increase by 105% during the forecasted period, more than any other pediatric subspecialty. Forecasts are modeled under a variety of multifactorial conditions meant to simulate the effects of changes to the supply of PCCM subspecialists, with only modest changes observed. Future PCCM workforce demand is unclear, although some suggest an oversupply may exist and that market forces may correct this. The findings generate important questions regarding the future state of the PCCM workforce and should be used to guide trainees considering a PCCM career, subspecialty leaders responsible for hosting training programs, staffing ICUs, and governing bodies that oversee training program accreditation and subspecialist certification.

The impact of rural status on pediatric chronic kidney disease

Children and adolescents in rural areas with chronic kidney disease (CKD) face unique challenges related to accessing pediatric nephrology care. Challenges to obtaining care begin with living increased distances from pediatric health care centers. Recent trends of increasing centralization of pediatric care mean fewer locations have pediatric nephrology, inpatient, and intensive care services. In addition, access to care for rural populations expands beyond distance and encompasses domains of approachability, acceptability, availability and accommodation, affordability, and appropriateness. Furthermore, the current literature identifies additional barriers to care for rural patients that include limited resources, including finances, education, and community/neighborhood social resources. Rural pediatric kidney failure patients have barriers to kidney replacement therapy options that may be even more limited for rural pediatric kidney failure patients when compared to rural adults with kidney failure. This educational review identifies possible strategies to improve health systems for rural CKD patients and their families: (1) increasing rural patient and hospital/clinic representation and focus in research, (2) understanding and mediating gaps in the geographic distribution of the pediatric nephrology workforce, (3) introducing regionalization models for delivering pediatric nephrology care to geographic areas, and (4) employing telehealth to expand the geographic reach of services and reduce family time and travel burden.

Child Health and the US Pediatric Subspecialty Workforce: Planning for the Future

This article opens a multi-article Pediatrics supplement that provides a rigorous analysis of the projected pediatric subspecialty workforce in the United States. Congenital variations, epigenetics, exposures, lifestyle, preventive care, and medical interventions from conception through young adulthood set the stage for health and wellbeing in adulthood. Although care provided by pediatric subspecialists is associated with better outcomes and lower costs compared with adult providers, the authors of recent articles in the lay and medical literature have questioned the capacity of pediatric subspecialists to meet children's health care needs. This article highlights that, despite numerous advances in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, the last decade has witnessed increasing numbers of children with acute or chronic physical and mental health disorders, including medical complexity, obesity, type 2 diabetes, anxiety, depression, and suicidality, all of which are exacerbated by poverty, racism, and other social drivers of health. In this article, we then describe the variability in the demographics, practice characteristics, and geographic distribution of the 15 core pediatric subspecialties certified by the American Board of Pediatrics. We then discuss the rationale and approach to the development of a pediatric subspecialty workforce model that forecasts subspecialist supply from 2020 to 2040 for 14 subspecialties at the national and subnational levels (not including the newest subspecialty, pediatric hospital medicine), accounting for US Census Bureau child population projections. The model does not account for the unique physical and mental needs of individual children, nor does it address the increasingly precarious commitment to, and financing of, pediatric subspecialty care in the US health care system impacting market demand.

Child Health Needs and the Pediatric Gastroenterology Workforce: 2020-2040

This article is part of an American Board of Pediatrics Foundation-sponsored effort to analyze and forecast the pediatric subspecialty workforce between 2020 and 2040. Herein, an overview of the current pediatric gastroenterology workforce is provided, including demographics, work characteristics, and geographic distribution of practitioners. Brief context is provided on the changing nature of current practice models and the increasing prevalence of some commonly seen disorders. On the basis of a rigorous microsimulation workforce projection model, projected changes from 2020 to 2040 in the number of pediatric gastroenterologists and clinical workforce equivalents in the United States are presented. The article closes with a brief discussion of training, clinical practice, policy, and future workforce research implications of the data presented. This data-driven analysis suggests that the field of pediatric gastroenterology will continue to grow in scope and complexity, propelled by scientific advances and the increasing prevalence of many disorders relevant to the discipline. The workforce is projected to double by 2040, a growth rate faster than most other pediatric subspecialties. Disparities in care related to geography, race, and ethnicity are among the most significant challenges for the years ahead. Changes to training and education, incentives to meet the needs of underserved populations, and new multidisciplinary models for health care delivery will be necessary to optimally meet the volume, diversity, and complexity of children with gastroenterological diseases in the years ahead.

