Paternal age effect: Replication in schizophrenia with intriguing dissociation between bipolar with and without psychosis

Impact of paternal age on assisted reproductive technology outcomes and offspring health: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The increase in paternal age and the percentage of births after assisted reproductive technologies (ART) may have consequences on offspring and society's position regarding access to ART must be questioned. Most countries recommend limiting ART to men under 60 years. What is the rationale for this threshold?

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review assesses scientific arguments to establish links between paternal age, male fertility, and offspring health.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Using the PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review of the literature analyzed 111 articles selected after screening PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science for articles published between January 1, 1995 and December 31, 2021.

RESULTS

A strong correlation was highlighted between advanced paternal age and a decrease of some sperm parameters (semen volume and sperm motility) and infant morbidity (exponentially increased incidence of achondroplasia and Apert syndrome, and more moderately increased incidence of autism and schizophrenia). The impact of paternal age on pregnancy and fetal aneuploidy rates is more controversial. No association was found with spontaneous abortion rates.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The scientific parameters should be explained to older parents undergoing ART. And for countries that discuss a limit on paternal age for access to ART, the debate requires consideration of social and ethical arguments.

Reprint of: Advanced paternal age and risk of schizophrenia in offspring - Review of epidemiological findings and potential mechanisms

A large number of studies have examined the association between advanced paternal age (APA) and risk of schizophrenia in offspring. Here we present an overview of epidemiological studies on this subject published since 2000, and systematically summarize their methodologies and results. Next, we discuss evidence to elucidate the potential mechanisms contributing to the association between APA and offspring schizophrenia, considering paternal psychiatric morbidity and genetic liability, maternal factors, and findings from family design studies. We propose that multiple mechanisms, including causal and non-causal pathways, contribute to the observed relationship between APA and schizophrenia in offspring, and conclude by highlighting the need for multi-disciplinary studies in disentangling these complex, non-mutually exclusive mechanisms.

The U-shaped relationship between parental age and the risk of bipolar disorder in the offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Parenthood age may affect the risk for the development of different psychiatric disorders in the offspring, including bipolar disorder (BD). The present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to appraise the relationship between paternal age and risk for BD and to explore the eventual relationship between paternal age and age at onset of BD. We searched the MEDLINE, Scopus, Embase, PsycINFO online databases for original studies from inception, up to December 2021. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted. Sixteen studies participated in the qualitative synthesis, of which k = 14 fetched quantitative data encompassing a total of 13,424,760 participants and 217,089 individuals with BD. Both fathers [adjusted for the age of other parent and socioeconomic status odd ratio - OR = 1.29(95%C.I. = 1.13-1.48)] and mothers aged ≤ 20 years [(OR = 1.23(95%C.I. = 1.14-1.33)] had consistently increased odds of BD diagnosis in their offspring compared to parents aged 25-29 years. Fathers aged ≥ 45 years [adjusted OR = 1.29 (95%C.I. = 1.15-1.46)] and mothers aged 35-39 years [OR = 1.10(95%C.I. = 1.01-1.19)] and 40 years or older [OR = 1.2(95% C.I. = 1.02-1.40)] likewise had inflated odds of BD diagnosis in their offspring compared to parents aged 25-29 years. Early and delayed parenthood are associated with an increased risk of BD in the offspring. Mechanisms underlying this association are largely unknown and may involve a complex interplay between psychosocial, genetic and biological factors, and with different impacts according to sex and age range. Evidence on the association between parental age and illness onset is still tentative but it points towards a possible specific effect of advanced paternal age on early BD-onset.

Parental age and the risk of bipolar disorder in the offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Whether parental age, i.e., paternal or maternal, at childbirth is associated with the risk of bipolar disorder (BD) in offspring remains unclear. We conducted a meta-analysis of observational studies to address this gap.

METHODS

PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, and Web of Science were searched up to June 2021. Studies investigating the associations between parental age at childbirth (exposure) and the risk of BD in offspring (outcome) were eligible for inclusion in our study. Paternal and maternal age were examined separately. Odds ratio (OR) was used as the effect size index. Data were pooled through random-effects meta-analyses.

