1
|
Umamaheswaran R, Dutta S. Preservation of proteins in the geosphere. Nat Ecol Evol 2024; 8:858-865. [PMID: 38472431 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-024-02366-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Deep-time protein preservation has attracted increasing interest and rapid research activity within the palaeobiological community in recent years, but there are several different viewpoints without a cohesive framework for the interpretation of these proteins. Therefore, despite this activity, crucial gaps exist in the understanding of how proteins are preserved in the geological record and we believe it is vital to arrive at a synthesis of the various taphonomic pathways in order to proceed forward with their elucidation. Here we take a critical look at the state of knowledge regarding deep-time protein preservation and argue for the necessity of a more nuanced approach to understanding the molecular taphonomy of proteins through the lens of diagenetic pathways. We also propound an initial framework with which to comprehend the chemical changes undergone by proteins via the concept of 'proteagen'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raman Umamaheswaran
- Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India.
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Suryendu Dutta
- Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kubo K, Kobayashi Y, Chinzorig T, Tsogtbaatar K. A new alvarezsaurid dinosaur (Theropoda, Alvarezsauria) from the Upper Cretaceous Baruungoyot Formation of Mongolia provides insights for bird-like sleeping behavior in non-avian dinosaurs. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293801. [PMID: 37967055 PMCID: PMC10651048 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Alvarezsauria is a group of early-branching maniraptoran theropods that are distributed globally from the Late Jurassic to the latest Cretaceous. Despite recent increases in the fossil record of this group, the scarcity of complete specimens still restricts interpreting their detailed anatomy, ecology, and evolution. Here, we report a new taxon of derived alvarezsaur, Jaculinykus yaruui gen. et sp. nov., from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia, which represents a nearly complete and articulated skeleton. Our phylogenetic analysis reveals that Jaculinykus belongs to the sub-clade of Alvarezsauridae, Parvicursorinae, and forms a mononphyletic group with Mononykus and Shuvuuia. Its well-preserved manus has only two fingers, composed of a hypertrophied digit I and greatly reduced digit II, which implies an intermediate condition between the tridactyl manus of Shuvuuia and monodactyl manus of Linhenykus. This highlights a previously unrecognized variation in specialization of alvarezsaurid manus. Notably, the preserved posture of the specimen exhibits a stereotypical avian-like sleeping position seen in the troodontids Mei and Sinornithoides. Evidence of this behavior in the alvarezsaur Jaculinykus suggests that stereotypically avian sleeping postures are a maniraptoran synapomorphy, providing more evidence of bird-like traits being distributed broadly among avian ancestors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kohta Kubo
- Department of Natural History and Planetary Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | | | - Tsogtbaatar Chinzorig
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
- Institute of Paleontology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Slater TS, Edwards NP, Webb SM, Zhang F, McNamara ME. Preservation of corneous β-proteins in Mesozoic feathers. Nat Ecol Evol 2023; 7:1706-1713. [PMID: 37735563 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-02177-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Fossil proteins are valuable tools in evolutionary biology. Recent technological advances and better integration of experimental methods have confirmed the feasibility of biomolecular preservation in deep time, yielding new insights into the timing of key evolutionary transitions. Keratins (formerly α-keratins) and corneous β-proteins (CBPs, formerly β-keratins) are of particular interest as they define tissue structures that underpin fundamental physiological and ecological strategies and have the potential to inform on the molecular evolution of the vertebrate integument. Reports of CBPs in Mesozoic fossils, however, appear to conflict with experimental evidence for CBP degradation during fossilization. Further, the recent model for molecular modification of feather chemistry during the dinosaur-bird transition does not consider the relative preservation potential of different feather proteins. Here we use controlled taphonomic experiments coupled with infrared and sulfur X-ray spectroscopy to show that the dominant β-sheet structure of CBPs is progressively altered to α-helices with increasing temperature, suggesting that (α-)keratins and α-helices in fossil feathers are most likely artefacts of fossilization. Our analyses of fossil feathers shows that this process is independent of geological age, as even Cenozoic feathers can comprise primarily α-helices and disordered structures. Critically, our experiments show that feather CBPs can survive moderate thermal maturation. As predicted by our experiments, analyses of Mesozoic feathers confirm that evidence of feather CBPs can persist through deep time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany S Slater
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
- Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Nicholas P Edwards
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, USA
| | - Samuel M Webb
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, USA
| | - Fucheng Zhang
- Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Linyi University, Linyi, China
| | - Maria E McNamara
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
- Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Environmental Factors Affecting Feather Taphonomy. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11050703. [PMID: 35625431 PMCID: PMC9138376 DOI: 10.3390/biology11050703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The exceptional preservation of feathers in the fossil record has led to a better understanding of both phylogeny and evolution. Here we address factors that may have contributed to the preservation of feathers in ancient organisms using experimental taphonomy. We show that the atmospheres of the Mesozoic, known to be elevated in both CO2 and with temperatures above present levels, may have contributed to the preservation of these soft tissues by facilitating rapid precipitation of hydroxy- or carbonate hydroxyapatite, thus outpacing natural degradative processes. Data also support that that microbial degradation was enhanced in elevated CO2, but mineral deposition was also enhanced, contributing to preservation by stabilizing the organic components of feathers.