Child Health and the Pediatric Pulmonology Workforce: 2020-2040

There is concern as to whether the supply of pediatric pulmonology (PULM) subspecialists will be adequate to meet future demand. As part of an American Board of Pediatrics (ABP) Foundation-sponsored supplement investigating the future of the pediatric subspecialty workforce, this article assesses the current PULM clinical workforce and estimates the clinical workforce supply in the United States through 2040. The current workforce was assessed using ABP certification and Maintenance of Certification data, and a workforce supply model evaluating population growth, clinical effort, and geographic trends was developed after incorporating ABP data. Findings demonstrate that the number of pediatric pulmonologists has gradually increased over the past decade, and the ratio of subspecialists to children is likely to increase another 20% to 40% over the next 2 decades, although absolute numbers remain small. Geographic variation in access will persist in some regions. The proportion of women in the discipline has increased, but the proportion of pediatric pulmonologists from underrepresented in medicine backgrounds still lags behind the general population. Based on current trends, the PULM clinical workforce appears equipped to meet both population growth and the modest increase in demand for clinical services speculated to occur because of changes in the subspecialty's clinical portfolio. However, several factors could inhibit growth, and geographic maldistribution may continue to impact care access. Efforts to address variation in access and demographic diversity in the field are warranted. This article concludes by discussing the training, clinical practice, policy, and future workforce research implications of the data presented.

Projecting the Future Pediatric Subspecialty Workforce: Summary and Recommendations

This article summarizes the findings of a Pediatrics supplement addressing the United States workforce for 15 pediatric subspecialties. It includes results from a microsimulation model projecting supply through 2040; growth is forecasted to be uneven across the subspecialties with worsening geographic maldistribution. Although each subspecialty has unique characteristics, commonalities include (1) the changing demographics and healthcare needs of children, including mental health; (2) poor outcomes for children experiencing adverse social drivers of health, including racism; and (3) dependence on other subspecialties. Common healthcare delivery challenges include (1) physician shortages for some subspecialties; (2) misalignment between locations of training programs and subspecialists and areas of projected child population growth; (3) tension between increasing subsubspecialization to address rare diseases and general subspecialty care; (4) the need to expand clinical reach through collaboration with other physicians and advanced practice providers; (5) the lack of parity between Medicare, which funds much of adult care, and Medicaid, which funds over half of pediatric subspecialty care; and (6) low compensation of pediatric subspecialists compared with adult subspecialists. Overall, subspecialists identified the lack of a central authority to monitor and inform child healthcare provided by pediatric subspecialists as a challenge. Future research on the pediatric subspecialty workforce and the children it serves will be necessary to ensure these children's needs are met. Together, these articles provide overarching and subspecialty-specific recommendations to improve training, recruitment, and retention of a diverse workforce, implement innovative models of care, drive policy changes, and advise future research.

Child Health and the Pediatric Hematology-Oncology Workforce: 2020-2040

Pediatric hematology-oncology (PHO) is 1 of the oldest recognized pediatric subspecialities. PHO physicians care for infants, children, adolescents, and young adults with all types of cancer and nonmalignant blood conditions, in many cases temporarily assuming the role of a primary care physician because of the complexity and intensity of treatment. However, the number of clinically active PHO subspecialists needed to care for children in the United States remains unknown. Recent papers suggest a potential oversaturation of PHO physicians in some geographic areas. This article is part of a Pediatrics supplement focused on projecting the future supply of the pediatric subspecialty workforce. It draws on information available in the literature, data from the American Board of Pediatrics, and findings from a new microsimulation model estimating the future supply of pediatric subspecialists through 2040. The model predicts a workforce growth in PHO subspecialists of 66% by 2040. Alternative scenarios, including changes in clinical time and fellowship size, resulted in a difference in growth of ±18% from baseline. The model also forecasts significant geographic maldistribution. For example, the current workforce is concentrated in the Northeast Census region and the model predicts the New England Census division will have a 2.9-fold higher clinical workforce equivalent per 100 000 children aged 0 to 18 years than the Mountain Census division by 2040. These findings suggest potential opportunities to improve the PHO subspecialty workforce and the outcomes and experiences of its patient population through educational changes, practice initiatives, policy interventions, and dedicated research.

Interdisciplinary fetal neurology care: Current practice, challenges, and future directions

As the field of fetal-neonatal neurology has expanded over the past 2 decades with increasingly complex diagnoses, multidisciplinary collaboration with many subspecialties including genetics, neonatology, obstetrics, maternal fetal medicine, surgical sub-specialties, cardiology, radiology, palliative care, and ethics has needed to evolve to strive to offer optimal patient care. While comprehensive care delivery with an inter-disciplinary approach is preferred, there are often barriers based on numerous health disparities especially in resource limited settings. Even in the context of comprehensive care, diagnostic and prognostic uncertainty lead to challenges for providers during fetal neurology consultations. We present a case that highlights advantages of a comprehensive multi-disciplinary team in caring for the medical and social challenges of patients faced with a fetal neurologic diagnosis. Inter-disciplinary training focusing on maternal, fetal, neonatal, and childhood neurodevelopmental course and collaboration among the numerous stakeholders that contribute to fetal neurology practice is needed to provide optimal counseling and care for families faced with a fetal neurological diagnosis.

Glucagon fill rates and cost among children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes in the United States, 2011-2021

AIMS

To characterize glucagon fill rates and costs among youth with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM).

