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Zhang WF, Li T, Lin SX. Meta-Analysis of steroid-converting enzymes and related receptors in prostate cancer suggesting novel combined therapies. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2020; 198:105559. [PMID: 31783154 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) signaling is essential for prostate cancer (PC) progression and treatment. Experiments have demonstrated that the intratumoral androgen levels are not affected by circulating androgen levels, but rather modulated by local steroid-converting enzyme activities. The expression modulation status of human steroid-converting enzymes and nuclear receptors are of great promise to identify novel therapeutic targets. Meta-analysis was performed with 9 cohorts (1093 specimens) from Gene Expression Omnibus, 16 cohorts (933 specimens) from Oncomine and the TCGA cohort (550 specimens). We found significant up regulation of 5α-reductase type 1 and type 3 in both primary and metastatic PC, together with the down regulation of AKR1C2 in primary PC, contributing to the high intratumoral DHT levels. The expression of AR in metastatic PC was up regulated, indicating the importance of AR signaling in the progression of this cancer. The down regulations of HSD11B1 and NR3C1 in primary and metastatic PC may diminish the anti-inflammation and anti-proliferation effects of glucocorticoids signaling. Furthermore, the decrease of progesterone receptor (PGR) expression in primary and metastatic PC was also observed, relieving the suppression effect of PGR on PC proliferation. The clinical evidences of the remarkable expression modulation of steroid-converting enzymes and receptors in PC may indicate novel combined treatment against this highly incident cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Fa Zhang
- Axe Molecular Endocrinology and Nephrology, CHU Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Boulevard Laurier, Quebec City, Quebec G1V 4G2, Canada.
| | - Tang Li
- Axe Molecular Endocrinology and Nephrology, CHU Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Boulevard Laurier, Quebec City, Quebec G1V 4G2, Canada; Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian 116023, China.
| | - Sheng-Xiang Lin
- Axe Molecular Endocrinology and Nephrology, CHU Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Boulevard Laurier, Quebec City, Quebec G1V 4G2, Canada.
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2
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Sehgal PD, Bauman TM, Nicholson TM, Vellky JE, Ricke EA, Tang W, Xu W, Huang W, Ricke WA. Tissue-specific quantification and localization of androgen and estrogen receptors in prostate cancer. Hum Pathol 2019; 89:99-108. [PMID: 31054895 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2019.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Androgens and estrogens, working together, promote prostate cancer (PRCA) initiation and progression, with androgens acting via androgen receptor (AR) and estrogens acting primarily through estrogen receptor α (ERα). While the interplay between these steroid hormones has been established, the interaction between steroid hormone receptors in prostatic disease remains unstudied. The goal of this study was to objectively determine the incidence, stage specificity, and tissue/cell type specificity of AR and ERα expression, both independently and simultaneously, during the progression of PRCA. Using multiplexed immunohistochemistry and multispectral imaging analysis, AR, ERα, and smooth muscle α-actin expression was detected and quantitated in benign prostate tissue (BPT), high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN), PRCA, and metastasis (MET) from patient specimens (n=340). Epithelial AR expression was significantly increased in HGPIN, PRCA, and MET compared with BPT, whereas ERα expression in epithelial and stromal cells was highest in HGPIN. With analysis of AR and ERα coexpression, we identified a unique population of double-positive (AR+/ERα+) cells that increased in HGPIN specimens in both the stroma and the epithelium. Double-negative (AR-/ERα-) cells significantly decreased across PRCA progression, from 65% in BPT to 30% in MET. Preliminary analysis of this AR+/ERα+ population indicates potential cell type specificity in smooth muscle α-actin-negative stromal cells. This study demonstrates stage-, tissue-, and cell type-specific AR and ERα expression changes during PRCA progression, both independently and coexpressed. A more complete understanding of steroid hormones and their receptors in the initiation and progression of prostatic disease may elucidate improved strategies for PRCA prevention or therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka D Sehgal
- Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Tyler M Bauman
- Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Division of Urology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Tristan M Nicholson
- Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Department of Urology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98915, USA
| | - Jordan E Vellky
- Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Cancer Biology Graduate Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin Institute for Medical Research, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Emily A Ricke
- Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; George M. O'Brien Research Center of Excellence, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Weiping Tang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Pharmacy, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Wei Xu
- Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; George M. O'Brien Research Center of Excellence, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Department of Human Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Wei Huang
- Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; George M. O'Brien Research Center of Excellence, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - William A Ricke
- Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA; George M. O'Brien Research Center of Excellence, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA.
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3
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Kobayashi PE, Rodrigues MM, Gartner F, Rema A, Fonseca-Alves CE, Laufer-Amorim R. Association between decreased expression of estrogen receptor alpha, androgen receptor and phosphatase and tensin homolog immunoexpression in the canine prostate. PESQUISA VETERINÁRIA BRASILEIRA 2019. [DOI: 10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-5699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT: Canine prostate gland is a hormonal dependent organ and its imbalance of estrogen and androgen receptor expressions are directly associated with the development of different diseases. Due to the lack of information regarding the behavior of the aforementioned receptors in canine prostate cancer (PC), this study aimed to identify estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), androgen receptor (AR), Ki67 and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) protein expressions in canine PC by immunohistochemistry. We found nuclear expression of ERα and AR in the epithelial cells of normal canine samples and a loss of protein expression in PC samples. Normal samples showed Ki67 expression in a few basal cells and the PC samples showed the highest mean of positive cells (253.1). Canine prostate cancer showed a high proliferative index, which was associated with independence of hormonal actuation. PTEN showed positive nuclear and cytoplasmic expression in normal canine samples and a loss in PC. Loss of ERα, AR and PTEN indicated that canine PC exhibits the same immunohistochemical phenotype as in human patients with PC resistant to hormonal therapy. Therefore, canine PC should be considered as a model to study human PC resistant to hormonal therapy.
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4
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Boibessot C, Toren P. Sex steroids in the tumor microenvironment and prostate cancer progression. Endocr Relat Cancer 2018; 25:R179-R196. [PMID: 29317479 DOI: 10.1530/erc-17-0493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is uniquely dependent on androgens. Despite years of research on the relationship between androgens and prostate cancer, many questions remain as to the biological effects of androgens and other sex steroids during prostate cancer progression. This article reviews the clinical and basic research on the influence of sex steroids such as androgens, estrogens and progesterone within the prostate tumor microenvironment on the progression of prostate cancer. We review clinical studies to date evaluating serum sex steroids as prognostic biomarkers and discuss their respective biological effects within the prostate tumor microenvironment. We also review the link between genomic alterations and sex steroid levels within prostate tumors. Finally, we highlight the links between sex steroid levels and the function of the immune system within the tumor microenvironment. As the context of treatment of lethal prostate cancer evolves over time, an understanding of this underlying biology remains central to developing optimal treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clovis Boibessot
- Department of SurgeryLaval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - Paul Toren
- Department of SurgeryLaval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
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Fujimura T, Takayama K, Takahashi S, Inoue S. Estrogen and Androgen Blockade for Advanced Prostate Cancer in the Era of Precision Medicine. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10020029. [PMID: 29360794 PMCID: PMC5836061 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10020029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) has been widely prescribed for patients with advanced prostate cancer (PC) to control key signaling pathways via androgen receptor (AR) and AR-collaborative transcriptional factors; however, PC gradually acquires a lethal phenotype and results in castration-resistant PC (CRPC) during ADT. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies are required in clinical practice. In addition, ARs; estrogen receptors (ERs; ERα and ERβ); and estrogen-related receptors (ERRs; ERRα, ERRβ, and ERRγ) have been reported to be involved in the development or regulation of PC. Recent investigations have revealed the role of associated molecules, such as KLF5, FOXO1, PDGFA, VEGF-A, WNT5A, TGFβ1, and micro-RNA 135a of PC, via ERs and ERRs. Selective ER modulators (SERMs) have been developed. Recently, estrogen and androgen blockade (EAB) using a combination of toremifene and ADT has been demonstrated to improve biochemical recurrence rate in treatment-naïve bone metastatic PC. In the future, the suitability of ADT alone or EAB for individuals may be evaluated by making clinical decisions on the basis of information obtained from RT-PCR, gene-panel, or liquid biopsy to create a “personalized medicine” or “precision medicine”. In this review, we summarize ER and ERR signaling pathways, molecular diagnosis, and SERMs as candidates for advanced PC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuya Fujimura
- Department of Urology, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan.
| | - Kenichi Takayama
- Department of Functional Biogerontology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo 173-0015, Japan.
| | - Satoru Takahashi
- Department of Urology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo 173-8610, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Inoue
- Department of Functional Biogerontology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo 173-0015, Japan.