Collapse
|
5
|
Tahoun M, Engeser M, Namasivayam V, Sander PM, Müller CE. Chemistry and Analysis of Organic Compounds in Dinosaurs. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:670. [PMID: 35625398 PMCID: PMC9138232 DOI: 10.3390/biology11050670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of organic compounds detected in non-avian dinosaur fossils to date. This was enabled by the development of sensitive analytical techniques. Non-destructive methods and procedures restricted to the sample surface, e.g., light and electron microscopy, infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy, as well as more invasive approaches including liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry, and immunological methods were employed. Organic compounds detected in samples of dinosaur fossils include pigments (heme, biliverdin, protoporphyrin IX, melanin), and proteins, such as collagens and keratins. The origin and nature of the observed protein signals is, however, in some cases, controversially discussed. Molecular taphonomy approaches can support the development of suitable analytical methods to confirm reported findings and to identify further organic compounds in dinosaur and other fossils in the future. The chemical properties of the various organic compounds detected in dinosaurs, and the techniques utilized for the identification and analysis of each of the compounds will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Tahoun
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
| | - Marianne Engeser
- Kekulé Institute for Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Vigneshwaran Namasivayam
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
| | - Paul Martin Sander
- Institute of Geosciences, Section Paleontology, University of Bonn, D-53113 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Christa E. Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hendrickx C, Bell PR, Pittman M, Milner ARC, Cuesta E, O'Connor J, Loewen M, Currie PJ, Mateus O, Kaye TG, Delcourt R. Morphology and distribution of scales, dermal ossifications, and other non-feather integumentary structures in non-avialan theropod dinosaurs. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2022; 97:960-1004. [PMID: 34991180 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Modern birds are typified by the presence of feathers, complex evolutionary innovations that were already widespread in the group of theropod dinosaurs (Maniraptoriformes) that include crown Aves. Squamous or scaly reptilian-like skin is, however, considered the plesiomorphic condition for theropods and dinosaurs more broadly. Here, we review the morphology and distribution of non-feathered integumentary structures in non-avialan theropods, covering squamous skin and naked skin as well as dermal ossifications. The integumentary record of non-averostran theropods is limited to tracks, which ubiquitously show a covering of tiny reticulate scales on the plantar surface of the pes. This is consistent also with younger averostran body fossils, which confirm an arthral arrangement of the digital pads. Among averostrans, squamous skin is confirmed in Ceratosauria (Carnotaurus), Allosauroidea (Allosaurus, Concavenator, Lourinhanosaurus), Compsognathidae (Juravenator), and Tyrannosauroidea (Santanaraptor, Albertosaurus, Daspletosaurus, Gorgosaurus, Tarbosaurus, Tyrannosaurus), whereas dermal ossifications consisting of sagittate and mosaic osteoderms are restricted to Ceratosaurus. Naked, non-scale bearing skin is found in the contentious tetanuran Sciurumimus, ornithomimosaurians (Ornithomimus) and possibly tyrannosauroids (Santanaraptor), and also on the patagia of scansoriopterygids (Ambopteryx, Yi). Scales are surprisingly conservative among non-avialan theropods compared to some dinosaurian groups (e.g. hadrosaurids); however, the limited preservation of tegument on most specimens hinders further interrogation. Scale patterns vary among and/or within body regions in Carnotaurus, Concavenator and Juravenator, and include polarised, snake-like ventral scales on the tail of the latter two genera. Unusual but more uniformly distributed patterning also occurs in Tyrannosaurus, whereas feature scales are present only in Albertosaurus and Carnotaurus. Few theropods currently show compelling evidence for the co-occurrence of scales and feathers (e.g. Juravenator, Sinornithosaurus), although reticulate scales were probably retained on the mani and pedes of many theropods with a heavy plumage. Feathers and filamentous structures appear to have replaced widespread scaly integuments in maniraptorans. Theropod skin, and that of dinosaurs more broadly, remains a virtually untapped area of study and the appropriation of commonly used techniques in other palaeontological fields to the study of skin holds great promise for future insights into the biology, taphonomy and relationships of these extinct animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Hendrickx
- Unidad Ejecutora Lillo, CONICET-Fundación Miguel Lillo, 251 Miguel Lillo, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán, 4000, Argentina
| | - Phil R Bell
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351, Australia
| | - Michael Pittman
- Vertebrate Palaeontology Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, SAR, China.,Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew R C Milner
- St. George Dinosaur Discovery Site at Johnson Farm, 2180 East Riverside Drive, St. George, UT, U.S.A
| | - Elena Cuesta
- Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und Geologie, Richard-Wagner-Str. 10, Munich, 80333, Germany
| | - Jingmai O'Connor
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL, 60605, U.S.A
| | - Mark Loewen
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, Frederick Albert Sutton Building, 115 South 1460 East, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, U.S.A.,Natural History Museum of Utah, 301 Wakara Way, Salt Lake City, UT, 84108, U.S.A
| | - Philip J Currie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Octávio Mateus
- GeoBioTec, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal.,Museu da Lourinhã, 95 Rua João Luis de Moura, Lourinhã, 2530-158, Portugal
| | - Thomas G Kaye
- Foundation for Scientific Advancement, 7023 Alhambra Dr., Sierra Vista, AZ, 85650, U.S.A
| | - Rafael Delcourt
- Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Instituto de Geociências, Cidade Universitária, Rua Carlos Gomes, 250, Campinas, SP, 13083-855, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Schroeder K, Lyons SK, Smith FA. The influence of juvenile dinosaurs on community structure and diversity. Science 2021; 371:941-944. [PMID: 33632845 DOI: 10.1126/science.abd9220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite dominating biodiversity in the Mesozoic, dinosaurs were not speciose. Oviparity constrained even gigantic dinosaurs to less than 15 kg at birth; growth through multiple morphologies led to the consumption of different resources at each stage. Such disparity between neonates and adults could have influenced the structure and diversity of dinosaur communities. Here, we quantified this effect for 43 communities across 136 million years and seven continents. We found that megatheropods (more than 1000 kg) such as tyrannosaurs had specific effects on dinosaur community structure. Although herbivores spanned the body size range, communities with megatheropods lacked carnivores weighing 100 to 1000 kg. We demonstrate that juvenile megatheropods likely filled the mesocarnivore niche, resulting in reduced overall taxonomic diversity. The consistency of this pattern suggests that ontogenetic niche shift was an important factor in generating dinosaur community structure and diversity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katlin Schroeder
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
| | - S Kathleen Lyons
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Felisa A Smith
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Reanalysis of putative ovarian follicles suggests that Early Cretaceous birds were feeding not breeding. Sci Rep 2020; 10:19035. [PMID: 33149245 PMCID: PMC7643104 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-76078-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
We address the identity of putative ovarian follicles in Early Cretaceous bird fossils from the Jehol Biota (China), whose identification has previously been challenged. For the first time, we present a link to the botanical fossil record, showing that the "follicles" of some enantiornithine fossils resemble plant propagules from the Jehol Biota, which belong to Carpolithes multiseminalis. The botanical affinities of this "form-taxon" are currently unresolved, but we note that C. multiseminalis propagules resemble propagules associated with cone-like organs described as Strobilites taxusoides, which in turn are possibly associated with sterile foliage allocated to Liaoningcladus. Laser-Stimulated Fluorescence imaging furthermore reveals different intensities of fluorescence of "follicles" associated with a skeleton of the confuciusornithid Eoconfuciusornis zhengi, with a non-fluorescent circular micro-pattern indicating carbonaceous (or originally carbonaceous) matter. This is inconsistent with the interpretation of these structures as ovarian follicles. We therefore reaffirm that the "follicles" represent ingested food items, and even though the exact nature of the Eoconfuciusornis stomach contents remains elusive, at least some enantiornithines ingested plant propagules.