METHODS

Claims-based analysis of commercially-insured youth with T1DM included in OptumLabs® Data Warehouse between 2011 and 2021. Glucagon fill rates and costs were calculated overall and by formulation (injectable, intranasal, autoinjector, and pre-filled syringe). Sociodemographic and clinical factors associated with glucagon fills were examined using Cox regression.

RESULTS

We identified 13,267 children with T1DM (76.4% non-Hispanic White). Over mean follow-up of 2.81 years (SD 2.62), 70.0% filled glucagon, with stable fill rates from 2011 to 2021. Intranasal glucagon had rapid uptake following initial approval, and it accounted for almost half (46.6%) of all glucagon fills by 2021. Family income was positively associated with glucagon fills in a stepwise fashion (HR 1.39 [95% CI 1.27-1.52] for annual household income ≥$200,000 vs. <$40,000), while Black race was negatively associated with fills (HR 0.83 [95% CI 0.76-0.91]) compared to White race). Annual mean out-of-pocket costs ranged from $21-$68 (IQR $29-$44).

CONCLUSION

Roughly 30% of commercially-insured youth with T1DM may lack access to unexpired glucagon, with significant disparities among Black and low-income patients. Health systems, clinicians, schools, and caregivers should work together to ensure children have reliable access to this critical medication.

Telehealth Coverage for a Pediatric Gastroenterology Consult Service at a Regional Hospital: An Accepted, Useful, and Sustainable Model of Care

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate a novel telehealth inpatient pediatric gastroenterology (GI) consult service at a regional children's hospital in regard to acceptance, utility, quality, sustainability, and provider resiliency.

STUDY DESIGN

Patients requiring GI care at a regional children's hospital between July 2020 and June 2021 were treated by an in-person or telehealth physician with physician assistant support, randomly assigned based on a weekly preset staffing schedule. A retrospective, multidomain program evaluation was performed based on the RE-AIM (reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance) and STEM (SPROUT Telehealth Evaluation and Management) frameworks, using statistical analysis to compare the patient cohorts and anonymous surveys to assess provider perceptions.

RESULTS

In total, 1051 patient-days of GI care were provided for 348 patients, 17% by telehealth and 83% in-person. There were no significant differences in diagnosis, transfer, or readmission rates between the cohorts. No transfers occurred for reasons other than need to access specialized services not available at the regional hospital. Daily consult workload was slightly greater for telehealth physicians. Primary and consult team providers accepted the practice. The model continued beyond the first year. In total, 75% of local GI physicians reported greater Brief Resilience Scores in the context of shifting 20% of their inpatient call weeks to another campus's physicians.

CONCLUSION

Episodic pediatric GI consult service coverage via telehealth at a regional hospital was well accepted, useful, and sustainable, with improved physician resilience and no adverse outcomes seen. Telehealth holds promise for leveraging pediatric subspecialty physicians across hospitals, allowing complex patients to be admitted closer to home while reducing inpatient coverage requirements for smaller physician groups.

The Relationship Between Regional Growth in Neonatal Intensive Care Capacity and Perinatal Risk

BACKGROUND

The supply of US neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) beds and neonatologists is known to vary markedly across regions, but there have been no investigation of patterns of recent growth (1991-2017) in NICUs in relation to newborn need.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that greater growth in NICU capacity occurred in neonatal intensive care regions with higher perinatal risk.

RESEARCH DESIGN

A longitudinal ecological analysis with neonatal intensive care regions (n=246) as the units of analysis. Associations were tested using linear regression.

SUBJECTS

All US live births ≥400 g in 1991 (n=4,103,528) and 2017 (n=3,849,644).

MEASURES

Primary measures of risk were the proportions of low-birth weight and very low-birth weight newborns and mothers who were Black or had low educational attainment.

RESULTS

Over 26 years, the numbers of NICU beds and neonatologists per live birth increased 42% and 200%, respectively, with marked variation in growth across regions (interquartile range: 0.3-4.1, beds; neonatologists, 0.4-1.0 per 1000 live births). A weak association of capacity with perinatal risk in 1991 was absent in 2017. There was no meaningful (ie, clinical or policy relevant) association between regional changes in capacity and regions with higher perinatal risk or lower capacity in 1991; higher increases in perinatal risk were not associated with higher capacity growth.

CONCLUSION

The lack of association between newborn medical needs and the supply of NICU resources raises questions about the current effectiveness of newborn care at a population level.

Vascular Anomalies Care in the United States: A Cross-Sectional National Survey

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the current distribution, composition, and practice patterns of multidisciplinary vascular anomalies (VAs) teams in the US.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a cross-sectional survey of children's hospitals in the US offering VAs care. We approached 142 children's hospitals that provided care for VAs via email. The survey evaluated VA clinic location, medical staffing, research participation, and treatments offered. The survey was administered between October 2021 and July 2022.

