A rapidly reversible chemical dimerizer system to study lipid signaling in living cells

OSBP is a major determinant of Golgi phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate homeostasis

The lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) plays a master regulatory role at Golgi membranes, orchestrating membrane budding, non-vesicular lipid transport and membrane organization. It follows that harmonious Golgi function requires strictly maintained PI4P homeostasis. One of the most abundant PI4P effector proteins is the oxysterol binding protein (OSBP), a lipid transfer protein that exchanges trans Golgi PI4P for ER cholesterol. Although this protein consumes PI4P as part of its lipid anti-porter function, whether it actively contributes to Golgi PI4P homeostasis has been questioned. Here, we employed a series of acute and chronic genetic manipulations, together with orthogonal targeting of OSBP, to interrogate its control over Golgi PI4P abundance. Modulating OSBP levels at ER:Golgi membrane contact sites produces reciprocal changes in PI4P levels. Additionally, we observe that OSBP has a high capacity for PI4P turnover, even at orthogonal organelle membranes. However, despite also visiting the plasma membrane, endogenous OSBP makes no impact on PI4P levels in this compartment. We conclude that OSBP is a major determinant of Golgi PI4P homeostasis.

OSBP is a Major Determinant of Golgi Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate Homeostasis

The lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) plays a master regulatory role at Golgi membranes, orchestrating membrane budding, non-vesicular lipid transport and membrane organization. It follows that harmonious Golgi function requires strictly maintained PI4P homeostasis. One of the most abundant PI4P effector proteins is the oxysterol binding protein (OSBP), a lipid transfer protein that exchanges trans-Golgi PI4P for ER cholesterol. Although this protein consumes PI4P as part of its lipid anti-porter function, whether it actively contributes to Golgi PI4P homeostasis has been questioned. Here, we employed a series of acute and chronic genetic manipulations, together with orthogonal targeting of OSBP, to interrogate its control over Golgi PI4P abundance. Modulating OSBP levels at ER:Golgi membrane contact sites produces reciprocal changes in PI4P levels. Additionally, we observe that OSBP has a high capacity for PI4P turnover, even at orthogonal organelle membranes. However, despite also visiting the plasma membrane, endogenous OSBP makes no impact on PI4P levels in this compartment. We conclude that OSBP is a major determinant of Golgi PI4P homeostasis.

Proximity-inducing modalities: the past, present, and future

Living systems use proximity to regulate biochemical processes. Inspired by this phenomenon, bifunctional modalities that induce proximity have been developed to redirect cellular processes. An emerging example of this class is molecules that induce ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation of a protein of interest, and their initial development sparked a flurry of discovery for other bifunctional modalities. Recent advances in this area include modalities that can change protein phosphorylation, glycosylation, and acetylation states, modulate gene expression, and recruit components of the immune system. In this review, we highlight bifunctional modalities that perform functions other than degradation and have great potential to revolutionize disease treatment, while also serving as important tools in basic research to explore new aspects of biology.

Chemical Tools for Lipid Cell Biology

Lipids are key components of all organisms. We are well educated in their use as fuel and their essential role to form membranes. We also know much about their biosynthesis and metabolism. We are also aware that most lipids have signaling character meaning that a change in their concentration or location constitutes a signal that helps a living cell to respond to changes in the environment or to fulfill its specific function ranging from secretion to cell division. What is much less understood is how lipids change location in cells over time and what other biomolecules they interact with at each stage of their lifetime. Due to the large number of often quite similar lipid species and the sometimes very short lifetime of signaling lipids, we need highly specific tools to manipulate and visualize lipids and lipid-protein interactions. If successfully applied, these tools provide fabulous opportunities for discovery.In this Account, I summarize the development of synthetic tools from our lab that were designed to address crucial properties that allow them to function as tools in live cell experiments. Techniques to change the concentration of lipids by adding a small molecule or by light are described and complemented by examples of biological findings made when applying the tools. This ranges from chemical dimerizer-based systems to synthetic "caged" lipid derivatives. Furthermore, I discuss the problem of locating a lipid in an intact cell. Synthetic molecular probes are described that help to unravel the lipid location and to determine their binding proteins. These location studies require in-cell lipid tagging by click chemistry, photo-cross-linking to prevent further movement and the "caging" groups to avoid premature metabolism. The combination of these many technical features in a single tool allows for the analysis of not only lipid fluxes through metabolism but also lipid transport from one membrane to another as well as revealing the lipid interactome in a cell-dependent manner. This latter point is crucial because with these multifunctional tools in combination with lipidomics we can now address differences in healthy versus diseased cells and ultimately find the changes that are essential for disease development and new therapeutics that prevent these changes.

