Sensitivity and performance time in MRI dephasing artifact reduction methods

Library-driven approach for fast implementation of the voxel spread function to correct magnetic field inhomogeneity artifacts for gradient-echo sequences

PURPOSE

Previously developed Voxel Spread Function (VSF) method (Yablonskiy, et al, MRM, 2013;70:1283) provides solution to correct artifacts induced by macroscopic magnetic field inhomogeneity in the images obtained by multi-Gradient-Recalled-Echo (mGRE) techniques. The goal of this study was to develop a library-driven approach for fast VSF implementation.

METHODS

The VSF approach describes the contribution of the magnetic field inhomogeneity effects on the mGRE signal decay in terms of the F-function calculated from mGRE phase and magnitude images. A pre-calculated library accounting for a variety of background field gradients caused by magnetic field inhomogeneity was used herein to speed up the calculation of F-function. Quantitative R2* maps from the mGRE data collected from two healthy volunteers were generated using the library as validation.

RESULTS

As compared with direct calculation of the F-function based on a voxel-wise approach, the new library-driven method substantially reduces computational time from several hours to few minutes, while, at the same time, providing similar accuracy of R2* mapping.

CONCLUSION

The new procedure proposed in this study provides a fast post-processing algorithm that can be incorporated in the quantitative analysis of mGRE data to account for background field inhomogeneity artifacts, thus can facilitate the applications of mGRE-based quantitative techniques in clinical practices.

Methodological Considerations for Neuroimaging in Deep Brain Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus in Parkinson's Disease Patients

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus is a neurosurgical intervention for Parkinson's disease patients who no longer appropriately respond to drug treatments. A small fraction of patients will fail to respond to DBS, develop psychiatric and cognitive side-effects, or incur surgery-related complications such as infections and hemorrhagic events. In these cases, DBS may require recalibration, reimplantation, or removal. These negative responses to treatment can partly be attributed to suboptimal pre-operative planning procedures via direct targeting through low-field and low-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). One solution for increasing the success and efficacy of DBS is to optimize preoperative planning procedures via sophisticated neuroimaging techniques such as high-resolution MRI and higher field strengths to improve visualization of DBS targets and vasculature. We discuss targeting approaches, MRI acquisition, parameters, and post-acquisition analyses. Additionally, we highlight a number of approaches including the use of ultra-high field (UHF) MRI to overcome limitations of standard settings. There is a trade-off between spatial resolution, motion artifacts, and acquisition time, which could potentially be dissolved through the use of UHF-MRI. Image registration, correction, and post-processing techniques may require combined expertise of traditional radiologists, clinicians, and fundamental researchers. The optimization of pre-operative planning with MRI can therefore be best achieved through direct collaboration between researchers and clinicians.

Neuroimaging Evidence of a Bilateral Representation for Visually Presented Numbers

The clustered architecture of the brain for different visual stimulus categories is one of the most fascinating topics in the cognitive neurosciences. Interestingly, recent research suggests the existence of additional regions for newly acquired stimuli such as letters (letter form area; LFA; Thesen et al., 2012) and numbers (visual number form area; NFA; Shum et al., 2013). However, neuroimaging methods thus far have failed to visualize the NFA in healthy participants, likely due to fMRI signal dropout caused by the air/bone interface of the petrous bone (Shum et al., 2013). In the current study, we combined a 64-channel head coil with high spatial resolution, localized shimming, and liberal smoothing, thereby decreasing the signal dropout and increasing the temporal signal-to-noise ratio in the neighborhood of the NFA. We presented subjects with numbers, letters, false numbers, false letters, objects and their Fourier randomized versions. A group analysis showed significant activations in the inferior temporal gyrus at the previously proposed location of the NFA. Crucially, we found the NFA to be present in both hemispheres. Further, we could identify the NFA on the single-subject level in most of our participants. A detailed analysis of the response profile of the NFA in two separate experiments confirmed the whole-brain results since responses to numbers were significantly higher than to any other presented stimulus in both hemispheres. Our results show for the first time the existence and stimulus selectivity of the NFA in the healthy human brain.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This fMRI study shows for the first time a cluster of neurons selective for visually presented numbers in healthy human adults. This visual number form area (NFA) was found in both hemispheres. Crucially, numbers have gained importance for humans too recently for neuronal specialization to be established by evolution. Therefore, investigations of this region will greatly advance our understanding of learning and plasticity in the brain. In addition, these results will aid our knowledge regarding related neurological illnesses (e.g., dyscalculia). To overcome the fMRI signal dropout in the neighborhood of the NFA, we combined high spatial resolution with liberal smoothing. We believe that this approach will be useful to the broad neuroimaging community.