RESULTS

Participants from 95 eligible hospitals responded to the survey (response rate = 67%). Large areas of the Midwest and Northwest US had no available multidisciplinary VA teams or clinics. Most respondents worked at academic centers (89%), with 66% at a freestanding children's hospital, and 56% reported having a multidisciplinary clinic. Most common physician participants in clinic included hematology-oncology (91%), interventional radiology (87%), dermatology (85%), plastic surgery (81%), and otolaryngology (74%). Only 38% of programs included medical geneticists. Smaller hospitals had fewer medical and ancillary staff and offered fewer therapeutic options. Research was available at most larger institutions (69%) but less commonly at smaller hospitals (34%).

CONCLUSIONS

Major portions of the US lack multidisciplinary VA care. Furthermore, VA programs vary in composition and geneticists are absent from the majority of programs. These findings should inform efforts to address disparate access and develop standards of care for multidisciplinary VA care in the US.

Exploring the Impact of Legislation Aiming to Ban Gender-Affirming Care on Pediatric Endocrine Providers: A Mixed-Methods Analysis

Context

Access to gender-affirming medical care is associated with better mental health outcomes in transgender and gender diverse youth. In 2021 and 2022, legislation aiming to ban gender-affirming medical care for youth was proposed in 24 states.

Objective

This study aimed to (1) assess the impact of this legislation on pediatric providers based on legislative status of their state of practice and (2) identify the themes of concerns reported by them.

Methods

A mixed-methods study was conducted via an anonymous survey distributed to pediatric endocrinology providers. Survey responses were stratified based on US state of practice, with attention to whether legislation aiming to ban gender-affirming care had been considered. Data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Results

Of 223 respondents, 125 (56.0%) were currently providing gender-affirming medical care. A total of 103 (45.7%) respondents practiced in a state where legislation aiming to ban gender-affirming care had been proposed and/or passed between January 2021 to June 2022. Practicing in legislation-affected states was associated with negative experiences for providers including (1) institutional pressure that would limit the ability to provide care, (2) threats to personal safety, (3) concerns about legal action being taken against them, (4) concerns about their career, and (5) institutional concerns about engagement with media. Major qualitative themes emerging for providers in legislation-affected states included safety concerns and the impact of laws on medical practice.

Conclusion

This study suggests that legislation aiming to ban health care for transgender youth may decrease access to qualified providers in affected states.

Analysis of North Carolina Medicaid Claims Data to Simulate a Pediatric Accountable Care Organization

Importance

Despite momentum for pediatric value-based payment models, little is known about tailoring design elements to account for the unique needs and utilization patterns of children and young adults.

Objective

To simulate attribution to a hypothetical pediatric accountable care organization (ACO) and describe baseline demographic characteristics, expenditures, and utilization patterns over the subsequent year.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This retrospective cohort study used Medicaid claims data for children and young adults aged 1 to 20 years enrolled in North Carolina Medicaid at any time during 2017. Children and young adults receiving at least 50% of their primary care at a large academic medical center (AMC) in 2017 were attributed to the ACO. Data were analyzed from April 2020 to March 2021.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Primary outcomes were total cost of care and care utilization during the 2018 performance year.

Results

Among 930 266 children and young adults (377 233 children [40.6%] aged 6-12 years; 470 612 [50.6%] female) enrolled in Medicare in North Carolina in 2017, 27 290 children and young adults were attributed to the ACO. A total of 12 306 Black non-Hispanic children and young adults (45.1%), 6308 Hispanic or Latinx children and young adults (23.1%), and 6531 White non-Hispanic children and young adults (23.9%) were included. Most attributed individuals (23 133 individuals [84.7%]) had at least 1 claim in the performance year. The median (IQR) total cost of care in 2018 was $347 ($107-$1123); 272 individuals (1.0%) accounted for nearly half of total costs. Compared with children and young adults in the lowest-cost quartile, those in the highest-cost quartile were more likely to have complex medical conditions (399 individuals [6.9%] vs 3442 individuals [59.5%]) and to live farther from the AMC (median [IQR distance, 6.0 [4.6-20.3] miles vs 13.9 [4.6-30.9] miles). Total cost of care was accrued in home (43%), outpatient specialty (19%), inpatient (14%) and primary (8%) care. More than half of attributed children and young adults received care outside of the ACO; the median (IQR) cost for leaked care was $349 ($130-$1326). The costliest leaked encounters included inpatient, ancillary, and home health care, while the most frequently leaked encounters included behavioral health, emergency, and primary care.

Conclusions and Relevance

This cohort study found that while most children attributed to the hypothetical Medicaid pediatric ACO lived locally with few health care encounters, a small group of children with medical complexity traveled long distances for care and used frequent and costly home-based and outpatient specialty care. Leaked care was substantial for all attributed children, with the cost of leaked care being higher than the total cost of care. These pediatric-specific clinical and utilization profiles have implications for future pediatric ACO design choices related to attribution, accounting for children with high costs, and strategies to address leaked care.

