Normative beliefs about aggression and cyber aggression among young adults: a longitudinal investigation

Who Is Searching for Cyberhate? Adolescents' Characteristics Associated with Intentional or Unintentional Exposure to Cyberhate

Cyberhate is one of the online risks that adolescents can experience online. It is considered a content risk when it is unintentionally encountered and a conduct risk when the user actively searches for it. Previous research has not differentiated between these experiences, although they can concern different groups of adolescents and be connected to distinctive risk factors. To address this, our study first focuses on both unintentional and intentional exposure and investigates the individual-level risk factors that differentiate them. Second, we compare each exposed group of adolescents with those who were not exposed to cyberhate. We used survey data from a representative sample of adolescents (N = 6,033, aged 12-16 years, 50.3 percent girls) from eight European countries-Czechia, Finland, Flanders, France, Italy, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia-and conducted multinomial logistic regression. Our findings show that adolescents with higher sensation seeking, proactive normative beliefs about aggression (NBA), and who report cyberhate perpetration, are at higher risk of intentionally searching for cyberhate contents compared with those who are unintentionally exposed. In comparison with unexposed adolescents, reporting other risky experiences was a risk factor for both types of exposure. Furthermore, NBA worked differently-reactive NBA was a risk factor for intentional exposure, but proactive NBA did not play a role and even decreased the chance of unintentional exposure. Digital skills increased both types of exposure. Our findings stress the need to differentiate between intentional and unintentional cyberhate exposure and to examine proactive and reactive NBA separately.

Bullying and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization: Prospective Within-Person Associations

Bidirectional associations between bullying and cyberbullying have consistently identified during adolescence. However, little is known about how this relationship works on the within-person level, after controlling for potential overlap at the between-person level. This study examined the bidirectional longitudinal associations between bullying and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization during 18-month period over four time points. A total of 2835 participants, aged 11 to 16 years in time 1 (50% girls; M_age = 13.13, SD = 1.06) were surveyed. Random intercept cross-lagged analyses revealed the stability of bullying perpetration and victimization. Cyberbullying victimization predicted inversely bullying and cyberbullying perpetration. The results indicate spirals of positive long-term associations between bullying (perpetration and victimization) and cyberbullying perpetration but no long-terms spirals of victimization.

How beliefs and unpleasant emotions direct cyberbullying intentions

This study aims to investigate the role of emotions and beliefs of perceived severity about cyberbullying behavior in the relationship between bystanders' personal moral beliefs and their behavioral intentions in cyberbullying. A group of 402 fifth to twelfth graders (M age = 13.12; SD = 2.19; 55.7% were girls) participated and we ran exploratory factorial analyses of the instruments. A group of 676 fifth to twelfth grade students (M age = 14.10; SD = 2.74; 55.5% were boys) participated and we performed confirmatory factor analyses. A group of middle school students (N = 397; Mage = 13.88 years; SD = 1.45; 55.5% girls) participated and we ran the final analyses aimed to test the research hypotheses. Results from self-report measures showed that unpleasant emotions mediated personal moral beliefs and adolescent bystanders' intentions to help cybervictims. Normative beliefs of severity mediated the relation between personal moral beliefs and intentions to cyberbully others.

The role of family and peer factors in the development of early adolescent depressive symptoms: A latent class growth analysis

Few studies have explored the trajectories of Chinese early adolescent depressive symptoms or comprehensively considered the factors of family and peers. The present study aimed to identify the trajectories of depressive symptoms in early adolescence using a school-based sample assessed in three waves. The study also examined whether family and peer factors were significant predictors. A total of 586 Chinese primary and middle school students participated in the survey. A growth mixture model was used to find the trajectories of depressive symptoms, and multinominal logistic regression was used to identify the predictors. Three trajectories were identified, including a stable-low class, an increasing class, and a high-decreasing class. Results indicated that gender, parental psychological aggression and neglect, parental psychological control, traditional bullying/cyberbullying victimization, and friendship quality were significant predictors. However, witnessing intimate partner violence, parental behavior control, and traditional bullying/cyberbullying perpetration could not significantly predict the trajectories. The findings of this study can provide an empirical basis for teachers and clinical interveners to determine different development trajectories of depressive symptoms and carry out prevention and intervention.