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Talesa VN, Ferri I, Bellezza G, Love HD, Sidoni A, Antognelli C. Glyoxalase 2 Is Involved in Human Prostate Cancer Progression as Part of a Mechanism Driven By PTEN/PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling With Involvement of PKM2 and ERα. Prostate 2017; 77:196-210. [PMID: 27696457 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glyoxalase 2 (Glo2), together with glyoxalase 1 (Glo1), forms the main scavenging system of methylglyoxal, a potent pro-apoptotic agent mainly generated by glycolysis. An increased rate of glycolysis is a well known signature of cancer cells. As a survival strategy, Glo1 is overexpressed in many human malignant cells, including prostate cancer (PCa), where it plays a crucial role in progression. No information is available on the role of Glo2 in the same ambit. PCa is the most common malignancy affecting men in the western world. Progression to a lethal hormone-refractory PCa represents the major concern in this pathology. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying PCa invasiveness and metastasis is urgently needed in order to develop novel therapeutic targets for this incurable state of the malignancy. METHODS Glo2 and Glo1 expression was examined in clinical samples of PCa by immunohistochemistry and in different PCa cell models by western blotting and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Gene silencing/overexpression and scavenging/inhibitory agents were used for functional analyses. RESULTS We demonstrated that Glo2, together with Glo1, represents a novel mechanism in PCa progression as part of a pathway driven by PTEN/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling with involvement of PKM2 and ERα. Importantly, Glo1/Glo2 silencing did not alter the behavior of benign cells. CONCLUSIONS Targeting glyoxalases metabolic pathway may represent a strategy to selectively inhibit advanced PCa. Prostate 77:196-210, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo N Talesa
- Division of Biosciences and Medical Embryology, Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Ivana Ferri
- Division of Anatomic Pathology and Histology, Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Guido Bellezza
- Division of Anatomic Pathology and Histology, Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Harold D Love
- Department of Urologic Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Angelo Sidoni
- Division of Anatomic Pathology and Histology, Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Cinzia Antognelli
- Division of Biosciences and Medical Embryology, Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
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7
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Leach DA, Powell SM, Bevan CL. WOMEN IN CANCER THEMATIC REVIEW: New roles for nuclear receptors in prostate cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2016; 23:T85-T108. [PMID: 27645052 DOI: 10.1530/erc-16-0319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer has, for decades, been treated by inhibiting androgen signalling. This is effective in the majority of patients, but inevitably resistance develops and patients progress to life-threatening metastatic disease - hence the quest for new effective therapies for 'castrate-resistant' prostate cancer (CRPC). Studies into what pathways can drive tumour recurrence under these conditions has identified several other nuclear receptor signalling pathways as potential drivers or modulators of CRPC.The nuclear receptors constitute a large (48 members) superfamily of transcription factors sharing a common modular functional structure. Many of them are activated by the binding of small lipophilic molecules, making them potentially druggable. Even those for which no ligand exists or has yet been identified may be tractable to activity modulation by small molecules. Moreover, genomic studies have shown that in models of CRPC, other nuclear receptors can potentially drive similar transcriptional responses to the androgen receptor, while analysis of expression and sequencing databases shows disproportionately high mutation and copy number variation rates among the superfamily. Hence, the nuclear receptor superfamily is of intense interest in the drive to understand how prostate cancer recurs and how we may best treat such recurrent disease. This review aims to provide a snapshot of the current knowledge of the roles of different nuclear receptors in prostate cancer - a rapidly evolving field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien A Leach
- Division of CancerImperial Centre for Translational & Experimental Medicine, Imperial, College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
| | - Sue M Powell
- Division of CancerImperial Centre for Translational & Experimental Medicine, Imperial, College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
| | - Charlotte L Bevan
- Division of CancerImperial Centre for Translational & Experimental Medicine, Imperial, College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
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8
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Lau KM, To KF. Importance of Estrogenic Signaling and Its Mediated Receptors in Prostate Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E1434. [PMID: 27589731 PMCID: PMC5037713 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17091434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) treatment was first established by Huggins and Hodges in 1941, primarily described as androgen deprivation via interference of testicular androgen production. The disease remains incurable with relapse of hormone-refractory cancer after treatments. Epidemiological and clinical studies disclosed the importance of estrogens in PCa. Discovery of estrogen receptor ERβ prompted direct estrogenic actions, in conjunction with ERα, on PCa cells. Mechanistically, ERs upon ligand binding transactivate target genes at consensus genomic sites via interactions with various transcriptional co-regulators to mold estrogenic signaling. With animal models, Noble revealed estrogen dependencies of PCa, providing insight into potential uses of antiestrogens in the treatment. Subsequently, various clinical trials were conducted and molecular and functional consequences of antiestrogen treatment in PCa were delineated. Besides, estrogens can also trigger rapid non-genomic signaling responses initiated at the plasma membrane, at least partially via an orphan G-protein-coupled receptor GPR30. Activation of GPR30 significantly inhibited in vitro and in vivo PCa cell growth and the underlying mechanism was elucidated. Currently, molecular networks of estrogenic and antiestrogenic signaling via ERα, ERβ and GPR30 in PCa have not been fully deciphered. This crucial information could be beneficial to further developments of effective estrogen- and antiestrogen-based therapy for PCa patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin-Mang Lau
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in Southern China, and Sir YK Pao Centre for Cancer, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Ka-Fai To
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in Southern China, and Sir YK Pao Centre for Cancer, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
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9
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Estrogen receptor alpha drives proliferation in PTEN-deficient prostate carcinoma by stimulating survival signaling, MYC expression and altering glucose sensitivity. Oncotarget 2015; 6:604-16. [PMID: 25436982 PMCID: PMC4359242 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
While high doses of estrogen, in combination with androgens, can initiate prostate cancer (PCa) via activation of the estrogen receptor α (ERα), the role of ERα in PCa cells within established tumors is largely unknown. Here we show that expression of ERα is increased in high grade human PCa. Similarly, ERα is elevated in mouse models of aggressive PCa driven by MYC overexpression or deletion of PTEN. Within the prostate of PTEN-deficient mice, there is a progressive pattern of ERα expression: low in benign glands, moderate in tumors within the dorsal, lateral and ventral lobes, and high in tumors within the anterior prostate. This expression significantly correlates with the proliferation marker Ki67. Furthermore, in vitro knockdown of ERα in cells derived from PTEN-deficient tumors causes a significant and sustained decrease in proliferation. Depletion of ERα also reduces the activity of the PI3K and MAPK pathways, both downstream targets of non-genomic ERα action. Finally, ERα knockdown reduces the levels of the MYC protein and lowers the sensitivity of cellular proliferation to glucose withdrawal, which correlates with decreased expression of the glucose transporter GLUT1. Collectively, these results demonstrate that ERα orchestrates proliferation and metabolism to promote the neoplastic growth of PCa cells.
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10
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Yang M, Wang J, Wang L, Shen C, Su B, Qi M, Hu J, Gao W, Tan W, Han B. Estrogen induces androgen-repressed SOX4 expression to promote progression of prostate cancer cells. Prostate 2015; 75:1363-75. [PMID: 26015225 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The sex determing region Y-box 4 (SOX4) gene is a critical developmental transcriptional factor that is overexpressed in prostate cancer (PCa). While we and others have investigated the role of SOX4 overexpression in PCa, the molecular mechanism underlying its aberrant expression remains unclear. METHODS Immunohistochemistry were utilized to detect SOX4 expression and the correlation between estrogen receptor β (ERβ), androgen receptor (AR) and SOX4 in a cohort of 94 clinical specimens. Real-time quantitative PCR and Western blotting were used to study the transcript and protein expression levels. Immunofluorescence staining and co-immunoprecipitation were performed to assess the interaction and subcellular location of ERβ and AR. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays and Luciferase reporter assays were performed to explore the binding and transcriptional activities of ERβ and AR to the SOX4 promoter. Cellular function was evaluated by MTS, invasion and wound healing assays. RESULTS SOX4 expression is up-regulated in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (CRPC) tumors compared to hormone-dependent PCa (HDPC) cases. Increased expression was also observed in PCa cells after long-term androgen-deprivation treatment (ADT). In vitro data indicated that SOX4 is an AR transcriptional target and down-regulated by dihydrotestosterone (DHT) via AR. 17β-estradiol (E2) up-regulates SOX4 expression in the absence of androgen through the formation of a protein complex between ERβ and AR. Knockdown of AR or ERβ blocks the E2-induced SOX4 expression. ChIP assays confirmed that both ERβ and AR bind to the SOX4 promoter in response to E2. Functionally, silencing SOX4 significantly attenuates the proliferative effect, as well as the capacity of migration and invasion of E2 on PCa cells. Clinically, overexpression of SOX4 is significantly associated with ERβ expression in PCa. In addition, this association is still retained in CRPC patients with poor prognosis. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that SOX4 is a novel DHT-repressed AR-target gene. E2 could promote proliferation of PCa cells through the up-regulation of SOX4 under androgen-depleted environment. Our data provides a possible molecular basis for the overexpression of SOX4 in CRPC and may facilitate the detection and prevention of the emergence of CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muyi Yang
- Department of Pathology, Shandong University Medical School, Jinan, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Pathology, The Fourth People's Hospital of Jinan, Jinan, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Pathology, Shandong University Medical School, Jinan, China
- Research Center for Medicinal Biotechnology, Shandong Academy of Medicinal Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Chengwu Shen
- Department of Pharmacy, Shandong Provincial Hospital, Jinan, China
| | - Bo Su
- Department of Neurobiology, Shandong University Medical School, Jinan, China
| | - Mei Qi
- Department of Pathology, Shandong University Medical School, Jinan, China
| | - Jing Hu
- Department of Pathology, Shandong University Medical School, Jinan, China
| | - Wei Gao
- Department of Pathology, Jinan Central Hospital, Jinan, China
| | - Weiwei Tan
- Department of Pathology, Shandong University Medical School, Jinan, China
| | - Bo Han
- Department of Pathology, Shandong University Medical School, Jinan, China
- Department of Pathology, Shandong University Qilu Hospital, Jinan, China
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11
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Grindstad T, Andersen S, Al-Saad S, Donnem T, Kiselev Y, Nordahl Melbø-Jørgensen C, Skjefstad K, Busund LT, Bremnes RM, Richardsen E. High progesterone receptor expression in prostate cancer is associated with clinical failure. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116691. [PMID: 25723513 PMCID: PMC4344236 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and one of the leading causes of mortality in developed countries. Specific prognostic and predictive markers for prostate cancer patients are still lacking. A causal relationship between androgens and the development of prostate cancer is generally considered biologically plausible, but androgens are not the sole effector in the complexity of prostate carcinogenesis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prognostic significance of progesterone receptor in tumor tissue of T1-3N0 prostate cancer patients undergoing prostatectomy. METHODS Tissue microarrays from 535 patients with prostate cancer were constructed. Duplicate cores of tumor cells and tumor stromal tissue from each resected specimen were extracted. Immunohistochemistry was used to evaluate the in-situ expression of progesterone receptor. RESULTS In univariate analyses, high tumor cell density (p = 0.006) and high tumor stromal cell density level (p = 0.045) of progesterone receptor were both significantly associated with tumor progression and clinical failure. In multivariate analysis, progesterone receptor expression in tumor cells was an independent negative prognostic factor for clinical failure (HR: 2.5, 95% CI: 1.2-5.2, p = 0.012). CONCLUSION High progesterone receptor density in tumor cells of the prostate cancer tumor is an independent negative prognostic factor for clinical failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thea Grindstad