Association of Rural Residence With Surgical Outcomes Among Infants at US Children's Hospitals

OBJECTIVES

Disparities in pediatric health outcomes are widespread. It is unclear whether rurality negatively impacts outcomes of infants with surgical congenital diseases. This study compared outcomes of rural versus urban infants requiring complex surgical care at children's hospitals in the United States.

METHODS

Rural and urban infants (aged <1 year) receiving surgical care at children's hospitals from 2016 to 2019 for esophageal atresia, gastroschisis, Hirschsprung's disease, anorectal malformation, and congenital diaphragmatic hernia were compared over a 1-year postoperative period using the Pediatric Health Information System. Generalized linear mixed effects models compared outcomes of rural and urban infants.

RESULTS

Among 5732 infants, 20.2% lived in rural areas. Rural infants were more frequently white, lived farther from the hospital, and lived in areas with lower median household income compared with urban infants (all P < .001). Rural infants with anorectal malformation and gastroschisis had lower adjusted hospital days over 1 year; rural infants with esophageal atresia had higher adjusted odds of 30-day hospital readmission. Adjusted mortality, hospital days, and readmissions were otherwise similar between the 2 groups. Outcomes remained similar when comparing urban infants to rural infant subgroups with the longest hospital travel distance (≥60 miles) and lowest median household income (<$35 000).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite longer travel distances and lower financial resources, rural infants with congenital anomalies have similar postoperative outcomes to urban infants when treated at children's hospitals. Future work is needed to examine outcomes for infants treated outside children's hospitals and to determine whether efforts are necessary to increase access to children's hospitals.

The Landscape of Outpatient Pediatric Palliative Care: A National Cross-Sectional Assessment

CONTEXT

Inpatient pediatric palliative care (PPC) has grown substantially over the past 20 years; however, PPC in the outpatient setting remains underdeveloped. Outpatient PPC (OPPC) offers opportunities to improve access to PPC as well as facilitate care coordination and transitions for children with serious illness.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to characterize the national status of OPPC programmatic development and operationalization in the United States.

METHODS

Utilizing a national report, freestanding children's hospitals with existing PPC programs were identified to query OPPC status. An electronic survey was developed and distributed to PPC participants at each site. Survey domains included hospital and PPC program demographics; OPPC development, structure, staffing, and workflow; metrics of successful OPPC implementation; and other services/partnerships.

RESULTS

Of 48 eligible sites, 36 (75%) completed the survey. Clinic-based OPPC programs were identified at 28 (78%) sites. OPPC programs reported a median age of 9 years [range: 1-18 years] with growth peaks in 2011, 2012 and 2020. OPPC availability was significantly associated with increased hospital size [P = 0.05] and inpatient PPC billable full time equivalent staff [P = 0.01]. Top referral indications included pain management, goals of care, and advance care planning. Funding primarily came from institutional support and billing revenue.

CONCLUSIONS

Although OPPC remains a young field, many inpatient PPC programs are growing into the outpatient setting. Increasingly, OPPC services have institutional support and diverse referral indications from multiple subspecialties. However, despite high demand, resources remain limited. Characterization of the current OPPC landscape is crucial to optimize future growth.

Provider and Caregiver Perspectives on Telehealth Assessments for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Young Children: A Multimethod DBPNet Study Exploring Equity

BACKGROUND

Telehealth uptake increased dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic, including for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) assessment by developmental-behavioral pediatric (DBP) clinicians. However, little is known about the acceptability of telehealth or its impact on equity in DBP care.

OBJECTIVE

Engage providers and caregivers to glean their perspectives on the use of telehealth for ASD assessment in young children, exploring acceptability, benefits, concerns, and its potential role in ameliorating or exacerbating disparities in access to and quality of DBP care.

METHODS

This multimethod study used surveys and semistructured interviews to describe provider and family perspectives around the use of telehealth in DBP evaluation of children younger than 5 years with possible ASD between 3/2020 and 12/2021. Surveys were completed by 13 DBP clinicians and 22 caregivers. Semistructured interviews with 12 DBP clinicians and 14 caregivers were conducted, transcribed, coded, and analyzed thematically.

RESULTS

Acceptance of and satisfaction with telehealth for ASD assessments in DBP were high for clinicians and most caregivers. Pros and cons concerning assessment quality and access to care were noted. Providers raised concerns about equity of telehealth access, particularly for families with a preferred language other than English.