Attitudes Towards School Violence: A Qualitative Study With Spanish Children

School violence is a social issue of particular interest both for intervention and research. Attitudes towards violence have been reported in the literature as relevant variables for evaluation, prevention, and intervention in this field. This study aims to examine in-depth attitudes toward school violence. The sample consists of 96 participants from Spanish Elementary Education and Compulsory Secondary Education schools. A qualitative study was conducted through focus groups and thematic analysis of the data. The results identify a habitual set of attitudes towards violence in children. These are related to violence as a way to feel better or increase self-esteem, as leisure or fun, perceived as legitimate, when violence is exercised against those who are different, when it has no consequences, to resolve conflicts, to socialize, and to attract the attention of peers. These results could serve as a basis for the creation of evaluation tools, as well as the design of prevention and intervention plans based on attitude modification.

Harsh Parenting and Children's Aggressive Behavior: A Moderated Mediation Model

Harsh parenting and its effect on children’s aggressive behavior has received attention from researchers, however few studies have considered the role of the emotional process. This study aims to examine the relationship between harsh parenting, children’s aggressive behavior, normative beliefs about aggression, and regulatory emotional self-efficacy, alongside their mechanism of interplay. A sample of 235 senior primary school students in Beijing were recruited as participants by using the Harsh Parenting Scale, the Normative Beliefs about Aggression Scale, the Buss–Warren Aggression Questionnaire, and the Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy Scale. Results indicated that: (1) Harsh parenting had a significant positive predictive effect on children’s aggressive behavior after controlling gender; (2) normative beliefs about the aggression of children mediated the relationship between harsh parenting and children’s aggressive behavior; and (3) regulatory emotional self-efficacy had moderating effects both the mediation model of normative beliefs about the aggression of children and in the direct predictive model of harsh parenting on children’s aggressive behavior. The results are not only helpful to understand the relationship between harsh parenting and children’s aggressive behavior from the perspective of an integrated model of emotion processes and cognition, but also provide a new practical way to prevent and intervene in children’s aggressive behavior in the future.

Life history strategy and overeating during COVID-19 pandemic: a moderated mediation model of sense of control and coronavirus stress

BACKGROUND

This study examined the mediating effect of sense of control and the moderating effect of coronavirus stress on the relationship between life history strategy and overeating among Chinese college students during the COVID-19 period.

METHODS

3310 Chinese students (Mage = 19.74, SD = 1.50; 47% males) completed self-reported questionnaires regarding life history strategy, sense of control, overeating, and coronavirus stress. The data were analyzed using Pearson's r correlations and moderated mediation analysis.

RESULTS

The results revealed that control sense mediated the link between life history strategy and college students' overeating. College students' coronavirus stress moderated the associations between life history strategy and college students' sense of control and between control sense and overeating. The association between life history strategy and sense of control was stronger for those with lower coronavirus stress, and the association between sense of control and overeating was stronger for those with lower coronavirus stress.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified that the critical factors were associated with overeating. On the one hand, the research deepens the application and interpretation of life history theory in the field of eating; on the other hand, it provides evidence for the prevention of overeating, and provides theoretical basis for psychological assistance among Chinese college students.

Violent media use and aggression: Two longitudinal network studies

Exposure to violent media has been widely linked to increased aggression. In the present research, we examined whether violent media exposure would be associated with increased aggression, which would then spread within social networks like a contagious disease. Two groups of first year psychology students completed a questionnaire three times over the course of a year, measuring their media exposure, aggression, personality, and social relations within the group. Cross-sectional analysis provided mixed results in regards to the link between violent media and aggression. Siena analysis found no evidence of homophily (i.e., participants were not more likely to be friends with others similar to themselves) nor of social influence (i.e., participant's behavior did not predict a change in their friends' behavior). However, given the relatively small sample sizes and the weak ties between participants, more work is needed to assess the spread of violent media effects.