RESULTS

Seven studies involving 3,183,539 participants and 23,253 individuals with BD were included in our meta-analyses. Meta-analyses indicated an increased risk of BD in the offspring of the older paternal age groups (35-44 years old [k = 5; OR = 1.09; 95% CI 1.05, 1.14; p < 0.0001] and ≥45 years old [k = 5; OR = 1.44; 95% CI 1.19, 1.14; p = 0.0001]) in comparison with the reference category (25-34 years old). Meta-analysis also indicated an increased risk of BD in the offspring of the older maternal age group (≥40 years old [k = 3; OR = 1.20; 95% CI 1.10, 1.31; p < 0.0001]) in comparison with the reference category (20-29 years old).

CONCLUSIONS

Advanced paternal and maternal age were both associated with an increased risk of BD in offspring. Further studies are needed to investigate the mechanisms behind this association.

A multifactorial model for the etiology of neuropsychiatric disorders: the role of advanced paternal age

Mental or neuropsychiatric disorders are widespread within our societies affecting one in every four people in the world. Very often the onset of a mental disorder (MD) occurs in early childhood and substantially reduces the quality of later life. Although the global burden of MDs is rising, mental health care is still suboptimal, partly due to insufficient understanding of the processes of disease development. New insights are needed to respond to this worldwide health problem. Next to the growing burden of MDs, there is a tendency to postpone pregnancy for various economic and practical reasons. In this review, we describe the current knowledge on the potential effect from advanced paternal age (APA) on development of autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and Tourette syndrome. Although literature did not clearly define an age cut-off for APA, we here present a comprehensive multifactorial model for the development of MDs, including the role of aging, de novo mutations, epigenetic mechanisms, psychosocial environment, and selection into late fatherhood. Our model is part of the Paternal Origins of Health and Disease paradigm and may serve as a foundation for future epidemiological research designs. This blueprint will increase the understanding of the etiology of MDs and can be used as a practical guide for clinicians favoring early detection and developing a tailored treatment plan. Ultimately, this will help health policy practitioners to prevent the development of MDs and to inform health-care workers and the community about disease determinants. Better knowledge of the proportion of all risk factors, their interactions, and their role in the development of MDs will lead to an optimization of mental health care and management. IMPACT: We design a model of causation for MDs, integrating male aging, (epi)genetics, and environmental influences. It adds new insights into the current knowledge about associations between APA and MDs. In clinical practice, this comprehensive model may be helpful in early diagnosis and in treatment adopting a personal approach. It may help in identifying the proximate cause on an individual level or in a specific subpopulation. Besides the opportunity to measure the attributed proportions of risk factors, this model may be used as a blueprint to design prevention strategies for public health purposes.

Environmental Risk Factors in Bipolar Disorder and Psychotic Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to study the association between specific environmental risk factors (ERF) and later development of Bipolar disorder and Psychotic depression.

METHODS

A systematic search of prospective studies was conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE and PsycINFO databases, and supplemented by hand searching, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines (registration number: CRD42018092253). Selected ERF included: pre-/peri-natal factors-paternal age at birth, maternal infection, obstetric complications, perinatal stress; early childhood factors-urbanicity at birth, childhood infection, childhood adversity; later life factors-substance misuse, ethnic minority and migration, urbanicity later in life, stressful life events, and traumatic head injury. Pooled effect sizes of the association between these ERF and affective psychoses were calculated from systematically selected studies. When studies examining each ERF were insufficient for meta-analysis, results were presented narratively.

RESULTS

Forty-six studies were included for quantitative analyses among selected ERF for affective psychosis, with significant association found for paternal age >40 years (OR 1.17, 95%CI 1.12-1.23), early (OR 1.52, 95%CI 1.07-2.17) and late (OR 1.32, 95%CI 1.05-1.67) gestational age, childhood adversity (OR 1.33, 95%CI 1.18-1.50), substance misuse (OR 2.87, 95%CI 1.63-5.50), and being from an ethnic minority (OR 1.99, 95%CI 1.39-2.84).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest some shared environmental load between non-affective and affective psychosis, implying generalized risks for psychosis rather than for specific diagnostic categories. Nonetheless, published studies for some ERF in the affective psychoses are scarce, and further longitudinal studies are needed.

Advanced paternal age and risk of schizophrenia in offspring - Review of epidemiological findings and potential mechanisms

A large number of studies have examined the association between advanced paternal age (APA) and risk of schizophrenia in offspring. Here we present an overview of epidemiological studies on this subject published since 2000, and systematically summarize their methodologies and results. Next, we discuss evidence to elucidate the potential mechanisms contributing to the association between APA and offspring schizophrenia, considering paternal psychiatric morbidity and genetic liability, maternal factors, and findings from family design studies. We propose that multiple mechanisms, including causal and non-causal pathways, contribute to the observed relationship between APA and schizophrenia in offspring, and conclude by highlighting the need for multi-disciplinary studies in disentangling these complex, non-mutually exclusive mechanisms.