CONCLUSION

This study's results can inform the adoption of telehealth in DBP in an equitable manner beyond the pandemic. DBP providers and families desire the ability to choose telehealth care for different assessment components. Unique factors related to performing observational assessments of young children with developmental and behavioral concerns make telehealth particularly well-suited for DBP care.

ehealth technology in cardiac exercise therapeutics for pediatric patients with congenital and acquired heart conditions: a summary of evidence and future directions

Many children and adolescents with congenital and acquired heart disease (CHD) are physically inactive and participate in an insufficient amount of moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise. Although physical activity (PA) and exercise interventions are effective at improving short- and long-term physiological and psychosocial outcomes in youth with CHD, several barriers including resource limitations, financial costs, and knowledge inhibit widespread implementation and dissemination of these beneficial programs. New and developing eHealth, mHealth, and remote monitoring technologies offer a potentially transformative and cost-effective solution to increase access to PA and exercise programs for youth with CHD, yet little has been written on this topic. In this review, a cardiac exercise therapeutics (CET) model is presented as a systematic approach to PA and exercise, with assessment and testing guiding three sequential PA and exercise intervention approaches of progressive intensity and resource requirements: (1) PA and exercise promotion within a clinical setting; (2) unsupervised exercise prescription; and (3) medically supervised fitness training intervention (i.e., cardiac rehabilitation). Using the CET model, the goal of this review is to summarize the current evidence describing the application of novel technologies within CET in populations of children and adolescents with CHD and introduce potential future applications of these technologies with an emphasis on improving equity and access to patients in low-resource settings and underserved communities.

The Importance of Subspecialty Pediatricians to the Health and Wellbeing of the Nation's Children

Through this review of published literature, it is clear that children benefit in measurable ways when they receive care from trained pediatric subspecialists. The improved outcomes provided by pediatric subspecialists supports the care provided in the patient's pediatric medical home and emphasizes the importance of care coordination between all components of the pediatric workforce. The AAP highlights this in a recent policy statement by stating the care provided by pediatric clinicians "encompasses diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic health disorders; management of serious and life-threatening illnesses; and when appropriate, referral of patients with more complex conditions for medical subspecialty or surgical specialty care" Explicit in this statement is the emphasis on the role of complex care coordination between pediatric specialist and primary care pediatricians and that collaboration and guidance by the pediatrician is central to providing optimal care of patients. ⁶⁵ Improving health outcomes early in life is an important public health strategy for modifying the complications from childhood chronic disease and highlights the role of pediatricians in mitigating the long-term consequences of antecedents of adult disease. ⁶⁶ The recent announcement of the National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM)'s plan for a Consensus Study on The Pediatric Subspecialty Workforce and Its Impact on Child Health and Well-being is a related and exciting development, on a national scale. ⁶⁷ In response to shortages and geographic maldistributions of pediatric subspecialists, the NASEM committee intends to assess the impact of current pediatric clinical workforce trends on child health and well-being, in order to develop informed strategies to ensure an adequate, high-quality pediatric workforce, with a robust research portfolio that informs those recommendations. While this large, national initiative will surely lead to a better understanding of and strategies to implement across the pediatric subspecialty workforce, more well-designed studies that specifically measure child outcomes related to access to pediatric subspecialty care, would add meaningfully to the body of pediatric literature and to our national pediatric advocacy initiatives.

HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis awareness, practices, and comfort among urban and rural family medicine physicians

PURPOSE

HIV rates are increasing in rural areas, and adolescents are disproportionately affected. HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is a daily pill that is effective at preventing HIV; however, PrEP uptake among adolescents is low. PrEP is dependent on primary care providers (PCPs) prescribing it, but research has overwhelmingly sampled urban PCPs. This study compared the PrEP awareness, practices, and comfort between rural and urban family medicine physicians.

METHODS

A total of 256 family medicine physicians in the United States were recruited from a Qualtrics panel to complete an online cross-sectional survey between July 15 and August 9, 2022. Participants completed items assessing their demographic characteristics and PrEP awareness, practices, and comfort. A chi-square test of independence and multiple logistic regression were used to determine rural/urban differences.

FINDINGS

Rural family medicine physicians were less comfortable than urban family medicine physicians in providing sexual risk reduction counseling to adolescents, telling an adolescent patient their HIV test result was HIV positive, and implementing all of the PrEP clinical activities for adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Education, skill-building, and collaborative partnership interventions could improve the comfort levels of rural family medicine physicians in implementing the PrEP guidelines for their adolescent patients. Future research is needed to understand the factors that explain the differences in PrEP-related attitudes and practices between urban and rural family medicine physicians. Results from such studies could inform provider-based interventions that ultimately increase PrEP use and decrease HIV rates among rural adolescents.

Distribution of acute appendicitis care in children: A statewide assessment of the surgeons and facilities providing surgical care

BACKGROUND

Pediatric appendicitis is managed by general and pediatric surgeons at both children's hospitals and non-children's hospitals. A statewide assessment of surgeons and facilities providing appendicitis care was performed to identify factors associated with location of surgical care.