- Dept. of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Sigve Andersen
- Dept. of Clinical Medicine, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- Dept. of Oncology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromso, Norway
| | - Samer Al-Saad
- Dept. of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- Dept. of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromso, Norway
| | - Tom Donnem
- Dept. of Clinical Medicine, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- Dept. of Oncology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromso, Norway
| | - Yury Kiselev
- Dept. of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- Dept. of Pharmacy, UiT—The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
| | | | - Kaja Skjefstad
- Dept. of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
| | - Lill-Tove Busund
- Dept. of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- Dept. of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromso, Norway
| | - Roy M. Bremnes
- Dept. of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- Dept. of Clinical Medicine, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
| | - Elin Richardsen
- Dept. of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromso, Norway
- Dept. of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromso, Norway
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12
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Majumdar S, Buckles E, Estrada J, Koochekpour S. Aberrant DNA methylation and prostate cancer. Curr Genomics 2012; 12:486-505. [PMID: 22547956 PMCID: PMC3219844 DOI: 10.2174/138920211797904061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2011] [Revised: 08/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most prevalent cancer, a significant contributor to morbidity and a leading cause of cancer-related death in men in Western industrialized countries. In contrast to genetic changes that vary among individual cases, somatic epigenetic alterations are early and highly consistent events. Epigenetics encompasses several different phenomena, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, RNA interference, and genomic imprinting. Epigenetic processes regulate gene expression and can change malignancy-associated phenotypes such as growth, migration, invasion, or angiogenesis. Methylations of certain genes are associated with PCa progression. Compared to normal prostate tissues, several hypermethylated genes have also been identified in benign prostate hyperplasia, which suggests a role for aberrant methylation in this growth dysfunction. Global and gene-specific DNA methylation could be affected by environmental and dietary factors. Among other epigenetic changes, aberrant DNA methylation might have a great potential as diagnostic or prognostic marker for PCa and could be tested in tumor tissues and various body fluids (e.g., serum, urine). The DNA methylation markers are simple in nature, have high sensitivity, and could be detected either quantitatively or qualitatively. Availability of genome-wide screening methodologies also allows the identification of epigenetic signatures in high throughput population studies. Unlike irreversible genetic changes, epigenetic alterations are reversible and could be used for PCa targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunipa Majumdar
- Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70122, USA
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Yang M, Park JY. DNA methylation in promoter region as biomarkers in prostate cancer. Methods Mol Biol 2012; 863:67-109. [PMID: 22359288 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-612-8_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The prostate gland is the most common site of cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in American men. Recent emerging molecular biological technologies help us to know that epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation within the regulatory (promoter) regions of genes are associated with transcriptional silencing in cancer. Promoter hypermethylation of critical pathway genes could be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer. In this chapter, we updated current information on methylated genes associated with the development and progression of prostate cancer. Over 40 genes have been investigated for methylation in promoter region in prostate cancer. These methylated genes are involved in critical pathways, such as DNA repair, metabolism, and invasion/metastasis. The role of hypermethylated genes in regulation of critical pathways in prostate cancer is discussed. These findings may provide new information of the pathogenesis, the exciting potential to be predictive and to provide personalized treatment of prostate cancer. Indeed, some epigenetic alterations in prostate tumors are being translated into clinical practice for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihi Yang
- Division of Cancer Prevention and Controls, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
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Novel, potent anti-androgens of therapeutic potential: recent advances and promising developments. Future Med Chem 2011; 2:667-80. [PMID: 21426013 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.10.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The beneficial effect of androgen ablation has been well established in prostate cancer therapy. Despite the initial response, patients typically relapse with a more aggressive form described as castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRCP), driven by continued androgen receptor (AR) signaling. This review details the current state of anti-androgen therapy, mainly for CRPC, with major emphasis on the most potent and promising compounds under development. Anti-androgen failure has been linked to elevated AR expression, increased expression of coactivator proteins, AR mutations, ligand-independent AR activation and persistent intraprostatic androgens. MDV3100, BMS-641988 and VN/124-1 were developed to overcome these mechanisms. In CRCP, prostate cancer cells still rely on intracellular androgens and, to a greater extent, on active AR for growth and survival. Therefore, potent anti-androgens that efficiently disrupt the functions (signaling) of AR are envisioned to be effective drugs for all types of prostate cancers.
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Bouchal J, Santer FR, Höschele PPS, Tomastikova E, Neuwirt H, Culig Z. Transcriptional coactivators p300 and CBP stimulate estrogen receptor-beta signaling and regulate cellular events in prostate cancer. Prostate 2011; 71:431-7. [PMID: 20859991 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2010] [Accepted: 08/03/2010] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Steroid receptor coactivators p300 and CBP are highly expressed in advanced prostate cancer. They potentiate activation of androgen receptor by androgens and anti-androgens. In the present study, we have addressed the question whether these coactivators enhance activity of estrogen receptor-beta (ER-β), which is variably expressed in prostate cancers. METHODS Expression levels of the coactivators p300 and CBP were manipulated by plasmid or siRNA transfections and activity of ER-β was measured by luciferase assays. Viability was measured by MTT assays and cellular migration was determined by wound-healing and Boyden chamber assays. RESULTS High expression of ER-β was found in PC3 cells which were used for the experiments. p300 or CBP enhanced activation of ER-β by genistein. Antiestrogens did not acquire agonistic properties in the presence of increased concentrations of either coactivator. Inhibition of p300 or CBP decreased genistein stimulation of ER-β. Genistein reduced migration of PC3 prostate cancer cells and down-regulation of p300 potentiated this effect. CONCLUSIONS p300 and CBP are implicated in regulation of ER-β activity and cellular migration in prostate cancer. These findings are important for understanding of action of ER-β in carcinoma of the prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Bouchal
- Department of Urology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
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16
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The prostate gland is the most common site of cancer and the second leading cause of cancer mortality in American men. It is well known that epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation within the regulatory (promoter) regions of genes are associated with transcriptional silencing in cancer. Promoter hypermethylation of critical pathway genes could be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer. METHODS This review discusses current information on methylated genes associated with prostate cancer development and progression. RESULTS Over 30 genes have been investigated for promoter methylation in prostate cancer. These methylated genes are involved in critical pathways, such as DNA repair, metabolism, and invasion/metastasis. The role of hypermethylated genes in regulation of critical pathways in prostate cancer is reviewed. CONCLUSIONS These findings may provide new information of the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. Certain epigenetic alterations in prostate tumors are being translated into clinical practice for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Y Park
- Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
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Expression of estrogen alpha and beta receptors in prostate cancer and hyperplasia: Immunohistochemical analysis. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF UROLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s12301-010-0018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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Briest S, Vang R, Terrell K, Emens L, R Lange J. Invasive Lobular Carcinoma of the Male Breast: A Rare Histology in an Uncommon Disease. Breast Care (Basel) 2009; 4:36-38. [PMID: 20877682 DOI: 10.1159/000190078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY: BACKGROUND: Breast cancer in men is an uncommon disease. Nearly all cases of male breast cancer originate in the terminal ductulolobular unit, with exceedingly rare reports of lobular carcinoma in men. Invasive lobular cancer is found in no more than 1-2% of male breast cancer cases. Most of what is known about this disease is in the form of approximately 30 case reports in the literature. CASE REPORT: We report the case of a 52-year-old man who presented at our institution with a lump in his left breast. Ultrasound-guided biopsy revealed an invasive lobular cancer. The rare histological type was confirmed by the result of the histological examination of the mastectomy specimen. The treatment was completed by dose dense chemotherapy, radiation, and endocrine therapy. CONCLUSION: Even though lobular structures are quite infrequent in the normal male, sporadic cases of invasive lobular breast cancer have been described. A short overview will be given in this case report.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Briest
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Leipzig, Germany
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Hermann RM, Wolff HA, Jarry H, Thelen P, Gruendker C, Rave-Fraenk M, Schmidberger H, Christiansen H. In vitro studies on the modification of low-dose hyper-radiosensitivity in prostate cancer cells by incubation with genistein and estradiol. Radiat Oncol 2008; 3:19. [PMID: 18625043 PMCID: PMC2490684 DOI: 10.1186/1748-717x-3-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2008] [Accepted: 07/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As the majority of prostate cancers (PC) express estrogen receptors, we evaluated the combination of radiation and estrogenic stimulation (estrogen and genistein) on the radiosensitivity of PC cells in vitro. METHODS PC cells LNCaP (androgen-sensitive) and PC-3 (androgen-independent) were evaluated. Estrogen receptor (ER) expression was analyzed by means of immunostaining. Cells were incubated in FCS-free media with genistein 10 microM and estradiol 10 microM 24 h before irradiation and up to 24 h after irradiation. Clonogenic survival, cell cycle changes, and expression of p21 were assessed. RESULTS LNCaP expressed both ER-alpha and ER-beta, PC-3 did not. Incubation of LNCaP and PC-3 with genistein resulted in a significant reduction of clonogenic survival. Incubation with estradiol exhibited in low concentrations (0.01 microM) stimulatory effects, while higher concentrations did not influence survival. Both genistein 10 microM and estradiol 10 microM increased low-dose hyper-radiosensitivity [HRS] in LNCaP, while hormonal incubation abolished HRS in PC-3. In LNCaP cells hormonal stimulation inhibited p21 induction after irradiation with 4 Gy. In PC-3 cells, the proportion of cells in G2/M was increased after irradiation with 4 Gy. CONCLUSION We found an increased HRS to low irradiation doses after incubation with estradiol or genistein in ER-alpha and ER-beta positive LNCaP cells. This is of high clinical interest, as this tumor model reflects a locally advanced, androgen dependent PC. In contrast, in ER-alpha and ER-beta negative PC-3 cells we observed an abolishing of the HRS to low irradiation doses by hormonal stimulation. The effects of both tested compounds on survival were ER and p53 independent. Since genistein and estradiol effects in both cell lines were comparable, neither ER- nor p53-expression seemed to play a role in the linked signalling. Nevertheless both compounds targeted the same molecular switch. To identify the underlying molecular mechanisms, further studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Michael Hermann
- Department of Radiotherapy and Radiooncology, University hospital Goettingen, Robert-Koch-Str, 40, 37075, Goettingen, Germany.