Collapse
|
9
|
Slater TS, McNamara ME, Orr PJ, Foley TB, Ito S, Wakamatsu K. Taphonomic experiments resolve controls on the preservation of melanosomes and keratinous tissues in feathers. PALAEONTOLOGY 2020; 63:103-115. [PMID: 32025055 PMCID: PMC6988486 DOI: 10.1111/pala.12445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Fossils are a key source of data on the evolution of feather structure and function through deep time, but their ability to resolve macroevolutionary questions is compromised by an incomplete understanding of their taphonomy. Critically, the relative preservation potential of two key feather components, melanosomes and keratinous tissue, is not fully resolved. Recent studies suggesting that melanosomes are preferentially preserved conflict with observations that melanosomes preserve in fossil feathers as external moulds in an organic matrix. To date, there is no model to explain the latter mode of melanosome preservation. We addressed these issues by degrading feathers in systematic taphonomic experiments incorporating decay, maturation and oxidation in isolation and combination. Our results reveal that the production of mouldic melanosomes requires interactions with an oxidant and is most likely to occur prior to substantial maturation. This constrains the taphonomic conditions under which melanosomes are likely to be fossilized. Critically, our experiments also confirm that keratinous feather structures have a higher preservation potential than melanosomes under a range of diagenetic conditions, supporting hitherto controversial hypotheses that fossil feathers can retain degraded keratinous structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany S. Slater
- School of Biological, Earth & Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
| | - Maria E. McNamara
- School of Biological, Earth & Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
| | - Patrick J. Orr
- UCDSchool of Earth SciencesUniversity College DublinDublinIreland
| | - Tara B. Foley
- Department of Anatomy & NeuroscienceUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
| | - Shosuke Ito
- Department of ChemistryFujita Health University School of Health SciencesToyoakeAichiJapan
| | - Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Department of ChemistryFujita Health University School of Health SciencesToyoakeAichiJapan
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Filamentous Integuments in Nonavialan Theropods and Their Kin: Advances and Future Perspectives for Understanding the Evolution of Feathers. THE EVOLUTION OF FEATHERS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-27223-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
|
11
|
Abstract
Introduction: Despite an extensive published literature, skepticism over the claim of original biochemicals including proteins preserved in the fossil record persists and the issue remains controversial. Workers using many different techniques including mass spectrometry, X-ray, electron microscopy and optical spectroscopic techniques, have attempted to verify proteinaceous or other biochemicals that appear endogenous to fossils found throughout the geologic column.Areas covered: This paper presents a review of the relevant literature published over the last 50 years. A comparative survey of the reported techniques used is also given.Expert opinion: Morphological and molecular investigations show that original biochemistry is geologically extensive, geographically global, and taxonomically wide-ranging. The survival of endogenous organics in fossils remains the subject of widespread and increasing research investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Thomas
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Stephen Taylor
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Barbi M, Bell PR, Fanti F, Dynes JJ, Kolaceke A, Buttigieg J, Coulson IM, Currie PJ. Integumentary structure and composition in an exceptionally well-preserved hadrosaur (Dinosauria: Ornithischia). PeerJ 2019; 7:e7875. [PMID: 31637130 PMCID: PMC6800526 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Preserved labile tissues (e.g., skin, muscle) in the fossil record of terrestrial vertebrates are increasingly becoming recognized as an important source of biological and taphonomic information. Here, we combine a variety of synchrotron radiation techniques with scanning electron and optical microscopy to elucidate the structure of 72 million-year-old squamous (scaly) skin from a hadrosaurid dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada. Scanning electron and optical microscopy independently reveal that the three-dimensionally preserved scales are associated with a band of carbon-rich layers up to a total thickness of ∼75 microns, which is topographically and morphologically congruent with the stratum corneum in modern reptiles. Compositionally, this band deviates from that of the surrounding sedimentary matrix; Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and soft X-ray spectromicroscopy analyses indicate that carbon appears predominantly as carbonyl in the skin. The regions corresponding to the integumentary layers are distinctively enriched in iron compared to the sedimentary matrix and appear with kaolinite-rich laminae. These hosting carbonyl-rich layers are apparently composed of subcircular bodies resembling preserved cell structures. Each of these structures is encapsulated by calcite/vaterite, with iron predominantly concentrated at its center. The presence of iron, calcite/vaterite and kaolinite may, independently or collectively, have played important roles in the preservation of the layered structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Barbi
- Department of Physics, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Phil R Bell
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Federico Fanti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche e Ambientali, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy.,Museo Geologico Giovanni Capellini, Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - James J Dynes
- Canadian Light Source Inc., University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Anezka Kolaceke
- Department of Physics, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Josef Buttigieg
- Department of Biology, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Ian M Coulson
- Department of Geology, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Philip J Currie
- Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Pan Y, Hu L, Zhao T. Applications of chemical imaging techniques in paleontology. Natl Sci Rev 2019; 6:1040-1053. [PMID: 34691967 PMCID: PMC8291642 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwy107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical imaging techniques, based on a combination of microscopy and spectroscopy, are designed to analyse the composition and spatial distribution of heterogeneous chemical complexes within a sample. Over the last few decades, it has become an increasingly popular tool for characterizing trace elements, isotopic information and organic biomarkers (molecular biosignatures) found in fossils. Here, we introduce the analytical principle of each technique and the interpretation of the chemical signals, followed by a review of the main applications of these techniques in paleontology. We also demonstrate that each technique is associated with pros and cons, and the current limitations and obstacles associated with the use of each specific technique should be taken into account before being applied to fossil samples. Finally, we propose that, due to the rapid advances in the available technology and overall trends towards more multi-disciplinary studies in paleontology, chemical imaging techniques can be expected to have broader applications in paleontology in the near future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Pan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Liang Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bailleul AM, O’Connor J, Schweitzer MH. Dinosaur paleohistology: review, trends and new avenues of investigation. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7764. [PMID: 31579624 PMCID: PMC6768056 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the mid-19th century, the discovery that bone microstructure in fossils could be preserved with fidelity provided a new avenue for understanding the evolution, function, and physiology of long extinct organisms. This resulted in the establishment of paleohistology as a subdiscipline of vertebrate paleontology, which has contributed greatly to our current understanding of dinosaurs as living organisms. Dinosaurs are part of a larger group of reptiles, the Archosauria, of which there are only two surviving lineages, crocodilians and birds. The goal of this review is to document progress in the field of archosaur paleohistology, focusing in particular on the Dinosauria. We briefly review the "growth age" of dinosaur histology, which has encompassed new and varied directions since its emergence in the 1950s, resulting in a shift in the scientific perception of non-avian dinosaurs from "sluggish" reptiles to fast-growing animals with relatively high metabolic rates. However, fundamental changes in growth occurred within the sister clade Aves, and we discuss this major evolutionary transition as elucidated by histology. We then review recent innovations in the field, demonstrating how paleohistology has changed and expanded to address a diversity of non-growth related questions. For example, dinosaur skull histology has elucidated the formation of curious cranial tissues (e.g., "metaplastic" tissues), and helped to clarify the evolution and function of oral adaptations, such as the dental batteries of duck-billed dinosaurs. Lastly, we discuss the development of novel techniques with which to investigate not only the skeletal tissues of dinosaurs, but also less-studied soft-tissues, through molecular paleontology and paleohistochemistry-recently developed branches of paleohistology-and the future potential of these methods to further explore fossilized tissues. We suggest that the combination of histological and molecular methods holds great potential for examining the preserved tissues of dinosaurs, basal birds, and their extant relatives. This review demonstrates the importance of traditional bone paleohistology, but also highlights the need for innovation and new analytical directions to improve and broaden the utility of paleohistology, in the pursuit of more diverse, highly specific, and sensitive methods with which to further investigate important paleontological questions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alida M. Bailleul
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Beijing, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Beijing, China
| | - Jingmai O’Connor
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Beijing, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Beijing, China
| | - Mary H. Schweitzer
- Department of Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Science, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Department of Geology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Museum of the Rockies, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Schweitzer MH, Schroeter ER, Cleland TP, Zheng W. Paleoproteomics of Mesozoic Dinosaurs and Other Mesozoic Fossils. Proteomics 2019; 19:e1800251. [PMID: 31172628 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201800251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Molecular studies have contributed greatly to our understanding of evolutionary processes that act upon virtually every aspect of living organisms. However, these studies are limited with regard to extinct organisms, particularly those from the Mesozoic because fossils pose unique challenges to molecular workflows, and because prevailing wisdom suggests no endogenous molecular components can persist into deep time. Here, the power and potential of a molecular approach to Mesozoic fossils is discussed. Molecular methods that have been applied to Mesozoic fossils-including iconic, non-avian dinosaurs- and the challenges inherent in such analyses, are compared and evaluated. Taphonomic processes resulting in the transition of living organisms from the biosphere into the fossil record are reviewed, and the possible effects of taphonomic alteration on downstream analyses that can be problematic for very old material (e.g., molecular modifications, limitations of on comparative databases) are addressed. Molecular studies applied to ancient remains are placed in historical context, and past and current studies are evaluated with respect to producing phylogenetically and/or evolutionarily significant data. Finally, some criteria for assessing the presence of endogenous biomolecules in very ancient fossil remains are suggested as a starting framework for such studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Higby Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 27695, NC.,North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC.,Museum of the Rockies, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.,Department of Geology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 12, SE-223 62, Lund, Sweden
| | - Elena R Schroeter
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 27695, NC
| | - Timothy P Cleland
- Museum Conservation Institute, Smithsonian Institution, Suitland, 20746, MD
| | - Wenxia Zheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 27695, NC
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Ancient protein analysis is a rapidly developing field of research. Proteins ranging in age from the Quaternary to Jurassic are being used to answer questions about phylogeny, evolution, and extinction. However, these analyses are sometimes contentious, and focus primarily on large vertebrates in sedimentary fossilisation environments; there are few studies of protein preservation in fossils in amber. Here we show exceptionally slow racemisation rates during thermal degradation experiments of resin enclosed feathers, relative to previous thermal degradation experiments of ostrich eggshell, coral skeleton, and limpet shell. We also recover amino acids from two specimens of fossil feathers in amber. The amino acid compositions are broadly similar to those of degraded feathers, but concentrations are very low, suggesting that much of the original protein has been degraded and lost. High levels of racemisation in more apolar, slowly racemising amino acids suggest that some of the amino acids were ancient and therefore original. Our findings indicate that the unique fossilisation environment inside amber shows potential for the recovery of ancient amino acids and proteins.
Collapse
|
17
|
Schweitzer MH, Zheng W, Moyer AE, Sjövall P, Lindgren J. Preservation potential of keratin in deep time. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206569. [PMID: 30485294 PMCID: PMC6261410 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple fossil discoveries and taphonomic experiments have established the durability of keratin. The utility and specificity of antibodies to identify keratin peptides has also been established, both in extant feathers under varying treatment conditions, and in feathers from extinct organisms. Here, we show localization of feather-keratin antibodies to control and heat-treated feathers, testifying to the repeatability of initial data supporting the preservation potential of keratin. We then show new data at higher resolution that demonstrates the specific response of these antibodies to the feather matrix, we support the presence of protein in heat-treated feathers using ToF-SIMS, and we apply these methods to a fossil feather preserved in the unusual environment of sinter hot springs. We stress the importance of employing realistic conditions such as sediment burial when designing experiments intended as proxies for taphonomic processes occurring in the fossil record. Our data support the hypothesis that keratin, particularly the β-keratin that comprises feathers, has potential to preserve in fossil remains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Higby Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Geology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Wenxia Zheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Alison E. Moyer