Discrimination of benign and malignant lymph nodes at 7.0T compared to 1.5T magnetic resonance imaging using ultrasmall particles of iron oxide: a feasibility preclinical study

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

To investigate the feasibility and performance of 7T magnetic resonance imaging compared to 1.5T imaging to discriminate benign (normal and inflammatory changed) from tumor-bearing lymph nodes in rabbits using ultrasmall particles of iron oxide (USPIO)-based contrast agents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six New Zealand White rabbits were inoculated with either complete Freund's adjuvant cell suspension (n = 3) to induce reactively enlarged lymph nodes or with VX2 tumor cells to produce metastatic lymph nodes (n = 3). Image acquisition was performed before and 24 hours after bolus injection of an USPIO contrast agent at 1.5T and afterward at 7T using T1-weighted and T2*-weighted sequences. Sensitivities, specificities, and negative and positive predictive values for the detection of lymph node metastases were calculated for both field strengths with histopathology serving as reference standard. Sizes of lymph nodes with no, inflammatory, and malignant changes were compared using a Mann-Whitney U-test.

RESULTS

All 24 lymph nodes were detected at 1.5T as well as at 7T. At 1.5T, sensitivity amounted to 0.67, while specificity reached a value of 1. At the higher field strength (7T), imaging was able to reach sensitivity and specificity values of 1. No statistical differences were detected concerning lymph node sizes.

CONCLUSIONS

Magnetic resonance lymphography with USPIO contrast agents allows for differentiation of normal and reactively enlarged lymph nodes compared to metastatic nodes. First experiments at 7T show promising results compared to 1.5T, which have to be evaluated in further trials.

Spin dephasing under nonlinear gradients: implications for imaging and field mapping

This work examines the prototypical MR echo that would be expected for a voxel of spins evolving in a strong nonlinear field, specifically focusing on the quadratic z(2) - ½(x(2) + y(2) ) field. Dephasing under nonlinear gradients is increasingly relevant given the growing interest in nonlinear imaging, and here, we report several notable differences from the linear case. Most notably, in addition to signal loss, intravoxel dephasing under gradients creating a wide and asymmetric frequency distribution across the voxel can cause skewed and nonlinear phase evolution. After presenting the qualitative and analytical origins of this difference, we experimentally demonstrate that neglecting these dynamics can lead to significant errors in sequences that assume phase evolution is proportional to voxel frequency, such as those used for field mapping. Finally, simplifying approximations to the signal equations are presented, which not only provide more intuitive forms of the exact expression but also result in simple rules to predict key features of the nonlinear evolution.

Mutual interferences and design principles for mechatronic devices in magnetic resonance imaging

PURPOSE

Robotic and mechatronic devices that work compatibly with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are applied in diagnostic MRI, image-guided surgery, neurorehabilitation and neuroscience. MRI-compatible mechatronic systems must address the challenges imposed by the scanner's electromagnetic fields. We have developed objective quantitative evaluation criteria for device characteristics needed to formulate design guidelines that ensure MRI-compatibility based on safety, device functionality and image quality.

METHODS

The mutual interferences between an MRI system and mechatronic devices working in its vicinity are modeled and tested. For each interference, the involved components are listed, and a numerical measure for "MRI-compatibility" is proposed. These interferences are categorized into an MRI-compatibility matrix, with each element representing possible interactions between one part of the mechatronic system and one component of the electromagnetic fields. Based on this formulation, design principles for MRI-compatible mechatronic systems are proposed. Furthermore, test methods are developed to examine whether a mechatronic device indeed works without interferences within an MRI system. Finally, the proposed MRI-compatibility criteria and design guidelines have been applied to an actual design process that has been validated by the test procedures.

RESULTS

Objective and quantitative MRI-compatibility measures for mechatronic and robotic devices have been established. Applying the proposed design principles, potential problems in safety, device functionality and image quality can be considered in the design phase to ensure that the mechatronic system will fulfill the MRI-compatibility criteria.

CONCLUSION

New guidelines and test procedures for MRI instrument compatibility provide a rational basis for design and evaluation of mechatronic devices in various MRI applications. Designers can apply these criteria and use the tests, so that MRI-compatibility results can accrue to build an experiential database.

Current trends and challenges in MRI acquisitions to investigate brain function

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies using the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response have become a widely used tool for noninvasive assessment of functional organization of the brain. Yet the technique is still fairly new, with many significant challenges remaining. Capitalizing on additional contrast mechanisms available with MRI, several other functional imaging techniques have been developed that potentially provide improved quantification or specificity of neuronal function. This article reviews the challenges and the current state of the art in MRI-based methods of imaging cognitive function.