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Bektic J, Guggenberger R, Eder IE, Pelzer AE, Berger AP, Bartsch G, Klocker H. Molecular effects of the isoflavonoid genistein in prostate cancer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 4:124-9. [PMID: 16197614 DOI: 10.3816/cgc.2005.n.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Differences in diet have been proposed to be at least partially responsible for the low rate of prostate cancer in Asian populations compared with men in Western countries. One of the compounds that occurs in a greater quantity in the Eastern diet is genistein, an isoflavonoid found in high concentrations in serum after ingestion of soy-rich foods. Extensive molecular studies have been performed to determine its potential health benefits. The mechanism of action of genistein is complex and includes several cellular pathways. In addition to its estrogenic and/or antiestrogenic activities, genistein has been reported to inhibit steroidogenesis and block several protein tyrosine kinases, including epidermal growth factor receptor and src tyrosine kinases. Moreover, it arrests the cell cycle, induces apoptosis, and has antiangiogenic and antimetastatic properties and antioxidant activity. Herein, we review the current literature on the molecular mechanisms of genistein in relation to its effects on prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin Bektic
- Department of Urology, Innsbruck Medical University, Austria
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21
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Arnold JT, Le H, McFann KK, Blackman MR. Comparative effects of DHEA vs. testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and estradiol on proliferation and gene expression in human LNCaP prostate cancer cells. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288:E573-84. [PMID: 15536203 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00454.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Serum levels of the adrenal androgen dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) peak in men and women in the third decade of life and decrease progressively with age. Increasing numbers of middle-aged and older individuals consume over-the-counter preparations of DHEA, hoping it will retard aging by increasing muscle and bone mass and strength, decreasing fat, and improving immunologic and neurobehavioral functions. Because DHEA can serve as a precursor to more potent androgens and estrogens, like testosterone (T), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and 17beta-estradiol (E2), supplemental DHEA use may pose a cancer risk in patients with nascent or occult prostate cancer. The steroid-responsive human LNCaP prostate cancer cells, containing a functional but mutated androgen receptor (AR), were used to compare effects of DHEA with those of T, DHT, and E2 on cell proliferation and protein and/or gene expression of AR, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), IGF-I, IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR), IGF-II, IGF-binding proteins-2, -3, and -5, (IGFBPs-2, -3, and -5), and estrogen receptor-beta (ERbeta). Cell proliferation assays revealed significant stimulation by all four steroids. DHEA- and E2-induced responses were similar but delayed and reduced compared with that of T and DHT. All four hormones increased gene and/or protein expression of PSA, IGF-IR, IGF-I, and IGFBP-2 and decreased that of AR, ERbeta, IGF-II, and IGFBP-3. There were no significant effects of hormone treatment on IGFBP-5 mRNA. DHEA and E2 responses were similar, and distinct from those of DHT and T, in time- and dose-dependent studies. Further studies of the mechanisms of DHEA effects on prostate cancer epithelial cells of varying AR status, as well as on prostate stromal cells, will be required to discern the implications of DHEA supplementation on prostatic health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia T Arnold
- Endocrine Section, Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Division of Intramural Research, NCCAM, NIH, 9 Memorial Dr., Rm 1N105, Bethesda, MD 20892-0933, USA.
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Li LC, Carroll PR, Dahiya R. Epigenetic changes in prostate cancer: implication for diagnosis and treatment. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97:103-15. [PMID: 15657340 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/dji010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most common noncutaneous malignancy and the second leading cause of cancer death among men in the United States. DNA methylation and histone modifications are important epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation and play essential roles both independently and cooperatively in tumor initiation and progression. Aberrant epigenetic events such as DNA hypo- and hypermethylation and altered histone acetylation have both been observed in prostate cancer, in which they affect a large number of genes. Although the list of aberrantly epigenetically regulated genes continues to grow, only a few genes have, so far, given promising results as potential tumor biomarkers for early diagnosis and risk assessment of prostate cancer. Thus, large-scale screening of aberrant epigenetic events such as DNA hypermethylation is needed to identify prostate cancer-specific epigenetic fingerprints. The reversibility of epigenetic aberrations has made them attractive targets for cancer treatment with modulators that demethylate DNA and inhibit histone deacetylases, leading to reactivation of silenced genes. More studies into the mechanism and consequence of demethylation are required before the cancer epigenome can be safely manipulated with therapeutics as a treatment modality. In this review, we examine the current literature on epigenetic changes in prostate cancer and discuss the clinical potential of cancer epigenetics for the diagnosis and treatment of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long-Cheng Li
- Department of Urology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and University of California San Francisco, 94121, USA
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23
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Li LC, Okino ST, Dahiya R. DNA methylation in prostate cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2004; 1704:87-102. [PMID: 15363862 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2004.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2004] [Revised: 06/16/2004] [Accepted: 06/16/2004] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy and the second leading cause of cancer death among men in the United States. There are three well-established risk factors for prostate cancer: age, race and family history. The molecular bases for these risk factors are unclear; however, they may be influenced by epigenetic events. Epigenetic events covalently modify chromatin and alter gene expression. Methylation of cytosine residues within CpG islands on gene promoters is a primary epigenetic event that acts to suppress gene expression. In tumorigenesis, the normal functioning of the epigenetic-regulatory system is disrupted leading to inappropriate CpG island hypermethylation and aberrant expression of a battery of genes involved in critical cellular processes. Cancer-dependent epigenetic regulation of genes involved in DNA damage repair, hormone response, cell cycle control and tumor-cell adhesion/metastasis can contribute significantly to tumor initiation, progression and metastasis and, thereby, increase prostate cancer susceptibility and risk. In this review, we will discuss current research on genes that are hypermethylated in human prostate cancer. We will also discuss the potential involvement of DNA methylation in age-related, race-related and hereditary prostate cancer, and the potential use of hypermethylated genes as biomarkers to detect prostate cancer and assess its risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long-Cheng Li
- Department of Urology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and University of California San Francisco, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
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Li LC, Shiina H, Deguchi M, Zhao H, Okino ST, Kane CJ, Carroll PR, Igawa M, Dahiya R. Age-dependent methylation of ESR1 gene in prostate cancer. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 321:455-61. [PMID: 15358197 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.06.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of prostate cancer increases dramatically with age and the mechanism underlying this association is unclear. Age-dependent methylation of estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) gene has been previously implicated in other cancerous and benign diseases. We evaluated the age-dependent methylation of ESR1 in prostate cancer. The methylation status of ESR1 in 83 prostate cancer samples from patients aged 49 to 77 years (mean age at 67.4 years) was examined using the bisulfite genomic sequencing technique. The samples were divided into three age groups: men aged 60 years and under (n = 14), men aged 61-70 years (n = 40), and men aged over 70 years (n = 29). Overall, ESR1 promoter methylation was detected in 54 out of 83 (65.1%) prostate samples. The methylation rate of ESR1 increased dramatically with age from 50.0% in patients aged 60 years and under to 89.7% for patients aged 70 years and over. Logistic regression analyses revealed that age and Gleason score were the only variables that affect incidence of ESR1 methylation; other clinical factors such as prostate-specific antigen level and clinical stage did not. We also calculated ESR1 methylation density (the percentage of methylated CpGs among all CpGs within the analyzed region) and severity (the percentage of methylated CpG alleles) for each sample analyzed. Multiple regression analyses showed a positive correlation between age and methylation density (beta, 0.35; P, 0.012; 95% CI, 0.26-2.01); while Gleason score was positively associated with methylation severity (beta, 0.45; P, 0.018; 95% CI, 1.04-4.26). These findings suggest that methylation of ESR1 is both age-dependent and tumor differentiation-dependent and age-dependent methylation of ESR1 may represent a mechanism linking aging and prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long-Cheng Li
- Department of Urology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
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Buchanan G, Craft PS, Yang M, Cheong A, Prescott J, Jia L, Coetzee GA, Tilley WD. PC-3 cells with enhanced androgen receptor signaling: a model for clonal selection in prostate cancer. Prostate 2004; 60:352-66. [PMID: 15264248 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Two sublines of the human prostate cancer cell line, PC-3, which is widely used as a model of prostate cancer progression, have been reported: PC-3(AR-) that do not express androgen receptor (AR), and PC-3AR+ that have measurable AR RNA but little protein. METHODS We assayed the geneotype, karyotype, AR expression, and physical characteristics of the two PC-3 sublines, and compared their ability to elicit a transactivation response from ectopic AR in the presence and absence of specific AR coregulators. RESULTS PC-3(AR-) and PC-3AR+ cells are genotypically and karyotypically similar, but exhibit salient differences in their morphology, growth rate, and expression of AR RNA. Whereas endogenous AR expression in PC-3AR+ cells does not result in sufficient protein to confer androgen responsiveness in culture, ectopic AR consistently elicited a much greater transactivation response in PC-3AR+ than in PC-3(AR-) cells, without altered sensitivity to activation by native ligand or AR coregulators including GRIP1, BRCA1, and Zac1. Moreover, phenotypic differences of AR variants implicated in prostate cancer susceptibility and progression were only observed in PC-3AR+ cells. Higher levels of known AR coregulator proteins detected in PC-3AR+ compared with PC-3(AR-) cells likely contribute to these differences. CONCLUSIONS These studies provide new evidence that the androgen-signaling axis can be sensitized in prostate cancer cells, and have important implications for the analysis and interpretation of AR structure and function in in vitro cell systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant Buchanan