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Peter Sjövall
- RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Chemistry and Materials, Borås, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Norell MA, Balanoff AM, Barta DE, Erickson GM. A Second Specimen ofCitipati OsmolskaeAssociated With a Nest of Eggs from Ukhaa Tolgod, Omnogov Aimag, Mongolia. AMERICAN MUSEUM NOVITATES 2018. [DOI: 10.1206/3899.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Norell
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History
- Richard Gilder Graduate School, American Museum of Natural History
| | - Amy M. Balanoff
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Daniel E. Barta
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History
- Richard Gilder Graduate School, American Museum of Natural History
| | - Gregory M. Erickson
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Cleland TP, Schroeter ER. A Comparison of Common Mass Spectrometry Approaches for Paleoproteomics. J Proteome Res 2018; 17:936-945. [PMID: 29384680 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.7b00703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The last two decades have seen a broad diversity of methods used to identify and/or characterize proteins in the archeological and paleontological record. Of these, mass spectrometry has opened an unprecedented window into the proteomes of the past, providing protein sequence data from long extinct animals as well as historical and prehistorical artifacts. Thus, application of mass spectrometry to fossil remains has become an attractive source for ancient molecular sequences with which to conduct evolutionary studies, particularly in specimens older than the proposed limit of amplifiable DNA detection. However, "mass spectrometry" covers a range of mass-based proteomic approaches, each of which utilize different technology and physical principles to generate unique types of data, with their own strengths and challenges. Here, we discuss a variety of mass spectrometry techniques that have or may be used to detect and characterize archeological and paleontological proteins, with a particular focus on MALDI-MS, LC-MS/MS, TOF-SIMS, and MSi. The main differences in their functionality, the types of data they produce, and the potential effects of diagenesis on their results are considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Cleland
- Museum Conservation Institute, Smithsonian Institution , Suitland, Maryland 20746, United States
| | - Elena R Schroeter
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University , Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Kowalczyk P, Mahdi-Oraibi S, Misiewicz A, Gabzdyl N, Miskiewicz A, Szparecki G. Feather-Degrading Bacteria: Their Biochemical and Genetic Characteristics. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-017-2700-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
21
|
Moyer AE, Zheng W, Schweitzer MH. Microscopic and immunohistochemical analyses of the claw of the nesting dinosaur, Citipati osmolskae. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.1997. [PMID: 28120795 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most well-recognized Cretaceous fossils is Citipati osmolskae (MPC-D 100/979), an oviraptorid dinosaur discovered in brooding position on a nest of unhatched eggs. The original description refers to a thin lens of white material extending from a manus ungual, which was proposed to represent original keratinous claw sheath that, in life, would have covered it. Here, we test the hypothesis that this exceptional morphological preservation extends to the molecular level. The fossil sheath was compared with that of extant birds, revealing similar morphology and microstructural organization. In living birds, the claw sheath consists primarily of two structural proteins; alpha-keratin, expressed in all vertebrates, and beta-keratin, found only in reptiles and birds (sauropsids). We employed antibodies raised against avian feathers, which comprise almost entirely of beta-keratin, to demonstrate that fossil tissues respond with the same specificity, though less intensity, as those from living birds. Furthermore, we show that calcium chelation greatly increased antibody reactivity, suggesting a role for calcium in the preservation of this fossil material.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alison E Moyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA .,Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Wenxia Zheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Mary H Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.,North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Molecular evidence of keratin and melanosomes in feathers of the Early Cretaceous bird Eoconfuciusornis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E7900-E7907. [PMID: 27872291 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1617168113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbodies associated with feathers of both nonavian dinosaurs and early birds were first identified as bacteria but have been reinterpreted as melanosomes. Whereas melanosomes in modern feathers are always surrounded by and embedded in keratin, melanosomes embedded in keratin in fossils has not been demonstrated. Here we provide multiple independent molecular analyses of both microbodies and the associated matrix recovered from feathers of a new specimen of the basal bird Eoconfuciusornis from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota of China. Our work represents the oldest ultrastructural and immunological recognition of avian beta-keratin from an Early Cretaceous (∼130-Ma) bird. We apply immunogold to identify protein epitopes at high resolution, by localizing antibody-antigen complexes to specific fossil ultrastructures. Retention of original keratinous proteins in the matrix surrounding electron-opaque microbodies supports their assignment as melanosomes and adds to the criteria employable to distinguish melanosomes from microbial bodies. Our work sheds new light on molecular preservation within normally labile tissues preserved in fossils.
Collapse
|
23
|
Spectroscopic Studies on Organic Matter from Triassic Reptile Bones, Upper Silesia, Poland. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151143. [PMID: 26977600 PMCID: PMC4792425 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fossil biomolecules from an endogenous source were previously identified in Cretaceous to Pleistocene fossilized bones, the evidence coming from molecular analyses. These findings, however, were called into question and an alternative hypothesis of the invasion of the bone by bacterial biofilm was proposed. Herewith we report a new finding of morphologically preserved blood-vessel-like structures enclosing organic molecules preserved in iron-oxide-mineralized vessel walls from the cortical region of nothosaurid and tanystropheid (aquatic and terrestrial diapsid reptiles) bones. These findings are from the Early/Middle Triassic boundary (Upper Roetian/Lowermost Muschelkalk) strata of Upper Silesia, Poland. Multiple spectroscopic analyses (FTIR, ToF-SIMS, and XPS) of the extracted "blood vessels" showed the presence of organic compounds, including fragments of various amino acids such as hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine as well as amides, that may suggest the presence of collagen protein residues. Because these amino acids are absent from most proteins other than collagen, we infer that the proteinaceous molecules may originate from endogenous collagen. The preservation of molecular signals of proteins within the "blood vessels" was most likely made possible through the process of early diagenetic iron oxide mineralization. This discovery provides the oldest evidence of in situ preservation of complex organic molecules in vertebrate remains in a marine environment.