Effect on BOLD sensitivity due to susceptibility-induced echo time shift in spiral-in based functional MRI

Susceptibility artifacts induced by the magnetic field inhomogeneity exist near the air/tissue interfaces at the ventral brain in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These susceptibility artifacts will cause geometric distortions and signal loss in reconstructed images. Additionally, the in-plane susceptibility gradients will cause a shift in effective echo time, and therefore influence the blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) sensitivity since it is proportional to effective echo time. In this work, we examine the effective echo time shift and the change of the BOLD sensitivity based on susceptibility gradients. The analysis results show that there are regions, such as the orbitofrontal cortex, that suffer from significant loss of BOLD sensitivity using spiral-in trajectory in BOLD fMRI.

Dissociation of neural regions associated with anticipatory versus consummatory phases of incentive processing

Incentive delay tasks implicate the striatum and medial frontal cortex in reward processing. However, prior studies delivered more rewards than penalties, possibly leading to unwanted differences in signal-to-noise ratio. Also, whether particular brain regions are specifically involved in anticipation or consumption is unclear. We used a task featuring balanced incentive delivery and an analytic strategy designed to identify activity specific to anticipation or consumption. Reaction time data in two independent samples (n=13 and n=8) confirmed motivated responding. Functional magnetic resonance imaging revealed regions activated by anticipation (anterior cingulate) versus consumption (orbital and medial frontal cortex). Ventral striatum was active during reward anticipation but not significantly more so than during consumption. Although the study features several methodological improvements and helps clarify the neural basis of incentive processing, replications in larger samples are needed.

Contrast-enhanced MRI of right ventricular abnormalities in Cx43 mutant mouse embryos

Imaging of the mammalian cardiac right ventricle (RV) is particularly challenging, especially when a two-dimensional method such as conventional histology is used to evaluate the morphology of this asymmetric, crescent-shaped chamber. MRI may improve the characterization of mutants with RV phenotypes by allowing analysis of the samples in any plane and by facilitating three-dimensional image reconstruction. MRI was used to examine the conditional knockout Cx43-PCKO mouse line known to have RV malformations. To help delineate the cardiovascular system and facilitate identification of the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT), embryonic day (E) 17.5 embryos were perfusion fixed through the umbilical vein followed by a gadolinium-based contrast agent mixed in 7% gelatin. Micro-MRI experiments were performed at 7 T and followed by paraffin embedding of specimens, histological sectioning and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Imaging of up to four embryos simultaneously allowed for higher throughput than traditional individual imaging techniques, while intravascular contrast afforded excellent signal-to-noise characteristics. All control embryos (n = 4) and heterozygous Cx43 knockout embryos (n = 4) had normal-appearing right ventricular outflow tract contours by MRI. Obvious abnormalities in the RVOT, including abnormal bulging and infiltration of contrast into the wall of the RV, were seen in three out of four Cx43-PCKO mutants with MRI. Furthermore, three-dimensional reconstruction of MR images with orthogonal projections as well as maximum-intensity projection allowed for visualization of the relationship of infundibular bulging segments to the pulmonary trunk in Cx43-PCKO mutant hearts. The addition of MRI to standard histology in the characterization of RV malformations in mutant mouse embryos aids in the assessment and understanding of morphologic abnormalities. Flexibility in the viewing of MR images, which can be retrospectively sectioned in any desired orientation, is particularly useful in the investigation of the RV, an asymmetric chamber that is difficult to analyze with two-dimensional techniques.

Single-scan quantitative T2* methods with susceptibility artifact reduction

Two imaging methods, MSSAVE (Multiple echo SubSlice AVEraging imaging), based on sub-slice averaging and MGESEPI (Multiple echo Gradient-Echo Slice-Excitation Profile Imaging), based on over-sampling in the slice direction, are proposed for single-scan quantitative T(2)* evaluation with susceptibility artifact compensation. Their potentials in terms of sensitivity, minimum performance time, susceptibility artifact reduction and T(2)* quantitation quality, were compared with existing single-scan methods such as classical FLASH two- or three-dimensional or z-shimmed methods both in vitro and in vivo in normal rat brain. MGESEPI offered good quality T(2)* maps nearly free of artifacts but required a long acquisition time. MSSAVE was faster, but at the expense of reduced artifact compensation and the achievable T(2)* quantitation quality.

Improved BOLD detection in the medial temporal region using parallel imaging and voxel volume reduction

Using gradient-echo EPI, signal dropout due to macroscopic off resonance effects can prevent blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) signal change detection. The anterior medial temporal lobe (MTL) is located near these susceptibility gradients and therefore shows considerable signal dropout with GE-EPI. Reducing the volume of the image voxel reduces susceptibility-related signal dropout. However, this is accompanied by a prohibitive reduction in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). To compensate for SNR loss with smaller voxels, we used a multi-channel MRI receiver with an array of receive-only 16-element surface coils at 3 T. We demonstrate that the reduction of susceptibility artifacts, through use of high resolution images, coupled with the gains in image SNR from the array coil improves the temporal signal-to-noise ratio (TSNR) and enhances the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). Furthermore, a comparison of 2 mm with 4-mm-thick axial images both with the same in-plane resolution showed that thinner slices enhanced TSNR and CNR throughout the ventral-medial regions of the temporal lobes, with the greatest improvement in the most anterior regions of the MTL. Further improvements were seen when adjacent 2 mm slices were combined to match overall voxel volume. These results demonstrate that BOLD investigation of anterior MTL function can be enhanced by decreasing voxel size but only in combination with the SNR gained by using the 16-channel head coil system.