The other face of advanced paternal age: a scoping review of its terminological, social, public health, psychological, ethical and regulatory aspects

BACKGROUND

There is a global tendency for parents to conceive children later in life. The maternal dimension of the postponement transition has been thoroughly studied, but interest in the paternal side is more recent. For the moment, most literature reviews on the topic have focused on the consequences of advanced paternal age (APA) on fertility, pregnancy and the health of the child.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

The present review seeks to move the focus away from the biological and medical dimensions of APA and synthesise the knowledge of the other face of APA.

SEARCH METHODS

We used the scoping review methodology. Searches of interdisciplinary articles databases were performed with keywords pertaining to APA and its dimensions outside of biology and medicine. We included scientific articles, original research, essays, commentaries and editorials in the sample. The final sample of 177 documents was analysed with qualitative thematic analysis.

OUTCOMES

We identified six themes highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of APA research. The 'terminological aspects' highlight the lack of consensus on the definition of APA and the strategies developed to offer alternatives. The 'social aspects' focus on the postponement transition towards reproducing later in life and its cultural dimensions. The 'public health aspects' refer to attempts to analyse APA as a problem with wider health and economic implications. The 'psychological aspects' focus on the consequences of APA and older fatherhood on psychological characteristics of the child. The 'ethical aspects' reflect on issues of APA emerging at the intersection of parental autonomy, children's welfare and social responsibility. The 'regulatory aspects' group different suggestions to collectively approach the implications of APA. Our results show that the field of APA is still in the making and that evidence is lacking to fully address the issues of APA. The review suggests promising avenues of research such as introducing the voice of fathers of advanced age into the research agenda.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

The results of this review will be useful for developing policies and preconception health interventions that consider and include prospective fathers of advanced age.

The effect of paternal factors on perinatal and paediatric outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Maternal factors, including increasing childbearing age and various life-style factors, are associated with poorer short- and long-term outcomes for children, whereas knowledge of paternal parameters is limited. Recently, increasing paternal age has been associated with adverse obstetric outcomes, birth defects, autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia in children.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

The aim of this systematic review is to describe the influence of paternal factors on adverse short- and long-term child outcomes.

SEARCH METHODS

PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases up to January 2017 were searched. Paternal factors examined included paternal age and life-style factors such as body mass index (BMI), adiposity and cigarette smoking. The outcome variables assessed were short-term outcomes such as preterm birth, low birth weight, small for gestational age (SGA), stillbirth, birth defects and chromosomal anomalies. Long-term outcome variables included mortality, cancers, psychiatric diseases/disorders and metabolic diseases. The systematic review follows PRISMA guidelines. Relevant meta-analyses were performed.

OUTCOMES

The search included 14 371 articles out of which 238 met the inclusion criteria, and 81 were included in quantitative synthesis (meta-analyses). Paternal age and paternal life-style factors have an association with adverse outcome in offspring. This is particularly evident for psychiatric disorders such as autism, autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia, but an association is also found with stillbirth, any birth defects, orofacial clefts and trisomy 21. Paternal height, but not BMI, is associated with birth weight in offspring while paternal BMI is associated with BMI, weight and/or body fat in childhood. Paternal smoking is found to be associated with an increase in SGA, birth defects such as congenital heart defects, and orofacial clefts, cancers, brain tumours and acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. These associations are significant although moderate in size, with most pooled estimates between 1.05 and 1.5, and none exceeding 2.0.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

Although the increased risks of adverse outcome in offspring associated with paternal factors and identified in this report represent serious health effects, the magnitude of these effects seems modest.

Clinical, Cognitive, and Neuroimaging Evidence of a Neurodevelopmental Continuum in Offspring of Probands With Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder

BACKGROUND

Studies in child and adolescent offspring of patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorders may help understand the influence of neurodevelopmental factors on the premorbid phenotype of these disorders.

AIMS

To assess whether a combination of neurodevelopmental factors discriminates between young offspring of patients with schizophrenia (SzO) or bipolar disorder (BpO) and community controls (CcO). To assess the association between these factors and rates of psychiatric diagnoses in high risk (HR) youth.