Collapse
|
24
|
Schweitzer MH, Lindgren J, Moyer AE. Melanosomes and ancient coloration re-examined: A response to Vinther 2015 (DOI 10.1002/bies.201500018). Bioessays 2015; 37:1174-83. [PMID: 26434749 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201500061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Round to elongate microbodies associated with fossil vertebrate soft tissues were interpreted as microbial traces until 2008, when they were re-described as remnant melanosomes - intracellular, pigment-containing eukaryotic organelles. Since then, multiple claims for melanosome preservation and inferences of organismal color, behavior, and physiology have been advanced, based upon the shape and size of these microstructures. Here, we re-examine evidence for ancient melanosomes in light of information reviewed in Vinther (2015), and literature regarding the preservation potential of microorganisms and their exopolymeric secretions. We: (i) address statements in Vinther's recent (2015) review that are incorrect or which misrepresent published data; (ii) discuss the need for caution in interpreting "voids" and microbodies associated with degraded fossil soft tissues; (iii) present evidence that microorganisms are in many cases an equally parsimonious source for these "voids" as are remnant melanosomes; and (iv) suggest methods/criteria for differentiating melanosomes from microbial traces in the fossil record.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary H Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.,North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, USA.,Department of Geology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | - Alison E Moyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Xu X, Zhou Z, Dudley R, Mackem S, Chuong CM, Erickson GM, Varricchio DJ. An integrative approach to understanding bird origins. Science 2014; 346:1253293. [DOI: 10.1126/science.1253293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
26
|
Chen CF, Foley J, Tang PC, Li A, Jiang TX, Wu P, Widelitz RB, Chuong CM. Development, regeneration, and evolution of feathers. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2014; 3:169-95. [PMID: 25387232 PMCID: PMC5662002 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-022513-114127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The feather is a complex ectodermal organ with hierarchical branching patterns. It provides functions in endothermy, communication, and flight. Studies of feather growth, cycling, and health are of fundamental importance to avian biology and poultry science. In addition, feathers are an excellent model for morphogenesis studies because of their accessibility, and their distinct patterns can be used to assay the roles of specific molecular pathways. Here we review the progress in aspects of development, regeneration, and evolution during the past three decades. We cover the development of feather buds in chicken embryos, regenerative cycling of feather follicle stem cells, formation of barb branching patterns, emergence of intrafeather pigmentation patterns, interplay of hormones and feather growth, and the genetic identification of several feather variants. The discovery of feathered dinosaurs redefines the relationship between feathers and birds. Inspiration from biomaterials and flight research further fuels biomimetic potential of feathers as a multidisciplinary research focal point.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Feng Chen
- Center for the Integrative and Evolutionary Galliformes Genomics, Taichung, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Choiniere JN, Clark JM, Norell MA, Xu X. Cranial Osteology ofHaplocheirus sollersChoiniere et al., 2010 (Theropoda: Alvarezsauroidea). AMERICAN MUSEUM NOVITATES 2014. [DOI: 10.1206/3816.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
28
|
Schweitzer MH, Schroeter ER, Goshe MB. Protein Molecular Data from Ancient (>1 million years old) Fossil Material: Pitfalls, Possibilities and Grand Challenges. Anal Chem 2014; 86:6731-40. [DOI: 10.1021/ac500803w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Higby Schweitzer
- North
Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, North Carolina 27601, United States
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Smejkal GB, Schweitzer MH. Will current technologies enable dinosaur proteomics? Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 4:695-9. [DOI: 10.1586/14789450.4.6.695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
30
|
Guy PL. Prospects for analyzing ancient RNA in preserved materials. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-RNA 2013; 5:87-94. [DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2013] [Revised: 06/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul L. Guy
- Department of Botany; University of Otago; Dunedin New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Guy PL. Ancient RNA? RT-PCR of 50-year-old RNA identifies peach latent mosaic viroid. Arch Virol 2012; 158:691-4. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-012-1527-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
32
|
Zelenitsky DK, Therrien F, Erickson GM, DeBuhr CL, Kobayashi Y, Eberth DA, Hadfield F. Feathered Non-Avian Dinosaurs from North America Provide Insight into Wing Origins. Science 2012; 338:510-4. [DOI: 10.1126/science.1225376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Darla K. Zelenitsky
- Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - François Therrien
- Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, Drumheller, Alberta TOJ OYO, Canada
| | - Gregory M. Erickson
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306–4295, USA
| | | | - Yoshitsugu Kobayashi
- Hokkaido University Museum, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060 0810, Japan
| | - David A. Eberth
- Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, Drumheller, Alberta TOJ OYO, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
The Silk Road, Marco Polo, a Bible and its proteome: a detective story. J Proteomics 2012; 75:3365-73. [PMID: 22504796 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.03.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Around the end of XIII century (at the time of young Marco Polo's first trip to China at the court of Khubilai Khan in Khan Baliq) a pocket Bible was delivered by a Franciscan friar to the Mogul Emperor, in the framework of the evangelization program of the Far East. Four centuries later, in 1685, this Bible was rediscovered by the Jesuit Philippe Couplet in the house of a rich Chinese in Nanchin and donated to Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany. This Bible was recently "unearthed" in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence, wrapped up in a precious yellow silk cloth, in a rather ruined state. After two years of restoration, the Bible will return to China in 2012 for a celebration of its >700years of life and of its remarkable return trip on the Silk Road. On account of the thinness of the parchment (barely 80μm thickness, the size of each foil being 16.5×11cm) it was widely held that the pages were produced from foetal lambskins. On tiny fragments of the margins of a foil, after several unsuccessful attempts at digesting the vellum, we were able to obtain a tryptic peptide mixture, which, upon mass spectrometry analysis, yielded the identity of 8 unique proteins, belonging to the genus Bos taurus, thus confirming the origin of the vellum from calfskins rather than from foetal lambskins. Our results prove that it is possible to obtain reliable protein extraction and IDs from ancient parchment documents.
Collapse
|
34
|
McKellar RC, Chatterton BDE, Wolfe AP, Currie PJ. A diverse assemblage of Late Cretaceous dinosaur and bird feathers from Canadian amber. Science 2011; 333:1619-22. [PMID: 21921196 DOI: 10.1126/science.1203344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The fossil record of early feathers has relied on carbonized compressions that lack fine structural detail. Specimens in amber are preserved in greater detail, but they are rare. Late Cretaceous coal-rich strata from western Canada provide the richest and most diverse Mesozoic feather assemblage yet reported from amber. The fossils include primitive structures closely matching the protofeathers of nonavian dinosaurs, offering new insights into their structure and function. Additional derived morphologies confirm that plumage specialized for flight and underwater diving had evolved in Late Cretaceous birds. Because amber preserves feather structure and pigmentation in unmatched detail, these fossils provide novel insights regarding feather evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C McKellar
- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3, Canada.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Turner AH, Nesbitt SJ, Norell MA. A Large Alvarezsaurid from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. AMERICAN MUSEUM NOVITATES 2009. [DOI: 10.1206/639.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
36
|
Manning PL, Morris PM, McMahon A, Jones E, Gize A, Macquaker JHS, Wolff G, Thompson A, Marshall J, Taylor KG, Lyson T, Gaskell S, Reamtong O, Sellers WI, van Dongen BE, Buckley M, Wogelius RA. Mineralized soft-tissue structure and chemistry in a mummified hadrosaur from the Hell Creek Formation, North Dakota (USA). Proc Biol Sci 2009; 276:3429-37. [PMID: 19570788 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2009.0812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
An extremely well-preserved dinosaur (Cf. Edmontosaurus sp.) found in the Hell Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous, North Dakota) retains soft-tissue replacement structures and associated organic compounds. Mineral cements precipitated in the skin apparently follow original cell boundaries, partially preserving epidermis microstructure. Infrared and electron microprobe images of ossified tendon clearly show preserved mineral zonation, with silica and trapped carbon dioxide forming thin linings on Haversian canals within apatite. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of materials recovered from the skin and terminal ungual phalanx suggests the presence of compounds containing amide groups. Amino acid composition analyses of the mineralized skin envelope clearly differ from the surrounding matrix; however, intact proteins could not be obtained using protein mass spectrometry. The presence of endogenously derived organics from the skin was further demonstrated by pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (Py-GCMS), indicating survival and presence of macromolecules that were in part aliphatic (see the electronic supplementary material).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Phillip L Manning
- School of Earth, Atmospheric, and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
A new feather type in a nonavian theropod and the early evolution of feathers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:832-4. [PMID: 19139401 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0810055106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
All described feathers in nonavian theropods are composite structures formed by multiple filaments. They closely resemble relatively advanced stages predicted by developmental models of the origin of feathers, but not the earliest stage. Here, we report a feather type in two specimens of the basal therizinosaur Beipiaosaurus, in which each individual feather is represented by a single broad filament. This morphotype is congruent with the stage I morphology predicted by developmental models, and all major predicted morphotypes have now been documented in the fossil record. This congruence between the full range of paleontological and developmental data strongly supports the hypothesis that feathers evolved and initially diversified in nonavian theropods before the origin of birds and the evolution of flight.