Systematic Pan-cancer Functional Inference and Validation of Hyper, Hypo and Neomorphic Mutations

While the functional effects of many recurrent cancer mutations have been characterized, the TCGA repository comprises more than 10M non-recurrent events, whose function is unknown. We propose that the context specific activity of transcription factor (TF) proteins-as measured by expression of their transcriptional targets-provides a sensitive and accurate reporter assay to assess the functional role of oncoprotein mutations. Analysis of differentially active TFs in samples harboring mutations of unknown significance-compared to established gain (GOF/hypermorph) or loss (LOF/hypomorph) of function-helped functionally characterize 577,866 individual mutational events across TCGA cohorts, including identification of mutations that are either neomorphic (gain of novel function) or phenocopy other mutations ( mutational mimicry ). Validation using mutation knock-in assays confirmed 15 out of 15 predicted gain and loss of function mutations and 15 of 20 predicted neomorphic mutations. This could help determine targeted therapy in patients with mutations of unknown significance in established oncoproteins.

Small molecule-nanobody conjugate induced proximity controls intracellular processes and modulates endogenous unligandable targets

Chemically induced proximity (CIP) is a powerful tool to study cellular functions. However with current CIP inducers it is difficult to directly modulate unligandable and endogenous targets, and therapeutic translational potential is also restricted. Herein, we combine CIP and chemical nanobody engineering and create cell-permeable small molecule-nanobody conjugate inducers of proximity (SNACIPs). The SNACIP inducer cRGT carrying a cyclic cell-penetrating peptide rapidly enters live cells and dimerizes eDHFR and GFP-variants. cRGT enables minute-scale, reversible, no-wash and dose-dependent control of cellular processes including signaling cascade, cargo transport and ferroptosis. Small-molecule motifs can also be installed via post-translational modifications. Therefore, latent-type SNACIPs including cRTC are designed that are functionally assembled inside living cells. cRTC contains a nanobody against an intrinsically disordered protein TPX2, a microtubule nucleation factor overexpressed in various cancers. Cancer cell proliferation is inhibited and tumor growth is suppressed in vivo. Hence, SNACIPs are valuable proximity inducers for regulating cellular functions.

Recruitment of a splicing factor to the nuclear lamina for its inactivation

Precursor messenger RNA splicing is a highly regulated process, mediated by a complex RNA-protein machinery, the spliceosome, that encompasses several hundred proteins and five small nuclear RNAs in humans. Emerging evidence suggests that the spatial organization of splicing factors and their spatio-temporal dynamics participate in the regulation of splicing. So far, methods to manipulate the spatial distribution of splicing factors in a temporally defined manner in living cells are missing. Here, we describe such an approach that takes advantage of a reversible chemical dimerizer, and outline the requirements for efficient, reversible re-localization of splicing factors to selected sub-nuclear compartments. In a proof-of-principle study, the partial re-localization of the PRPF38A protein to the nuclear lamina in HEK293T cells induced a moderate increase in intron retention. Our approach allows fast and reversible re-localization of splicing factors, has few side effects and can be applied to many splicing factors by fusion of a protein tag through genome engineering. Apart from the systematic analysis of the spatio-temporal aspects of splicing regulation, the approach has a large potential for the fast induction and reversal of splicing switches and can reveal mechanisms of splicing regulation in native nuclear environments.

Through the use of a reversible chemical dimerizer, the splicing factor PRPF38A is re-localized to the nuclear lamina, paving the way for a systematic analysis of spatio-temporal splicing regulation.

A chemogenetic platform for controlling plasma membrane signaling and synthetic signal oscillation

Chemogenetic methods enabling the rapid translocation of specific proteins to the plasma membrane (PM) in a single protein-single ligand manner are useful tools in cell biology. We recently developed a technique, in which proteins fused to an Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase (eDHFR) variant carrying N-terminal hexalysine residues are recruited from the cytoplasm to the PM using the synthetic myristoyl-d-Cys-tethered trimethoprim (m^DcTMP) ligand. However, this system achieved PM-specific translocation only when the eDHFR tag was fused to the N terminus of proteins, thereby limiting its application. In this report, we engineered a universal PM-targeting tag for m^DcTMP-induced protein translocation by grafting the hexalysine motif into an intra-loop region of eDHFR. We demonstrate the broad applicability of the new loop-engineered eDHFR tag and m^DcTMP pair for conditional PM recruitment and activation of various tag-fused signaling proteins with different fusion configurations and for reversibly and repeatedly controlling protein localization to generate synthetic signal oscillations.