Reduced susceptibility effects in perfusion fMRI with single-shot spin-echo EPI acquisitions at 1.5 tesla

Arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion contrast is not based on susceptibility effects and can therefore be used to study brain function in regions of high static inhomogeneity. As a proof of concept, single-shot spin-echo echo-planar imaging (EPI) acquisition was carried out with a multislice continuous ASL (CASL) method at 1.5T. A bilateral finger tapping paradigm was used in the presence of an exogenously induced susceptibility artifact over left motor cortex. The spin-echo CASL technique was compared with a regular gradient-echo EPI sequence with the same slice thickness, as well as other imaging methods using thin slices and spin-echo acquisitions. The results demonstrate improved functional sensitivity and efficiency of the spin-echo CASL approach as compared with gradient-echo EPI techniques, and a trend of improved sensitivity as compared with spin-echo EPI approach in the brain regions affected by the susceptibility artifact. ASL images, either with or without subtraction of the control, provide a robust alternative to blood oxygenation level dependant (BOLD) methods for activation imaging in regions of high static field inhomogeneity.

Information content and quality of MR thumb images

This study investigates the relation between objective and subjective parameters which relate to the quality of magnetic-resonance images, with a view to developing procedures for minimizing imaging time. The investigation uses high-resolution images of the thumb as example. Detection thresholds for an artificial lesion and ratings of image quality were obtained for a variety of images, with several experienced observers. In addition, the information content was calculated for each image, using the method developed by Fuderer (1988 IEEE Tralns. Med. Imaging 7 368-80). Results suggest that information content can be used as a predictor of either detection threshold or quality rating, with a critical information content beyond which there is no significant improvement in either of these aspects of image quality. Since it is possible to estimate the effect of imaging variables on information content, it is possible to predict the effect of time-saving imaging strategies on image quality. A procedure is suggested for determining the combination of imaging variables which gives the shortest possible imaging time whilst retaining image quality.

Multiple gradient echo sequence optimized for rapid, single-scan mapping of R(2)(*) at high B0

A multiple-gradient-echo sequence is proposed for accurately mapping R(2)(*) in the presence of in-slice macroscopic susceptibility gradients. In-slice signal loss caused by background macroscopic susceptibility gradients is mitigated by combining three successive gradient-echo images whose slice refocus gradients are successively incremented. The optimum incrementation of slice-refocusing gradients was determined by numerical simulation. By repeating further cycles of three images in the same sequence, artifact-compensated data spanning a range of echo times (TEs) was acquired leading to single-scan, R(2) (*) maps that are quantitatively reflective of microscopic field inhomogeneities. The performance of the sequence was demonstrated at 3.0T, first with a doped aqueous phantom, and then on the head of a normal volunteer. That performance is compared quantitatively with previously published work.

Multishot 3D slice-select tailored RF pulses for MRI

A multishot 3D slice-select tailored RF pulse method is presented for the excitation of slice profiles with arbitrary resolution. This method is derived from the linearity of the small tip angle approximation, allowing for the decomposition of small tip angle tailored RF pulses into separate excitations. The final image is created by complex summation of the images acquired from the individual excitations. This technique overcomes the limitation of requiring a long pulse to excite thin slices with adequate resolution. This has implications in applications including T*(2)-weighted functional MRI in brain regions corrupted by intravoxel dephasing artifacts due to susceptibility variations. Simulations, phantom experiments, and human brain images are presented. It is demonstrated that at most four shots of 40 ms pulse length are needed to excite a 5 mm-thick slice in the brain with reduced susceptibility artifacts at 3T.

Current awareness

In order to keep subscribers up-to-date with the latest developments in their field, John Wiley & Sons are providing a current awareness service in each issue of the journal. The bibliography contains newly published material in the field of NMR in biomedicine. Each bibliography is divided into 9 sections: 1 Books, Reviews ' Symposia; 2 General; 3 Technology; 4 Brain and Nerves; 5 Neuropathology; 6 Cancer; 7 Cardiac, Vascular and Respiratory Systems; 8 Liver, Kidney and Other Organs; 9 Muscle and Orthopaedic. Within each section, articles are listed in alphabetical order with respect to author. If, in the preceding period, no publications are located relevant to any one of these headings, that section will be omitted.