Collapse
|
38
|
Alibardi L, Toni M. Cytochemical and molecular characteristics of the process of cornification during feather morphogenesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 43:1-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.proghi.2008.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
39
|
Schweitzer MH, Wittmeyer JL, Horner JR. Soft tissue and cellular preservation in vertebrate skeletal elements from the Cretaceous to the present. Proc Biol Sci 2007; 274:183-97. [PMID: 17148248 PMCID: PMC1685849 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2006.3705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 08/10/2006] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Soft tissues and cell-like microstructures derived from skeletal elements of a well-preserved Tyrannosaurus rex (MOR 1125) were represented by four components in fragments of demineralized cortical and/or medullary bone: flexible and fibrous bone matrix; transparent, hollow and pliable blood vessels; intravascular material, including in some cases, structures morphologically reminiscent of vertebrate red blood cells; and osteocytes with intracellular contents and flexible filipodia. The present study attempts to trace the occurrence of these four components in bone from specimens spanning multiple geological time periods and varied depositional environments. At least three of the four components persist in some skeletal elements of specimens dating to the Campanian. Fibrous bone matrix is more altered over time in morphology and less likely to persist than vessels and/or osteocytes. Vessels vary greatly in preservation, even within the same specimen, with some regions retaining pliability and other regions almost crystalline. Osteocytes also vary, with some retaining long filipodia and transparency, while others present with short and stubby filipodia and deeply pigmented nuclei, or are pigmented throughout with no nucleus visible. Alternative hypotheses are considered to explain the origin/source of observed materials. Finally, a two-part mechanism, involving first cross-linking of molecular components and subsequent mineralization, is proposed to explain the surprising presence of still-soft elements in fossil bone. These results suggest that present models of fossilization processes may be incomplete and that soft tissue elements may be more commonly preserved, even in older specimens, than previously thought. Additionally, in many cases, osteocytes with defined nuclei are preserved, and may represent an important source for informative molecular data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Higby Schweitzer
- Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
|
41
|
Göhlich UB, Chiappe LM. A new carnivorous dinosaur from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen archipelago. Nature 2006; 440:329-32. [PMID: 16541071 DOI: 10.1038/nature04579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2005] [Accepted: 01/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Small Late Jurassic theropod dinosaurs are rare worldwide. In Europe these carnivorous dinosaurs are represented primarily by only two skeletons of Compsognathus, neither of which is well preserved. Here we describe a small new theropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period of Schamhaupten in southern Germany. Being exquisitely preserved and complete from the snout to the distal third of the tail, the new fossil is the best-preserved predatory, non-avian dinosaur in Europe. It possesses a suite of characters that support its identification as a basal coelurosaur. A cladistic analysis indicates that the new taxon is closer to maniraptorans than to tyrannosauroids, grouping it with taxa often considered to be compsognathids. Large portions of integument are preserved along its tail. The absence of feathers or feather-like structures in a fossil phylogenetically nested within feathered theropods indicates that the evolution of these integumentary structures might be more complex than previously thought.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ursula B Göhlich
- Department for Geo- and Environmental Sciences, Section Paleontology, University of Munich, Richard-Wagner-Strasse 10, D-80333 Munich, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Schweitzer MH, Chiappe L, Garrido AC, Lowenstein JM, Pincus SH. Molecular preservation in Late Cretaceous sauropod dinosaur eggshells. Proc Biol Sci 2005; 272:775-84. [PMID: 15888409 PMCID: PMC1599869 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2004.2876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Exceptionally preserved sauropod eggshells discovered in Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) deposits in Patagonia, Argentina, contain skeletal remains and soft tissues of embryonic Titanosaurid dinosaurs. To preserve these labile embryonic remains, the rate of mineral precipitation must have superseded post-mortem degradative processes, resulting in virtually instantaneous mineralization of soft tissues. If so, mineralization may also have been rapid enough to retain fragments of original biomolecules in these specimens. To investigate preservation of biomolecular compounds in these well-preserved sauropod dinosaur eggshells, we applied multiple analytical techniques. Results demonstrate organic compounds and antigenic structures similar to those found in extant eggshells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M H Schweitzer
- Departments of Microbiology and Museum of the Rockies, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Avci R, Schweitzer MH, Boyd RD, Wittmeyer JL, Terán Arce F, Calvo JO. Preservation of bone collagen from the late Cretaceous period studied by immunological techniques and atomic force microscopy. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2005; 21:3584-3590. [PMID: 15807605 DOI: 10.1021/la047682e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Late Cretaceous avian bone tissues from Argentina demonstrate exceptional preservation. Skeletal elements are preserved in partial articulation and suspended in three dimensions in a medium-grained sandstone matrix, indicating unusual perimortem taphonomic conditions. Preservation extends to the microstructural and molecular levels. Bone tissues respond to collagenase digestion and histochemical stains. In situ immunohistochemistry localizes binding sites for avian collagen antibodies in fossil tissues. Immunohistochemical studies do not, however, guarantee the preservation of molecular integrity. A protein may retain sufficient antigenicity for antibody binding even though degradation may render it incapable of original function. Therefore, we have applied atomic force microscopy to address the integrity and functionality of retained organic structures. Collagen pull-off measurements not only support immunochemical evidence for collagen preservation for antibody recognition but also imply preservation of the whole molecular integrity. No appreciable differences in collagen pull-off properties were measured between fossil and extant bone samples under physiological conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Avci
- Montana State University, Department of Physics, EPS 264, Bozeman, Montana 59717, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Schweitzer MH, Wittmeyer JL, Horner JR, Toporski JK. Soft-tissue vessels and cellular preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex. Science 2005; 307:1952-5. [PMID: 15790853 DOI: 10.1126/science.1108397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Soft tissues are preserved within hindlimb elements of Tyrannosaurus rex (Museum of the Rockies specimen 1125). Removal of the mineral phase reveals transparent, flexible, hollow blood vessels containing small round microstructures that can be expressed from the vessels into solution. Some regions of the demineralized bone matrix are highly fibrous, and the matrix possesses elasticity and resilience. Three populations of microstructures have cell-like morphology. Thus, some dinosaurian soft tissues may retain some of their original flexibility, elasticity, and resilience.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary H Schweitzer