To Help or Not to Help: Intervening in Cyberbullying Among Chinese Cyber-Bystanders

Cyberbullying has become a serious concern among Internet users worldwide. However, relatively little is known about individuals who witness cyberbullying and how they behave. A bystander is someone who sees bullying or other forms of aggressive or violent behavior that targets someone else and who may choose to respond by either being part of the problem (a hurtful bystander), or part of the solution (a helpful bystander). Few studies examined the phenomena of cyber-bystanders in Chinese populations. Guided by the five-step bystander theoretical model and the theory of planned behavior, this study, addressed this gap to understand how the characteristics of cyber-bystanders explained their intervention in cyberbullying in a Chinese population. This study tested two preregistered hypotheses: (1) controlling for age and gender, awareness of cyberbullying, attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control to intervene; plus past experience with cyberbullying (measured as past experience in cyberbullying perpetration and victimization), felt responsibility, and self-efficacy to intervene with regard to cyberbullying would explain the intention of cyber-bystanders to intervene in cyberbullying, and (2) the intention of cyber-bystanders to intervene cyberbullying would positively explain their intervening behavior. A total of 581 college students with experience of witnessing cyberbullying were included in the analysis. Applying structural equation modeling with observed variables, a path analysis model was built to test the hypotheses; this study also conducted exploratory analyses by including direct paths from the characteristics of cyber-bystanders to explain intervening behavior. Results found that only awareness of cyberbullying, a subjective norm, and self-efficacy to intervene positively explained intention to intervene cyberbullying; therefore, hypothesis 1 was partly supported. Also, intention to intervene cyberbullying positively explained intervening behavior; therefore, hypothesis 2 was supported. For the exploratory analysis, intention to intervene partially mediated the relation between a subjective norm to intervene and intervening behavior; and intention to intervene also partially mediated the relation between self-efficacy to intervene and intervening behavior. In addition, past experience in cyberbullying victimization also positively and directly predicted intervening behavior. Findings provided a foundation for designing future intervention programs to mobilize cyber-bystanders to become “upstanders.”

Mean kids become mean adults: Trajectories of indirect aggression from age 10 to 22

Although much is known about the development of physical aggression across the lifespan, far less is known about the developmental pattern of indirect aggression from childhood to adulthood. Accordingly, we examined the self-reported use of indirect aggression from age 10 to 22 in a randomly drawn sample of 704 Canadians. A person-centered approach was used to capture intraindividual change and heterogeneity in development. Four childhood (age 10-18) indirect aggression trajectories were identified: (1) a very low decreasing group (64.8%), (2) a low decreasing group (26.0%), (3) a low-to-moderate increasing group (5.1%), and (4) a moderate increasing group (4.1%). There were more girls than boys in the moderate increasing group (75.9% vs. 24.1%). Two adulthood (age 19-22) indirect aggression trajectory groups were also identified: (1) a low decreasing group (82.6%), and (2) a moderate stable group (17.4%). No sex differences were found among adults' use across the two trajectories. When we examined the prediction of indirect aggression use in adulthood from indirect aggression use in childhood, we found that children who followed a moderate increasing trajectory from age 10 to 18 were nine times more likely to follow a moderate stable trajectory from age 19 to 22, while children who followed a low-to-moderate increasing trajectory across childhood were 14 times more likely to follow a moderate stable trajectory across adulthood (compared to the very low decreasing group). Given the negative impact indirect aggression has on others, intervening early to derail this pattern of abuse is justified.

Parenting Style and Cyber-Aggression in Chinese Youth: The Role of Moral Disengagement and Moral Identity

Previous research has shown that parenting style is intricately linked to cyber-aggression. However, the underlying mechanisms of this relationship remain unclear, especially among young adults. Guided by the social cognitive theory and the ecological system theory, this study aimed to examine the effect of parenting style on cyber-aggression, the potential mediating role of moral disengagement, and the moderating role of moral identity in this relationship. Participants comprised 1,796 Chinese college students who anonymously completed questionnaires on parenting style, moral disengagement, moral identity, cyber-aggression, and demographic variables. After controlling for sex and age, parental rejection and over-protection were positively related to cyber-aggression; however, parental emotional warmth was non-significantly related to cyber-aggression. Mediation analysis revealed that parenting style was related to cyber-aggressive behavior through moral disengagement. Moderated mediation analysis further indicated that the indirect effect of parenting style on cyber-aggression was much stronger in college students with higher moral identity. The study carries important practical implications for parents and educators concerned about the destructive consequences of cyber-aggression.