METHODS

Children aged <18 years undergoing appendectomy for appendicitis in Wisconsin from 2018-2020 were identified through the International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision, and Current Procedural Terminology codes using Wisconsin Hospital Association data. Patient residence and hospital locations were used to determine travel distance, rurality, and neighborhood-level socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

Among 3,604 children with appendicitis, 36.0% and 12.8% had an appendectomy at 2 major children's hospitals and 4 other children's hospitals, respectively, and 51.2% had an appendectomy at 99 non-children's hospitals. Pediatric surgeons performed 76.1% of appendectomies at children's hospitals and 2.9% at non-children's hospitals. Only 32.2% of patients received care at the hospital closest to their homes. Non-children's hospitals disproportionally cared for older, non-Hispanic White, and privately insured children, those with uncomplicated appendicitis, and those living in rural areas, in mid-socioeconomic status neighborhoods, and greater distances from children's hospitals (all P < .001). After multivariable adjustment, receipt of care at children's hospitals was associated with younger age, minority race, complicated appendicitis, shorter distance to children's hospitals, and urban residence.

CONCLUSION

Over half of surgical care for pediatric appendicitis occurred at non-children's hospitals, especially among older children and those living in rural areas far from children's hospitals. Future work is necessary to determine which children benefit most from care at children's hospitals and which can safely receive care at non-children's hospitals to avoid unnecessary time and resource utilization associated with travel to children's hospitals.

Referring Provider Opinions of Pediatric Cardiology Evaluations Performed by Nurse Practitioners

In the setting of physician shortages, nurse practitioner (NP) roles have evolved, with increasing independence across most healthcare settings. We sought to characterize referring clinician perceptions of NP-performed outpatient pediatric cardiology consultations. We electronically distributed to pediatric and family medicine physicians and NPs in Arkansas our 11-item survey assessing the acceptability of pediatric cardiology consultations being completed by an NP under varying circumstances. Circumstances included seven common referral indications, and the scale offered five answer choices ranging from "definitely unacceptable" to "definitely acceptable". A total of 292 of 1756 (16.6% response rate) referring clinicians responded to the survey. Overall, 57% of responses indicated that NP-completed pediatric cardiology evaluations were either definitely or probably unacceptable. Acceptability was varied by referral indication and referring clinician characteristics. Unacceptability of NP-completed pediatric cardiology evaluations was greatest among family medicine physicians (81%), pediatricians (66%), and clinicians working in solo or two-physician practices (77%) or community hospitals/clinics (71%). If NP evaluation of a murmur included required review with a cardiologist, the unacceptability rate dropped from 50 to 24% (p < 0.0001). Unacceptability was higher in physicians who do not work with NPs (69%) compared to those who do (60%) (pp < 0.0001). Many referring physicians were willing to send patients ≥ 100 miles to ensure evaluation by a pediatric cardiologist. Most referring physicians find pediatric cardiology evaluations performed by NPs to be unacceptable. Requisite review with a cardiologist improved acceptability of NP evaluations. Many referring physicians would send patients much farther to guarantee evaluation by a cardiologist.

Assessing the pediatric subspecialty pipeline: it is all about the data source

BACKGROUND

National Resident Match Program (NRMP) data are often used to identify the pediatric subspecialty pipeline. Other data sources may provide greater accuracy.

METHODS

Analysis of data from the NRMP and the American Board of Pediatrics (ABP) for 14 pediatric subspecialties from 2008 to 2020. We calculated, within each subspecialty, the annual number of first-year fellowship positions offered, the NRMP match rate, the actual number of fellows entering training (ABP data) relative to the number of positions in the match (fill rate), and the actual number of matriculating first-year fellows each year.

RESULTS

For all subspecialties and years, the fill rate was greater than the match rate. All subspecialties had an increase in the relative and absolute number of first-year fellows, with the largest increases seen in emergency medicine (73.3%) and critical care (68.9%). Except for adolescent medicine, all subspecialties had an absolute increase in the number of positions offered, with the largest increase in pulmonology (32.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

NRMP data underestimate the actual number of first-year fellows entering subspecialty training. For all subspecialties, the number of first-year fellows has increased over time, indicating continued expansion in the pipeline for most. However, there remains great variation across subspecialties.

IMPACT

Perceptions of the pipeline for the pediatric subspecialty workforce vary depending on the data source. The use of NMRP match data alone underestimates the number of matriculating trainees. The number of unmatched fellowship positions has created a perception of a diminishing number of pediatric subspecialty fellows. This study uses multiple data sources to better understand the actual number of fellows entering pediatric subspecialty training and demonstrates that the NRMP match rate alone underestimates the pipeline of the pediatric subspecialty workforce.

Diagnosis and Management of Insect Allergy: Barriers and Facilitators in the United States

While guidelines recommend testing and treatment for patients with venom-induced anaphylaxis to prevent morbidity and mortality, significant barriers prevent most patients from receiving the evaluation and treatments that they need. This review examines these barriers in the United States along with the facilitators that can be used to overcome them.