- Department of Marine, Earth, Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Kundrát M. When did theropods become feathered?-evidence for pre-archaeopteryx feathery appendages. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2004; 302:355-64. [PMID: 15287100 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.20014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Filamentous impressions associated with locomotive theropod tracks in the Lower Jurassic Turners Falls Formation of western Massachusetts, U.S.A. represent the oldest evidence of feathered dinosaurs. Feather impressions are preserved with sitting traces which bear integumentary structures along the outlines of the pre-pubic and ischiadic impressions. Extant palaeognathous down feathers provide a valuable comparative model for these filamentous integumental structures and for similar structures described in Chinese theropods from younger deposits. The described morphologies are congruent with Stage II of Prum ('99) and support that plumulaceous morphologies evolved before the origin of the rhachis and the planar vane. Appearance of feathery appendages in theropods may be linked to evolution of higher metabolic rates, improved locomotory abilities, and/or distinct behavior(s) and visual communication. Development of feathery integument might have also played a crucial role in the competitiveness and successful radiation of maniraptoriform theropods and their actively flying descendants in the Jurassic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Kundrát
- Department of Zoology, Natural Science Faculty, Charles University, Vinicná 7, Prague 2 CZ-12844, Czech Republic.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Chuong CM, Wu P, Zhang FC, Xu X, Yu M, Widelitz RB, Jiang TX, Hou L. Adaptation to the sky: Defining the feather with integument fossils from mesozoic China and experimental evidence from molecular laboratories. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART B, MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2003; 298:42-56. [PMID: 12949768 PMCID: PMC4381994 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In this special issue on the Evo-Devo of amniote integuments, Alibardi has discussed the adaptation of the integument to the land. Here we will discuss the adaptation to the sky. We first review a series of fossil discoveries representing intermediate forms of feathers or feather-like appendages from dinosaurs and Mesozoic birds from the Jehol Biota of China. We then discuss the molecular and developmental biological experiments using chicken integuments as the model. Feather forms can be modulated using retrovirus mediated gene mis-expression that mimics those found in nature today and in the evolutionary past. The molecular conversions among different types of integument appendages (feather, scale, tooth) are discussed. From this evidence, we recognize that not all organisms with feathers are birds, and that not all skin appendages with hierarchical branches are feathers. We develop a set of criteria for true avian feathers: 1) possessing actively proliferating cells in the proximal follicle for proximo-distal growth mode; 2) forming hierarchical branches of rachis, barbs, and barbules, with barbs formed by differential cell death and bilaterally or radially symmetric; 3) having a follicle structure, with mesenchyme core during development; 4) when mature, consisting of epithelia without mesenchyme core and with two sides of the vane facing the previous basal and supra-basal layers, respectively; and 5) having stem cells and dermal papilla in the follicle and hence the ability to molt and regenerate. A model of feather evolution from feather bud --> barbs --> barbules --> rachis is presented, which is opposite to the old view of scale plate --> rachis --> barbs --> barbules (Regal, '75; Q Rev Biol 50:35).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Abstract
▪ Abstract Until recently, most knowledge of the early history of birds and the evolution of their unique specializations was based on just a handful of diverse Mesozoic taxa widely separated in time and restricted to marine environments. Although Archaeopteryx is still the oldest and only Jurassic bird, a wealth of recent discoveries combined with new phylogenetic analyses have documented the divergence of a number of lineages by the beginning of the Cretaceous. These and younger Cretaceous fossils have filled much of the morphological chasm that existed between Archaeopteryx and its living counterparts, providing insights into the evolutionary development of feathers and other important features of the avian flight system. Dramatic new perceptions of the life history, growth and development of early birds have also been made possible by the latest data. Although no primitive birds are known to have survived beyond the end of the Cretaceous, the present fossil record provides no evidence for a sudden disappearance. Likewise, a Mesozoic origin for extant birds remains controversial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis M. Chiappe
- Department of Vertebrate Paleontology, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, California 90007
- Division of Vertebrate Zoology (Ornithology), American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, New York 10024
| | - Gareth J. Dyke
- Department of Vertebrate Paleontology, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, California 90007
- Division of Vertebrate Zoology (Ornithology), American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, New York 10024
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Prum RO, Brush AH. The evolutionary origin and diversification of feathers. THE QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2002; 77:261-95. [PMID: 12365352 DOI: 10.1086/341993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Progress on the evolutionary origin and diversification of feathers has been hampered by conceptual problems and by the lack of plesiomorphic feather fossils. Recently, both of these limitations have been overcome by the proposal of the developmental theory of the origin of feathers, and the discovery of primitive feather fossils on nonavian theropod dinosaurs. The conceptual problems of previous theories of the origin of feathers are reviewed, and the alternative developmental theory is presented and discussed. The developmental theory proposes that feathers evolved through a series of evolutionary novelties in developmental mechanisms of the follicle and feather germ. The discovery of primitive and derived fossil feathers on a diversity of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs documents that feathers evolved and diversified in nonavian theropods before the origin of birds and before the origin of flight. The morphologies of these primitive feathers are congruent with the predictions of the developmental theory. Alternatives to the theropod origin of feathers are critique and rejected. Hypotheses for the initial function of feathers are reviewed. The aerodynamic theory of feather origins is falsified, but many other functions remain developmentally and phylogenetically plausible. Whatever their function, feathers evolved by selection for a follicle that would grow an emergent tubular appendage. Feathers are inherently tubular structures. The homology of feathers and scales is weakly supported. Feathers are composed of a suite of evolutionary novelties that evolved by the duplication, hierarchical organization, interaction, dissociation, and differentiation of morphological modules. The unique capacity for modular subdivision of the tubular feather follicle and germ has fostered the evolution of numerous innovations that characterize feathers. The evolution of feather keratin and the molecular basis of feather development are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard O Prum
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Natural History Museum, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
|
50
|
|