Aggression in the Digital Era: Assessing the Validity of the Cyber Motivations for Aggression and Deviance Scale

Empirical studies of adult cyber-aggression are sparse, partly due to a lack of validated assessments. We evaluated a new measure, the Cyber Motivations for Aggression and Deviance (Cyber-MAD) scale, designed to assess the motivations of adult cyber-aggression. Psychometric properties and factor structure were examined across three adult samples who regularly used the internet and reported a history of cyber-aggression. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the motivations for cyber-aggression indicated an eight-factor model best fit the data, with separable factors emerging for cyber-aggression motivated by a desire to affiliate with others (Social Bonding), advance or defend political/social issues (Social Activism), act on angry feelings (Reactive Aggression), cope with relationship stress (Interpersonal Distress), satisfy impulsive urges (Impulsivity), adopt a new online persona (Virtual Dissociation), experience excitement (Thrill-Seeking), and seek revenge (Vengeance). Overall, the Cyber-MAD scale showed good internal consistency, structural stability across samples, and construct validity, supporting its initial validation.

When peer norms work? Coherent groups facilitate normative influences on cyber aggression

Due to the impersonal and anonymous nature of cyberspace, past work underscored the pivotal role of social influence processes in cyberbullying among adolescents. However, there was also evidence revealing the weak influences that some referent groups yield on youth. The current study argues that the strength of normative influences on cyberbullying depends on the properties of the referent groups. In the school context, we examined whether class entitativity-the extent to which a class is a unified and coherent group, rather than a mere aggregation of students-moderated the relationship between class norms and cyberbullying. A total of 474 adolescent students responded to measures of descriptive and injunctive class norms about cyberbullying, perceived class entitativity, and cyberbullying. The results indicated that pro-cyberbullying descriptive and injunctive class norms were positively correlated with cyber aggression. Most importantly, higher levels of pro-cyberbullying class norms predicted increases in cyber aggression when students perceived their classes as highly entitative. In contrast, this effect was not significant when students perceived their classes having low entitativity. These findings promote an understanding of how peer norms work and provide an alternative strategy for interventions into cyber aggression in schools.

Normative beliefs about cyberbullying: comparisons of Israeli and U.S. youth

We examined how normative beliefs about cyberbullying influenced the choice of electronic aggression in hypothetical peer-to-peer scenarios. Data was collected from 1097 Israeli and 1196 U.S. students in grades 5^th-10^th, who completed self-report surveys examining normative beliefs about cyberbullying, aggressive cyberstrategies, face-to-face verbal and relational aggression, and access to electronic devices. Israeli students had higher levels of all aggression measures than U.S. students, but access to electronic devices was similar across the two countries. Normative beliefs about cyberbullying were positively associated with verbal and relational aggression. In Israeli, normative beliefs in boys were higher than girls in 5^th and 6^th grade, similar in 7^th and 8^th grade, and then higher again in 9^th and 10^th grade. In the U.S., boys had higher normative beliefs about cyberbullying than girls, and older students had higher beliefs than younger students. Findings using logistic regression indicated that normative beliefs about cyberbullying were predictive of Cyber-aggression even when taking into account grade, country, gender, access to electronic devices, and face-to-face relational aggression. Cyber-aggressive strategies were more likely to be present at the highest level of normative beliefs. Ways to change student beliefs using a social cognitive perspective are discussed.

The Relation of Violent Video Games to Adolescent Aggression: An Examination of Moderated Mediation Effect

To assess the moderated mediation effect of normative beliefs about aggression and family environment on exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, the subjects self-reported their exposure to violent video games, family environment, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggressive behavior. The results showed that there was a significant positive correlation between exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression; normative beliefs about aggression had a mediation effect on exposure to violent video games and adolescent aggression, while family environment moderated the first part of the mediation process. For individuals with a good family environment, exposure to violent video games had only a direct effect on aggression; however, for those with poor family environment, it had both direct and indirect effects mediated by normative beliefs about aggression. This moderated mediation model includes some notions of General Aggression Model (GAM) and Catalyst Model (CM), which helps shed light on the complex mechanism of violent video games influencing adolescent aggression.