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Medicine, University of Adelaide/Hanson Institute, Adelaide, Southern Australia, Australia
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Attardi BJ, Burgenson J, Hild SA, Reel JR. Steroid hormonal regulation of growth, prostate specific antigen secretion, and transcription mediated by the mutated androgen receptor in CWR22Rv1 human prostate carcinoma cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2004; 222:121-32. [PMID: 15249132 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2003] [Accepted: 04/06/2004] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
CWR22Rv1 (22Rv1) is an androgen-responsive human prostate carcinoma cell line derived from a primary prostate tumor that expresses mutant (H874Y) androgen receptors (AR) and secretes low levels of prostate specific antigen (PSA). In this study, we examined the effects of various androgens and other steroid hormones on proliferation of 22Rv1 cells, PSA secretion, and transactivation. Incubation of 22Rv1 cells with various concentrations of testosterone resulted in a dose-dependent 50-80% increase in growth over 72 h. PSA release and transactivation of PRE2-tk-LUC in 22Rv1 cells were stimulated by low concentrations of natural and synthetic androgens (EC(50)s = 10(-10) to 10(-9)M) and a broad range of other classes of steroid hormones, albeit with lower potency. Uniform positive immunocytochemical staining was observed in 22Rv1 cell nuclei with mouse monoclonal antibodies to human AR. Competitive binding assays indicated that the mutant AR in 22Rv1 cytosol is more promiscuous than a wild-type AR (ARLBD: rat AR ligand binding domain). Testosterone (10(-8)M)-induced PSA release and transactivation were blocked by both antiandrogens and antiprogestins with IC(50)s of 10(-7) to 10(-6)M. At high concentration (10(-6)M), these antagonists showed partial agonist activity in terms of PSA secretion but not transactivation. In conclusion, the mutant AR in 22Rv1 cells binds and responds to low levels of androgens and a wide spectrum of other natural and synthetic steroid hormones, mechanisms proposed to contribute to tumor progression following androgen ablation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara J Attardi
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, BIOQUAL Inc., 9600 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, USA.
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Bektic J, Berger AP, Pfeil K, Dobler G, Bartsch G, Klocker H. Androgen receptor regulation by physiological concentrations of the isoflavonoid genistein in androgen-dependent LNCaP cells is mediated by estrogen receptor beta. Eur Urol 2004; 45:245-51; discussion 251. [PMID: 14734014 DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2003.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Isoflavonoids are discussed for use in chemoprevention and treatment of prostate cancer. We investigated the potential of genistein to modulate androgen receptor (AR) expression and transcriptional activity in the human androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. MATERIALS AND METHODS AR expression at mRNA and protein level was analyzed by real-time RT-PCR and immunoblot, respectively. In conditioned media PSA was measured by a microparticle enzyme immunoassay (MEIA). Binding of genistein to the AR was tested in a radioligand-binding assay and reporter gene co-transfection assay was employed to investigate AR activity. RESULTS Using concentrations of genistein that have been detected in sera of Asian men on regular soy-diet we found down-regulation of androgen receptor at both mRNA and protein level. The relative binding affinity to the AR was below 4% when compared to methyltrienologe (R1881) and there was no modulation of AR transcriptional activity by genistein concentrations up to 1 microM. We also demonstrated inhibition of PSA secretion after genistein treatment. As the anti-estrogen ICI 164 384 abolished the inhibitory effect of genistein and ER-beta, but not ER-alpha is expressed in LNCaP cells we postulate that the mechanism of genistein action on androgen receptor is mediated through ER-beta. CONCLUSION Using physiological concentrations of genistein we showed AR down-regulation by genistein in prostate cancer cells occurring via ER-beta. This likely results in a modified response to hormonal stimuli and may help to explain the low incidence of prostate cancer in the Asian population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin Bektic
- Department of Urology, University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Straub B, Müller M, Krause H, Schrader M, Miller K. Real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction for luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptor gene mRNA expression in human prostate cancer. Urology 2003; 62:172-6. [PMID: 12837461 DOI: 10.1016/s0090-4295(03)00042-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detection of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) receptor mRNA expressing prostate cancer (CaP) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) tissue by sequence-specific detection with hybridization probes using the LightCycler. Various in vitro studies have indicated that LHRH agonists and antagonists may have a direct inhibitory effect on CaP mediated by specific LHRH receptors. The incidence of LHRH receptor mRNA expression was demonstrated in 50% to 100% of clinical CaP and BPH tissue by current RT-PCR methods. However, qualitative RT-PCR can only demonstrate the existence of a gene; an exact quantification of LHRH-receptor mRNA expression has not yet been done. METHODS Quantitative real-time RT-PCR for LHRH receptor mRNA was performed using the LightCycler system and the RNA Amplification Kit hybridization probes in 35 patients with CaP and 38 patients with BPH. RESULTS Thirty-one (88.6%) of the 35 patients with CaP and 36 (94.7%) of the 38 patients with BPH had positive RT-PCR for LHRH receptor mRNA. The number of positive amplifications per 1 microg total RNA was not significantly lower in CaP at 695,428 +/- 350,860 than in BPH at 1,617,654 +/- 787,874. Patients with CaP evidenced a significant negative correlation between the amplification rate for LHRH receptor mRNA and Gleason score (r = -0.476; P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS In the past, the potential mechanisms acting on LHRH receptors in CaP have been identified as possible antitumor strategies for this type of cancer. Our study is the first to show that CaP does not have a higher expression of LHRH receptor mRNA expression than BPH when using quantitative sequence-specific oligonucleotide hybridization probes that only detect certain PCR products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Straub
- Department of Urology, Universitätsklinikum Benjamin Franklin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Sasaki M, Kaneuchi M, Fujimoto S, Tanaka Y, Dahiya R. Hypermethylation can selectively silence multiple promoters of steroid receptors in cancers. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2003; 202:201-7. [PMID: 12770752 DOI: 10.1016/s0303-7207(03)00084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Multiple promoters and differential splicing of 5' upstream exons are often found in various nuclear receptor genes including steroid receptors. Three promoters control the expression of human estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) isoforms: ERalpha-A, ERalpha-B, and ERalpha-C, and two promoters control the expression of human progesterone receptor (PR) isoforms: PR-A and PR-B. The expression levels of these isoforms differ with respect to each other in certain target tissues. The role of these isoforms may differ in various types of cells and tissues. The ER and PR contain CpG islands in the 5' upstream regions. One possible mechanism for changing the transcriptional status is methylation of CpG-enriched regions in these isoforms. We have investigated the expression and methylation status of the three different ERalpha promoters and the two different PR gene promoters by using methylation specific PCR (MSP) and direct DNA sequencing in several endometrial and prostate cancer cell lines and tissues. The results of these experiments suggest that ERalpha-A, ERalpha-B, and PR-A were expressed and ERalpha-C and PR-B were inactivated in endometrial cancers. To the contrary, ERalpha-A and ERalpha-B were inactivated and ERalpha-C, PR-A and PR-B were expressed in all prostate cancer. Treatment with demethylating agent (5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine) restored these gene expressions, suggesting that inactivation of this gene is through methylation. Our MSP and direct DNA sequencing showed that ERalpha-A, ERalpha-B, and PR-A genes were unmethylated and ERalpha-C and PR-B were methylated in endometrial cancers although ERalpha-A and ERalpha-B were methylated and ERalpha-C, PRA and PRB were unmethylated in prostate cancers. These reports clearly demonstrate that selective hypermethylation can selectively silence multiple promoters of steroid receptors in carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Sasaki
- Department of Urology (112F), University of California-San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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Kollara A, Diamandis EP, Brown TJ. Secretion of endogenous kallikreins 2 and 3 by androgen receptor-transfected PC-3 prostate cancer cells. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2003; 84:493-502. [PMID: 12767274 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-0760(03)00069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Androgen independent PC-3 cells lack androgen receptor (AR) expression and do not produce kallikrein 2 (hK2) or 3 (prostate-specific antigen, PSA). In this paper, we examined the ability of androgens to stimulate PSA and hK2 production in AR transfected PC-3 cells (PC-3(AR)) and compared this to LNCaP cells. PSA and hK2 were measured in the culture medium and cell lysates using an ELISA-based immunofluorometric assay. Only androgens were able to induce PSA and hK2 secretion in PC-3(AR) cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner depending on the level of AR present. The level of androgen-induced PSA and hK2 secretion in PC-3(AR) cells was approximately 1.5 and 0.9% that induced in LNCaP cells, respectively. Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), which has been shown to activate AR in the absence of ligand, did not activate PSA secretion in the absence of androgen, but further increased the dihydrotestosterone-induced PSA secretion in PC-3(AR) cells. The lack of PSA and hK2 production in parental PC-3 cells is thus a result of their lack of AR expression. PSA and/or hK2 production in PC-3(AR) cells can thus serve as an endogenous reporter system to investigate AR action or to screen putative endocrine disrupters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kollara
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mt. Sinai Hospital, Suite 876, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, Ont., Canada M5G 1X5
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31