METHODS

One hundred thirty-three HR offspring (47 SzO and 86 BpO) and 84 CcO, aged 6-17, underwent cross-sectional clinical, neurocognitive, and structural neuroimaging assessment. Information on perinatal events and early childhood development was also obtained. General linear mixed models were performed to assess group discrimination and association with lifetime axis I psychiatric disorders.

RESULTS

Multivariate analyses revealed that greater neurological soft signs (NSS), less total grey matter volume (GMV) and a higher frequency of obstetric complications discriminated HR offspring from CcO. When comparing each group individually, greater NSS and a higher frequency of obstetric complications discriminated SzO from CcO, and BpO from CcO, while lower intelligence also discriminated SzO from CcO and from BpO. Within HR offspring, lower intelligence and less total GMV were associated with lifetime incidence of psychiatric disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Both SzO and BpO showed evidence of neurodevelopmental insult, although this may have a greater impact in SzO. Lower intelligence and less total GMV hold potential as biomarkers of risk for psychiatric disorders in HR youth.

Paternal age and psychiatric disorders: A review

We review the hypotheses concerning the association between the paternal age at childbearing and childhood psychiatric disorders (autism spectrum- and attention deficit/hyperactive disorder) and adult disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar-, obsessive-compulsive-, and major depressive disorder) based on epidemiological studies. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the paternal age effect. We discuss the four main-not mutually exclusive-hypotheses. These are the de novo mutation hypothesis, the hypothesis concerning epigenetic alterations, the selection into late fatherhood hypothesis, and the environmental resource hypothesis. Advanced paternal age in relation to autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia provided the most robust epidemiological evidence for an association, with some studies reporting a monotonic risk increase over age, and others reporting a marked increase at a given age threshold. Although there is evidence for the de novo mutation hypothesis and the selection into late fatherhood hypothesis, the mechanism(s) underlying the association between advanced paternal age and psychiatric illness in offspring remains to be further clarified. © 2016 The Authors. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Do the Trajectories of Bipolar Disorder and Schizophrenia Follow a Universal Staging Model?

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to address the question of whether a universal staging model of severe psychiatric disorders is a viable direction for future research by examining the extant literature.

METHOD

A narrative review was conducted of the relevant historical, conceptual, and empirical literature pertaining to the clinical trajectory of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia and issues relevant to staging.

RESULTS

There is substantive evidence that classic recurrent bipolar disorder is separable from schizophrenia on the basis of family history, developmental and clinical course, treatment response, and neurobiological findings. However, because of the intrinsic heterogeneity of diagnostic categories that has been amplified by recent changes in psychiatric taxonomy, key distinctions between the groups have become obfuscated. While mapping risk and illness markers to emerging psychopathology is a logical approach and may be of value for some psychiatric disorders and/or their clinical subtypes, robust evidence supporting identifiable stages per se is still lacking. Presently, even rudimentary stages such as prodromes cannot be meaningfully applied across different disorders and no commonalities can be found for the basis of universal staging.

CONCLUSIONS

Advances in the prediction of risk, accurate early illness detection, and tailored intervention will require mapping biomarkers and other risk indicators to reliable clinical phases of illness progression. Given the capricious nature of mood and psychotic disorders, this task is likely to yield success only if conducted in narrowly defined subgroups of individuals at high risk for specific illnesses. This approach is diametrically opposite to that being promulgated by proponents of a universal staging model.

The effect of long-term lithium treatment of bipolar disorder on stem cells circulating in peripheral blood

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effect of long-term lithium treatment on very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs), haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) circulating in peripheral blood (PB), in bipolar disorder (BD).

METHODS

The study included 15 BD patients (aged 55 ± 6 years) treated with lithium for 8-40 years (mean 16 years), 15 BD patients (aged 53 ± 7 years) with duration of illness >10 years, who had never received lithium, and 15 healthy controls (aged 50 ± 5 years). The VSELs, HSCs, MSCs and EPCs were measured by flow cytometric analysis.

RESULTS

In BD subjects not taking lithium the number of CD34⁺VSELs was significantly higher, and MSCs and EPCs numerically higher, than in control subjects and the number of CD34⁺VSELs correlated with the duration of illness. In lithium-treated patients these values were similar to controls and the number of CD34⁺VSELs correlated negatively with the duration of lithium treatment and serum lithium concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term treatment with lithium may suppress the activation of regenerative processes by reducing the number of VSELs circulating in PB. These cells, in BD patients not treated with lithium, may provide a new potential biological marker of the illness and its clinical progress.