Adherence of Spanish pediatricians to "do not do" guidelines to avoid low-value care in pediatrics

The main objective of this study was to analyze the degree of knowledge and compliance of Spanish pediatricians with the "do not do" recommendations of the Spanish Association of Pediatrics. A nationwide cross-sectional, descriptive study was carried out using a 25-item questionnaire among Spanish pediatricians. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analyses were performed. A total of 1137 pediatricians participated in the study. Most of them were women (75.1%), older than 55 (28.3%), worked in specialized care (56.9%), with public financing (91.2%), and had been working for more than 20 years (44.9%). The median of inappropriate answers per question was 9.1%. The bivariate and multivariate analyses showed that the factors that influenced higher adequacy to the "do not do" recommendations were younger than 45 years, working in specialized care, and working in the public health system.

CONCLUSION

This research is the first nationwide study in Spain to analyze the adequacy of "do not do" pediatric clinical recommendations. The study showed a high level of compliance by Spanish pediatricians with these recommendations. However, there is a lack of knowledge in less frequent infectious pathologies such as HIV or fungal infections, in not prolonging antibiotic treatment unnecessarily and directing it appropriately according to the antibiogram results. These aspects may be improved by designing measures to enhance pediatricians' knowledge in these specific aspects. Some demographical factors are related to higher adequacy. Performing this research in other countries may allow assessing the current clinical practice of pediatricians.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Low-value care is defined as care that delivers little or no benefit, may cause patients harm, or outcomes marginal benefits at a disproportionately increased cost. • Few nationwide studies have assessed adherence to "do not do" guidelines, especially in pediatric settings.

WHAT IS NEW

• Albeit there is a high level of compliance by Spanish pediatricians with the «do not do» recommendations, there is a lack of knowledge in different aspects that may be improved. • Some demographical factors are related to higher adequacy. Performing this research in other countries may allow assessing the current clinical practice of pediatricians.

Lifetime Earning Potential and Workforce Distribution in Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics

OBJECTIVES

Compare lifetime earning potential (LEP) for developmental and behavioral pediatrics (DBP) to general pediatrics and other pediatric subspecialties. Evaluate association between LEP for DBP and measures of workforce distribution.

METHODS

Using compensation and debt data from 2018 to 2019 and a net present value analysis, we estimated LEP for DBP compared to general pediatrics and other pediatric subspecialties. We evaluated potential effects of eliminating educational debt, shortening length of fellowship training, and implementing loan repayment or forgiveness programs for pediatric subspecialists. We evaluated the association between LEP for DBP and measures of workforce distribution, including distance to subspecialists, percentage of hospital referral regions (HRRs) with a subspecialist, ratio of subspecialists to regional child population, and fellowship fill rates.

RESULTS

LEP was lower for DBP than for general private practice pediatrics ($1.9 million less), general academic pediatrics ($1.1 million less), and all other pediatric subspecialties. LEP of DBP could be improved by shortening fellowship training or implementing loan repayment or forgiveness programs. LEP for subspecialists, including DBP, was associated with distance to subspecialists (-0.5 miles/$100,000 increase in LEP, 95% confidence interval [CI] -0.98 to -0.08), percentage of HRRs with a subspecialist (+1.1%/$100,000 increase in LEP, 95% CI 0.37-1.83), ratio of subspecialists to regional child population (+0.1 subspecialists/100,000 children/$100,000 increase in LEP, 95% CI 0.04-0.17), and average 2014 to 2018 fellowship fill rates (+1% spots filled/$100,000 increase in LEP, 95% CI 0.25-1.65).

CONCLUSIONS

DBP has the lowest LEP of all pediatric fields and this is associated with DBP workforce shortages. Interventions to improve LEP may promote workforce growth.

Association Between Workforce Gender Distribution and Lifetime Earning Potential in the Pediatric Subspecialties

OBJECTIVE

Examine the relationship between the gender distribution of the pediatric subspecialty workforce and lifetime earning potential.

METHODS

We estimated lifetime earning potential for pediatric academic subspecialists using mean debt and compensation data from national physician surveys for 2019 to 2020 and examined the relationship between the workforce gender composition and lifetime earning potential across the pediatric subspecialties using linear regression analysis.

RESULTS

Subspecialties with a higher proportion of women had lower lifetime earning potential (-$55,215 in lifetime earning potential/1% increase in the percentage of female subspecialists; P value .002, 95% CI -$24,429 to -$86,000). Similarly, a higher proportion of female first-year fellows was associated with lower lifetime earning potential (-$61,808 in lifetime earning potential/1% increase in the percentage of female first-year fellows; P value .026, 95% CI -$9,210 to -$114,405).

CONCLUSIONS

Consistent with patterns seen in other areas of adult medicine and surgery, pediatric subspecialties with higher proportions of women, such as adolescent medicine and endocrinology, tended to have lower lifetime earning potentials than subspecialties with higher proportions of men, such as cardiology and critical care. Lower earning subspecialties also tended to train higher proportions of women, suggesting that this trend may worsen over time as pediatrics in general and individual subspecialties in particular become increasingly female predominant.