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Tsurusaki T, Aoki D, Kanetake H, Inoue S, Muramatsu M, Hishikawa Y, Koji T. Zone-dependent expression of estrogen receptors alpha and beta in human benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88:1333-40. [PMID: 12629127 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2002-021015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Estrogen, which acts through estrogen receptors (ERs) alpha and beta, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of benign and malignant human prostatic tumors, i.e. benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer, thought to originate from different zones of the prostate [the transition zone (TZ) and peripheral zone (PZ), respectively]. Here, we examined the cellular distribution of ERalpha and ERbeta in human normal and hyperplastic prostate tissues, using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. ERalpha expression was restricted to stromal cells of PZ. In contrast, ERbeta was expressed in the stromal cells of PZ as well as TZ. ERbeta-positive epithelial cells were evenly distributed in PZ and TZ of the prostate. Our results suggest that estrogen may play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia through ERbeta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshifumi Tsurusaki
- Department of Urology, The Japanese Red Cross Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Hospital, Nagasaki 852-8511, Japan
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Grande M, Carlström K, Stege R, Pousette A, Faxén M. Estrogens affect endothelin-1 mRNA expression in LNCaP human prostate carcinoma cells. Eur Urol 2002; 41:568-72; discussion 573-4. [PMID: 12074801 DOI: 10.1016/s0302-2838(02)00030-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study effects of estrogens on endothelin-1 (ET-1) mRNA expression in the androgen-sensitive LNCaP-FGC cell line and its androgen-resistant derivative LNCaP-r. Further, if effects of estrone sulfate (E1S) are mediated via conversion to estradiol-17beta (E2). Estrogens have been shown to down-regulate ET-1, a mediator of the osteoblastic response of bone to metastatic prostate cancer. METHODS Cells were grown in steroid-depleted medium and incubated for 2-4 and 48 hours with 0, 1, 10, and 100 nM of either E1S or E2. mRNA levels were measured with an RT-PCR technique. Estrogen metabolism by LNCaP-FGC cells was studied by incubation with estrone (E1) and E1S at the same conditions, followed by determination of E1 and E2. RESULTS ET-1 mRNA expression in LNCaP-FGC cells was significantly suppressed by E2 and E1S following incubation for 2-4h but after 48 h only by E2 at 1 and 10nM and in LNCaP-r cells only by E2 at 100 nM following 2-4h of incubation. ET-1 mRNA expression was significantly higher in untreated LNCaP-r than in untreated LNCaP-FGC cells. E1 was efficiently transformed into E2 by LNCaP-FGC cells but very little to E1 and no E2 was formed from E1S. CONCLUSION ET-1 mRNA expression in LNCaP-FGC can be inhibited by E2, but also by its prehormone E1S. The lack of formation of E2 from E1S suggests a mode of action not related to classical steroid receptors. The higher level of ET-1 mRNA expression found in LNCaP-r cells may reflect the capability of a hormone refractory tumor to maintain activity on its own, independently of known regulatory mechanisms such as sex steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirtha Grande
- Department of Women and Child Health, Research Laboratory for Reproductive Health, Karolinska Institute, C4:U1 Karolinska Hospital, S-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Prinsloo SE, van Aswegen CH. Effect of fatty acids on estradiol and testosterone binding to whole DU-145 prostate cells. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2002; 66:419-25. [PMID: 12054912 DOI: 10.1054/plef.2002.0368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cancer of the prostate is one of the leading causes of cancer related deaths in men. An important role in the development of prostate cancer is played by androgens and androgen ablation is therefore currently used in cancer treatment. In the past, estrogens were widely used in treatment of prostate cancer, but there are indications that estrogens could also be involved in carcinogenesis. Lately, much research has been done on the modulation of the binding of steroid hormones to their receptors by polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which could interfere with the steroid hormone's message. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine in whole DU-145 human prostate cells the effect of EFAs and their metabolites on the binding and affinity of the estrogen receptor (ER) and androgen receptor (AR) to estradiol (E(2)) and testosterone (T), respectively. Fatty acids were dissolved in ethanol and added to the cell culture in a final ethanol concentration of 0.2% on the fourth day of incubation. The results showed that the PUFAs under investigation inhibited the AR's capacity, in contrast to the ER's capacity which was stimulated. However, the dissociation constants (K(d)) of the AR and ER complexes in the presence of the PUFAs, were as follows. Except for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) which decreased the AR dissociation constant and EPA and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) which increased the ER dissociation constant, the remaining FAs had no significant effect on the K(d) values of both the AR and ER complexes. According to these priliminary results it is postulated that men should benefit with a diet rich in certain essential polyunsaturated fatty acids although its function remains to be clarified.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Prinsloo
- Wolmarans Research Laboratory, Department of Urology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
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Bouchal J, Kolár Z, Mad'arová J, Hlobilková A, von Angerer E. The effects of natural ligands of hormone receptors and their antagonists on telomerase activity in the androgen sensitive prostatic cancer cell line LNCaP. Biochem Pharmacol 2002; 63:1177-81. [PMID: 11931851 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(01)00927-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The effects of the 17beta-estradiol, dihydrotestosterone and hormone antagonists tamoxifen and bicalutamide on telomerase activity and expression of cell cycle related proteins in the androgen-sensitive prostatic cancer cell line LNCaP were studied. The cell line was grown in RPMI supplemented with 2.5% charcoal-stripped FBS for 72 hr. The IC(50) of tamoxifen and bicalutamide and the optimal stimulatory concentrations of 17beta-estradiol and dihydrotestosterone were determined by means of the cell-viability assay, the activity of telomerase was measured by the telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) and the expression of proteins was analysed by the Western blot technique. 17beta-estradiol stimulated cell growth more effectively than dihydrotestosterone whereas hormone antagonists tamoxifen and bicalutamide caused a significant decrease in cell viability. The treatment of cells by a combination of low doses of 17 beta-estradiol and dihydrotestosterone stimulated cells stronger than treatment by a single hormone. Only 17beta-estradiol, in concentration of 10nM, increased strongly the expression of p21(Waf1/Cip1) and increased slightly telomerase activity in the LNCaP cells. 50 microM of bicalutamide down-regulated the levels of the androgen receptor, the proliferating cell nuclear antigen and telomerase activity, and up-regulated the expression of p27(Kip1). We hereby describe the first observation of the influence of bicalutamide on telomerase activity and a positive correlation between the effect of 17beta-estradiol and the induction of both the endogenous cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p21(Waf1/Cip1), and telomerase activity in a prostatic cancer cell line LNCaP. These findings can shed a new light on the steroid-signaling pathway in prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Bouchal
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, CMBM and Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Rosenberg Zand RS, Jenkins DJA, Brown TJ, Diamandis EP. Flavonoids can block PSA production by breast and prostate cancer cell lines. Clin Chim Acta 2002; 317:17-26. [PMID: 11814454 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-8981(01)00698-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostatic carcinoma is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death of North American men. Combined androgen blockade (CAB) is one treatment option for prostate cancer, using estrogen agonists, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists and non-steroidal anti-androgens such as nilutamide and cyproterone acetate. Since many of these drugs have serious side effects, many patients are searching for "natural" alternatives or complements to traditional therapy. These include phytoestrogens found in soy and other plant foods. Such compounds have only started to be evaluated for potential androgen-blocking activity. Inhibition of production of androgen-regulated proteins, including prostate-specific antigen (PSA), is one indicator of androgen blocking. METHODS The ability of 72 flavonoids and related compounds to inhibit PSA production in a breast cancer cell line, BT-474, and a prostate cancer cell line (PC-3), transfected with the human androgen receptor cDNA, PC-3(AR)(2) was examined. RESULTS Twenty-two of the 72 flavonoids tested were found to significantly block PSA production by the BT-474 cell line at the highest tested concentration (10(-5) mol/l), with 17 of these compounds inhibiting production of PSA in the PC-3(AR)(2) cells as well. CONCLUSIONS That several flavonoids may significantly block production of this androgen-regulated protein. It will be worthwhile to examine these compounds as possible candidates for prostate cancer prevention or management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel S Rosenberg Zand
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Bièche I, Latil A, Parfait B, Vidaud D, Laurendeau I, Lidereau R, Cussenot O, Vidaud M. CGA gene (coding for the alpha subunit of glycoprotein hormones) overexpression in ER alpha-positive prostate tumors. Eur Urol 2002; 41:335-41. [PMID: 12180238 DOI: 10.1016/s0302-2838(02)00020-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The precise role of estrogen, estrogen receptor (ER) and ER-responsive genes in prostate carcinogenesis is unclear. Paradoxically, estrogens and antiestrogens are used in the treatment of advanced metastatic prostate cancers. Recently, we identified CGA gene coding for the alpha subunit of glycoprotein hormones as a new ER alpha-responsive gene in human breast cancer cells. The aim of this study was to explore the role of CGA in the second major hormone-related cancer, i.e. prostate cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS We quantified CGA mRNA in nine cases of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and 23 sporadic prostate tumors (TP) by using a real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay. RESULTS CGA overexpression (> 10 S.D. above the mean in normal prostate tissues (NP)) was observed in 39% of the TP (ranging from 4.4 to 174.5 times the level in NP) and in none of the BPH samples. CGA overexpression was not accompanied by overexpression of the CGB, LHB, TSHB or FSHB genes to produce ectopic glycoprotein hormones. CGA gene overexpression correlated with ER alpha normal expression (P = 0.016), but not with ER beta or androgen receptor (AR) expression status. CONCLUSION These results point to CGA gene as a member of a novel dysregulated pathway in prostate cancer. CGA should therefore be considered for investigation as possible novel molecular marker in clinical applications and as possible new potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Bièche