Predicting cyberbullying perpetration in emerging adults: A theoretical test of the Barlett Gentile Cyberbullying Model

The Barlett and Gentile Cyberbullying Model (BGCM) is a learning-based theory that posits the importance of positive cyberbullying attitudes predicting subsequent cyberbullying perpetration. Furthermore, the tenants of the BGCM state that cyberbullying attitude are likely to form when the online aggressor believes that the online environment allows individuals of all physical sizes to harm others and they are perceived as anonymous. Past work has tested parts of the BGCM; no study has used longitudinal methods to examine this model fully. The current study (N = 161) employed a three-wave longitudinal design to test the BGCM. Participants (age range: 18-24) completed measures of the belief that physical strength is irrelevant online and anonymity perceptions at Wave 1, cyberbullying attitudes at Wave 2, and cyberbullying perpetration at Wave 3. Results showed strong support for the BGCM: anonymity perceptions and the belief that physical attributes are irrelevant online at Wave 1 predicted Wave 2 cyberbullying attitudes, which predicted subsequent Wave 3 cyberbullying perpetration. These results support the BGCM and are the first to show empirical support for this model. Aggr. Behav. 43:147-154, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Bystanders' responses to offline bullying and cyberbullying: The role of empathy and normative beliefs about aggression

Cyberbullying often takes place with the virtual presence or knowledge of bystanders. While we have some evidence about the determinants of bystanders' responses to offline bullying, we lack empirical studies concerning the variables that influence bystanders' responses to cyberbullying. The current study examines bystanders' responses to offline bullying and cyberbullying incidents. Two types of responses were captured: support toward the victims and the reinforcement of bullies' actions. Using data from 321 German adolescents (ages 12-18; M = 14.99; 44% girls), the association between bystanders' responses and normative beliefs about verbal aggression and cyberaggression, and affective and cognitive empathy, were tested in a path model. Both types of normative beliefs positively predicted the reinforcement of bullies, and normative belief about verbal aggression also predicted support for the victims of offline bullying. Both types of empathy predicted support in offline bullying, but only affective empathy predicted support in cyberbullying. There was no link between affective or cognitive empathy to the reinforcement of bullies. Moreover, bystanders' tendencies to respond supportively to the victim or to reinforce the bully were rather consistent in both cyber- and offline bullying, but there was no link between support and reinforcement. The findings are discussed with regard to implications for prevention and intervention efforts.

Men's harassment behavior in online video games: Personality traits and game factors

Online video games afford co-play and social interaction, often anonymous, among players from around the world. As predicted by the social identity model of deindividuation effects, undesirable behavior is not uncommon in online gaming environments, and online harassment has become a pervasive issue in the gaming community. In this study, we sought to determine what personality traits and game-related variables predicted two types of online aggression in video games: general harassment (e.g., skill-based taunting, insulting others' intelligence) and sexual harassment (e.g., sexist comments, rape threats). Men who play online video games (N = 425) participated in an anonymous online survey. Social dominance orientation and hostile sexism predicted higher levels of both sexual harassment and general harassment in online games. Game involvement and hours of weekly gameplay were additional predictors of general harassment. We discuss implications of online social aggression and online sexual harassment for online gaming. We also apply our findings to the broader understanding of online harassment, cyberaggression, cyberbullying, and other forms of online hostility in computer-mediated communication contexts. Aggr. Behav. 42:513-521, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Cyber Victimization on College Campuses

Although much is known about the cross-sectional associations between cyber victimization and the negative socioemotional outcomes associated with this experience, not much is known about the longitudinal associations among college students. The purpose of the present study was to examine longitudinal, bidirectional associations between cyber victimization, suicidal ideation, depression, and anxiety among college students, using cross-lagged models. These relationships were examined over 4 years. Participants were 1,483 college students ( Mage = 24.67; 60% female; 35% White, 15% Black/African American, 10% Latino/Latina, 6% Asian, and 4% biracial) from Southeastern universities in the United States. They completed self-reports of face-to-face and cyber victimization and questionnaires on suicidal ideation, depression, and anxiety at four time points over 4 years. Findings revealed that cyber victimization contributed to suicidal ideation, depression, and anxiety over time, and that suicidal ideation, depression, and anxiety each contributed to cyber victimization over time as well. Such findings suggest bidirectional relationships between these variables, although there were differences in the size of the bivariate relationships. In particular, the magnitudes of the associations were stronger when cyber victimization predicted suicidal ideation, depression, and anxiety. Recommendations are provided to help reduce or eliminate cyber victimization among students on college campuses.