- Laboratoire de Génétique Moléculaire-UPRES JE 2195, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques de Paris, Université René Descartes-Paris V, 4 Avenue de l'Observatoire, F-75006 Paris, France
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Abstract
The members of the nuclear receptor superfamily are known to mediate a wide array of basic biological processes, such as regulation of cell growth and differentiation, and induction of apoptosis. In several human malignancies, this central control function of nuclear receptors is disturbed, which seems to play an important role in tumor development and progression. Many nuclear receptor genes have been reported to be downregulated in malignancies; however, only a few mutations, gene arrangements, deletions or similar genetic changes have been shown to occur in these tumors. During the last decade, increasing attention has been directed towards epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation such as DNA methylation. Many nuclear receptor genes can be silenced through aberrant methylation in tumors; epigenetic silencing, therefore, represents an additional mechanism that modifies expression of key genes during carcinogenesis. This review will give insights into the role of DNA methylation in the silencing of nuclear receptor genes and its involvement in human malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Berger
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Fujimura T, Takahashi S, Urano T, Ogawa S, Ouchi Y, Kitamura T, Muramatsu M, Inoue S. Differential expression of estrogen receptor beta (ERbeta) and its C-terminal truncated splice variant ERbetacx as prognostic predictors in human prostatic cancer. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 289:692-9. [PMID: 11726203 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.6038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens have been widely used for the treatment of advanced prostatic adenocarcinoma. However, their direct effect to prostatic cancer cells via estrogen receptors remains unclear. We investigated expression of ERalpha, wild-type ERbeta (wtERbeta), and a C-terminal truncated splice variant of ERbeta (ERbetacx) in 50 benign and 100 malignant human prostatic tissue samples by immunohistochemistry. While strong immunostaining of ERalpha was consistently identified in the stromal compartment, wtERbeta was expressed in epithelial cells in both the benign and malignant foci. However, wtERbeta expression was significantly lower in the cancers than in the benign epithelium and inversely correlated with Gleason tumor grade (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.0099, respectively). In contrast, ERbetacx was significantly more expressed in the high-grade cancers (83%) compared with the low-grade tumors (22%) and the benign sites (11%) (P < 0.0001, both). Cancer-specific survival of patients with lower wtERbeta expression was significantly worse than those with higher expression of wtERbeta (P = 0.0018). Conversely, higher ERbetacx expression significantly correlated with poor cancer-specific survival (P = 0.0058). These results suggest that differential expressions of wtERbeta and ERbetacx may be prognostic predictors for prostatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Fujimura
- Department of Urology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
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Ye Q, Cinar B, Edlund M, Chung LW, Zhau HE. Inhibition of growth and cell cycle arrest of ARCaP human prostate cancer cells by ectopic expression of ER-alpha. Mol Cell Biochem 2001; 228:105-10. [PMID: 11855735 DOI: 10.1023/a:1013303414460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The estrogen receptor-alpha (ER-alpha) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that regulates the growth, differentiation, and development of hormone-responsive target organs. While ER-alpha has been reported to play critical role in the pathogenesis and prognosis of breast and prostate cancers, its possible functional role in regulating prostate cancer cell growth in a ligand-dependent or -independent manner is poorly understood. We addressed this question by stably transfecting wild type (wt) ER-alpha cDNA into an invasive estrogen receptor-negative human prostate cancer cell line ARCaP. We isolated several clonal lines of transfected cells expressing varying levels of ER-alpha. The ectopic expression of wt ER-a markedly inhibited the growth of ARCaP cells in vitro in an ER-a dose-dependent but ligand-independent manner. Flow cytometric analysis of the wt ER-alpha-transfected ARCaP cells revealed that wt ER-alpha expression arrested cell growth in G1 phase. Our results suggest that ER-alpha may regulate prostate cell growth and participate in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. ER-alpha may be delivered and expressed ectopically to target prostate cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Ye
- Department of Urology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville 22908, USA.
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Serrero G, Lu R. Effect of resveratrol on the expression of autocrine growth modulators in human breast cancer cells. Antioxid Redox Signal 2001; 3:969-79. [PMID: 11813992 DOI: 10.1089/152308601317203512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The effect of resveratrol on the growth of human breast cancer cells was examined. Resveratrol inhibited the growth of estrogen receptor-positive MCF-7 cells cultivated in the presence of estradiol in a dose-dependent fashion. At 10(-5) M, resveratrol maximally inhibited the growth stimulatory effect mediated by 10(-9) M estradiol without affecting cell viability. At the molecular level, resveratrol in a dose-dependent fashion antagonized the stimulation by estradiol of an estrogen response element reporter gene construct and of progesterone receptor gene expression in MCF-7 cells. Resveratrol also inhibited the proliferation of the estrogen-receptor negative human breast carcinoma cell line MDA-MB-468. These later data suggest that resveratrol can also inhibit breast cancer cell proliferation by another mechanism besides estrogen receptor antagonism. We show here that resveratrol altered the expression of several autocrine growth modulators and their receptors in MCF-7 cells. Resveratrol at 10(-5) M inhibited the expression of the autocrine growth stimulators transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha), PC cell-derived growth factor, and insulin-like growth factor I receptor mRNA. In addition, resveratrol significantly elevated the expression of the growth inhibitor TGF-beta2 mRNA without changes in TGF-beta1 and TGF-beta3 expression. These data suggest that resveratrol inhibits proliferation by altering autocrine growth modulator pathways in breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Serrero
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore 21201, USA.
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Nojima D, Li LC, Dharia A, Perinchery G, Ribeiro-Filho L, Yen TS, Dahiya R. CpG hypermethylation of the promoter region inactivates the estrogen receptor-beta gene in patients with prostate carcinoma. Cancer 2001; 92:2076-83. [PMID: 11596023 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0142(20011015)92:8<2076::aid-cncr1548>3.0.co;2-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The down-regulation of the estrogen receptor-beta (ERbeta) gene is associated with several malignancies, including prostate carcinoma. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the mechanisms of ERbeta inactivation through the analysis of CpG methylation of the promoter region of ERbeta gene. METHODS ERbeta protein expression was examined by immunohistochemistry in 23 cases of human prostate carcinoma and 40 cases of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). DNA was extracted from these tissues and processed for sodium bisulfite genomic sequencing. The percentage of methylation of CpG sites in the promoter region of ERbeta (-376 to -117), which contains 19 CpG sites, was determined from genomic sequencing data. The prostate carcinoma cell lines DU145 and ND1 were treated with the demethylating agent 5-AZAC and ERbeta mRNA expression was analyzed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS In BPH tissues, ERbeta protein expression was found mainly in epithelial cells. ERbeta protein expression was lacking in 83% of prostate carcinoma samples (19 of 23 samples) whereas all cases of BPH (40 of 40) demonstrated expression of ERbeta protein. The mechanism of inactivation of the ERbeta gene in prostate carcinoma was CpG methylation because the degree of methylation at all CpG sites within the promoter region between -376 and -117 was higher in prostate carcinoma samples compared with BPH tissues. Nine of 19 CpG sites within the promoter region of ERbeta displayed significant differences in methylation between prostate carcinoma and BPH samples. The prostate carcinoma cell lines appeared to lack ERbeta expression. However, 5-AZAC treatment restored ERbeta expression in those cell lines, suggesting that methylation inactivates the ERbeta gene in prostate carcinoma. CONCLUSIONS The results of the current study demonstrate, for what we believe to be the first time, that the inactivation of the ERbeta gene in prostate carcinoma occurs through CpG methylation of the promoter region of this gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Nojima
- Department of Urology, University of California-San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California 94121, USA
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Bonkhoff H, Fixemer T, Hunsicker I, Remberger K. Progesterone receptor expression in human prostate cancer: correlation with tumor progression. Prostate 2001; 48:285-91. [PMID: 11536308 DOI: 10.1002/pros.1108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The recent discovery of the classical estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) in metastatic and recurrent prostatic adenocarcinoma suggests that estrogens are implicated in prostate cancer progression. METHODS To get more insight into estrogen signaling in prostate cancer tissue, the current study has examined the immunoprofile of the estrogen-inducible progesterone receptor (PR), and evaluated its relation to ERalpha gene expression. RESULTS In primary tumors, the PR was detectable in 36% of primary Gleason grade 3 (5 of 14 cases), 33% of primary Gleason grade 4 (5 of 15 cases), and in 58% of primary Gleason grade 5 tumors (7 of 12 cases). None of the 41 primary tumors investigated revealed significant PR expression in more than 50% of tumor cells. Conversely, moderate to strong receptor expression was observed in 60% of metastatic lesions (9 of 15 cases), and in 54% of androgen-insensitive tumors (38 of 71 cases). Irrespective of grades and stages, the presence of the PR was invariably associated with high steady state levels of ERalpha mRNA, whereas the ERalpha protein was undetectable by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in a significant number of cases (58 of 97 cases). CONCLUSIONS The progressive emergence of the PR during tumor progression obviously reflects the ability of metastatic and androgen-insensitive tumors to use estrogens through a ERalpha-mediated pathway. The present data provide a theoretical background for studying the efficiency of antiestrogens and antigestagens in the medical treatment of advanced prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bonkhoff
- Institute of Pathology, University of the Saarland, Homburg/Saar, Germany.
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Pasquali D, Staibano S, Prezioso D, Franco R, Esposito D, Notaro A, De Rosa G, Bellastella A, Sinisi AA. Estrogen receptor beta expression in human prostate tissue. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2001; 178:47-50. [PMID: 11403893 DOI: 10.1016/s0303-7207(01)00418-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen receptor subtype beta (ERbeta) is highly expressed in rat prostate epithelium, but its presence in human prostate needs to be confirmed. Here we investigated the expression of ERbeta in five benign (normal and/or hyperplastic) and 10 malignant (Gleasons' score 2-7) prostate tissue specimens using immunohistochemistry. Immunohistochemistry was performed on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections, using a commercially available ERbeta polyclonal antibody developed against the C-terminal amino acid residue. Nuclear ERbeta expression was found in the nuclei of glandular epithelium of benign prostate tissue specimens; faint nuclear ERbeta positivity was also present in a few stromal cells around normal epithelium. Nuclear ERbeta specific immunostaining was undetectable in all prostate cancer sections.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Pasquali
- Istituto di Endocrinologia, Seconda Università di Napoli, Via Pansini 5, 80131, Naples, Italy
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Prinsloo
- Department of Urology, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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Ye Q, Chung LW, Cinar B, Li S, Zhau HE. Identification and characterization of estrogen receptor variants in prostate cancer cell lines. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2000; 75:21-31. [PMID: 11179905 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-0760(00)00118-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive semi-nested reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification was performed to evaluate estrogen receptor-alpha (ER-alpha) mRNA expression in prostate cancer cell lines. We demonstrated the presence of wild-type ER-alpha (wt ER-alpha) and five ER-alpha variants, designated ER-alphaA, B, C, D, and E. Unlike ER-alphaA and D, ER-alphaB, C, and E were not previously reported in normal or cancerous mammalian cells. DNA sequencing analysis of these ER-alpha variants revealed the genetic changes to be either in-frame or out-of-frame deletions. The expression of each ER-alpha variant differs significantly depending on the androgen responsiveness, tumorigenic and metastatic potentials of each prostate cancer cell line. The potential functional significance of ER-alpha variants was assessed in yeast two-hybrid and ERE promoter-reporter mammalian transcription assay systems. The results of these studies indicated that none of the ER-alpha variants can form homo- or heterodimers either with wt ER-alpha or among themselves in vivo, and that these ER-alpha variants have no demonstrable transcriptional or dominant-negative activity, as assessed in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Ye
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Box 800422, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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Grande M, Carlström K, Stege R, Pousette A, Faxén M. Estrogens increase the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (ecNOS) mRNA level in LNCaP human prostate carcinoma cells. Prostate 2000; 45:232-7. [PMID: 11074525 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0045(20001101)45:3<232::aid-pros5>3.0.co;2-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The endothelial cell-specific form of nitric oxide synthases (ecNOS) may play an important role in vascular development, maintenance of vascular tone, and tumor growth in human prostate cancer. Estrogens have been shown to upregulate ecNOS expression in different human cell culture systems. Estrone sulfate (E1S) is the most abundant circulating estrogen, and may serve as a prehormone for the terminal biologically active estrogen estradiol-17beta (E2) in men. METHODS The effects of E1S and E2 on mRNA expression of ecNOS were studied in the androgen-sensitive LNCaP-FGC cell line and its androgen-resistant derivative, LNCaP-r. The cells were grown in steroid-depleted medium and incubated for 2-4 or 48 hr with 0-100 nM of E1S and E2, respectively. ecNOS mRNA levels were determined using RT-PCR and are expressed as arbitrary units after correction for control HGPRT gene mRNA levels. RESULTS Treatment for 48 hr with 10 and 100 nM E1S significantly (P<0.05) increased ecNOS mRNA levels in LNCaP-FGC cells. Significantly higher (P<0.05) ecNOS mRNA levels also were found in LNCaP-FGC cells treated with E2 for 2-4 hr, irrespective of E2 concentration. The level of ecNOS mRNA was significantly lower (P<0.05) in untreated LNCaP-r than in LNCaP-FGC. LNCaP-r cells incubated with 100 nM E2 for 48 hr had a significantly higher (P<0.05) level of ecNOS mRNA than control LNCaP-r cells. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that ecNOS mRNA expression in LNCaP-FGC can be induced by E2, but also by its prehormone E1S, probably after conversion to E2. However, the different stimulation patterns observed for E2 and E1S in LNCaP-FGC and LNCaP-r cells also could indicate stimulatory as well as inhibitory effects of estrogens in this model system, and this could depend on time of exposure and the concentration of active estrogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Grande
- Unit of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Women and Child Health, Karolinska Institute, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Ye Q, Chung LW, Li S, Zhau HE. Identification of a novel FAS/ER-alpha fusion transcript expressed in human cancer cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2000; 1493:373-7. [PMID: 11018265 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4781(00)00202-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A semi-nested reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was applied to evaluate the presence of estrogen receptor-alpha (ER-alpha) in human prostate cancer cells. Unexpectedly, a novel fatty acid synthase (FAS)/ER-alpha fusion transcript was identified, in which the N-terminus of FAS was fused in-frame with the C-terminus of ER-alpha. The existence of the FAS/ER-alpha transcript was further confirmed by RT-PCR analysis using various sets of amplification primers and different reverse-transcribed primers in the presence of dimethyl sulfoxide to eliminate the secondary structure of RNA. The predicted FAS/ER-alpha protein would contain largely domain I of FAS and the entire ligand binding domain of ER-alpha. The FAS/ER-alpha was expressed in a variety of human cancer cell lines including prostate, breast, cervical and bladder cancer cell lines. Our data suggest that the presence of FAS/ER-alpha may complicate the FAS and the ER-alpha signalling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Ye
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Box 422, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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Bonkhoff H, Fixemer T, Hunsicker I, Remberger K. Estrogen receptor expression in prostate cancer and premalignant prostatic lesions. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 1999; 155:641-7. [PMID: 10433957 PMCID: PMC1866870 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)65160-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens have been implicated in prostatic cancerogenesis and tumor progression. The mechanisms underlying estrogen signaling in human prostate tissue, however, remain poorly understood. Using immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization (ISH) techniques, the present study demonstrates the classical estrogen receptor (ERalpha) in premalignant lesions and prostatic adenocarcinoma through the various stages of the disease. Conversely, the novel characterized ERbeta subtype was undetectable in human prostate tissue. High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia revealed ERalpha mRNA and protein expression in 28% and 11% of cases evaluated. Focal ER immunoreactivity was detected in a minority of low- to intermediate-grade adenocarcinoma. High-grade (primary Gleason grade 4 and 5) tumors revealed ER protein expression in 43% (62% respectively) of cases. The most significant ERalpha gene expression on mRNA and protein levels was observed in hormone refractory tumors and metastatic lesions, including lymph node and bone metastases. Results of the current study suggest that estrogens can affect prostatic cancerogenesis and neoplastic progression through an ER-mediated process in human prostate tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bonkhoff
- Institute of Pathology, University of the Saarland, Homburg/Saar, Germany
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Lu R, Serrero G. Resveratrol, a natural product derived from grape, exhibits antiestrogenic activity and inhibits the growth of human breast cancer cells. J Cell Physiol 1999; 179:297-304. [PMID: 10228948 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4652(199906)179:3<297::aid-jcp7>3.0.co;2-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Resveratrol is a natural phytoalexin compound found in grapes and other food products. In this study, the effect of resveratrol on the growth of human breast cancer cells was examined. Results show that resveratrol inhibits the growth of estrogen receptor(ER)-positive MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent fashion. Detailed studies with MCF-7 cells demonstrate that resveratrol antagonized the growth-promoting effect of 17-beta-estradiol (E2) in a dose-dependent fashion at both the cellular (cell growth) and the molecular (gene activation) levels. At 5 x 10(-6) M, resveratrol abolished the growth-stimulatory effect mediated by concentrations of E2 up to 10(-9) M. The antiestrogenic effect of resveratrol could be observed at a concentration of 10(-6) M and above. The antiestrogenic effect of resveratrol was also demonstrated at the molecular level. Resveratrol in a dose-dependent fashion antagonized the stimulation by E2 of progesterone receptor gene expression in MCF-7 cells. Moreover, expression of transforming growth factor-alpha and insulin-like growth factor I receptor mRNA was inhibited while the expression of transforming growth factor beta2 mRNA was significantly elevated in MCF-7 cells cultivated in the presence of resveratrol (10(-5) M). In summary, our results show that resveratrol, a partial ER agonist itself, acts as an ER antagonist in the presence of estrogen leading to inhibition of human breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Lu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore 21201, USA
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