The phosphoinositide coincidence detector Phafin2 promotes macropinocytosis by coordinating actin organisation at forming macropinosomes

Uptake of large volumes of extracellular fluid by actin-dependent macropinocytosis has an important role in infection, immunity and cancer development. A key question is how actin assembly and disassembly are coordinated around macropinosomes to allow them to form and subsequently pass through the dense actin network underlying the plasma membrane to move towards the cell center for maturation. Here we show that the PH and FYVE domain protein Phafin2 is recruited transiently to newly-formed macropinosomes by a mechanism that involves coincidence detection of PtdIns3P and PtdIns4P. Phafin2 also interacts with actin via its PH domain, and recruitment of Phafin2 coincides with actin reorganization around nascent macropinosomes. Moreover, forced relocalization of Phafin2 to the plasma membrane causes rearrangement of the subcortical actin cytoskeleton. Depletion of Phafin2 inhibits macropinosome internalization and maturation and prevents KRAS-transformed cancer cells from utilizing extracellular protein as an amino acid source. We conclude that Phafin2 promotes macropinocytosis by controlling timely delamination of actin from nascent macropinosomes for their navigation through the dense subcortical actin network.

Monitoring the cellular metabolism of a membrane-permeant photo-caged phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate derivative

To deliver charged lipid derivatives to the cell interior, bioactivatable and photo-activatable protecting groups are frequently used. The intracellular metabolism of the protecting groups, as well as the lipid itself, are key factors that determine biological activity. Here we followed the cellular metabolism of cell-permeant photo-activatable ("caged") and non-caged membrane-permeant analogs of dioctanoyl phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (diC₈PIP₃) carrying biodegradable protecting groups by mass spectrometry. After successful cell entry, the photo-activatable group can be removed on demand by a light pulse. Hence, UV irradiation acts as a switch to expose the cellular metabolism to a bolus of active compound. To investigate lipid metabolites and to capture a more complete metabolome, we adapted standard extraction methods and employed multi-reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (MRM-MS). This required a previously developed permethylation method that stabilized metabolites and enhanced volatility of the phosphoinositide metabolites. The mass spectrometric analysis allowed for the monitoring of the intracellular removal of photo-activatable caging as well as biodegradable protecting groups from the membrane-permeant phosphoinositides along with cellular turnover, namely by dephosphorylation. We found that phosphate masking groups, namely acetoxymethyl esters, were rapidly removed by endogenous enzymes while butyrates masking hydroxy groups showed a longer lifetime, giving rise to trapped intermediates. We further identified key intermediate metabolites and demonstrated the beneficial effect of caging groups and their removal on the formation of favorable metabolites. Surprisingly, caging and protecting groups were found to influence each other's stability.

Targeted protein oxidation using a chromophore-modified rapamycin analog

Chemically induced dimerization of FKBP and FRB using rapamycin and rapamycin analogs has been utilized in a variety of biological applications. Formation of the FKBP-rapamycin-FRB ternary complex is typically used to activate a biological process and this interaction has proven to be essentially irreversible. In many cases, it would be beneficial to also have temporal control over deactivating a biological process once it has been initiated. Thus, we developed the first reactive oxygen species-generating rapamycin analog toward this goal. The BODIPY-rapamycin analog BORap is capable of dimerizing FKBP and FRB to form a ternary complex, and upon irradiation with 530 nm light, generates singlet oxygen to oxidize and inactivate proteins of interest fused to FKBP/FRB.

Optical Manipulation of Subcellular Protein Translocation Using a Photoactivatable Covalent Labeling System

The photoactivatable chemically induced dimerization (photo-CID) technique for tag-fused proteins is one of the most promising methods for regulating subcellular protein translocations and protein-protein interactions. However, light-induced covalent protein dimerization in living cells has yet to be established, despite its various advantages. Herein, we developed a photoactivatable covalent protein-labeling technology by applying a caged ligand to the BL-tag system, a covalent protein labeling system that uses mutant β-lactamase. We further developed CBHD, a caged protein dimerizer, using caged BL-tag and HaloTag ligands, and achieved light-induced protein translocation from the cytoplasm to subcellular regions. In addition, this covalent photo-CID system enabled quick protein translocation to a laser-illuminated microregion. These results indicate that the covalent photo-CID system will expand the scope of CID applications in the optical manipulation of cellular functions.

Dual Systems for Enhancing Control of Protein Activity through Induced Dimerization Approaches

To reveal the underpinnings of complex biological systems, a variety of approaches have been developed that allow switchable control of protein function. One powerful approach for switchable control is the use of inducible dimerization systems, which can be configured to control activity of a target protein upon induced dimerization triggered by chemicals or light. Individually, many inducible dimerization systems suffer from pre-defined dynamic ranges and overwhelming sensitivity to expression level and cellular context. Such systems often require extensive engineering efforts to overcome issues of background leakiness and restricted dynamic range. To address these limitations, recent tool development efforts have explored overlaying dimerizer systems with a second layer of regulation. Albeit more complex, the resulting layered systems have enhanced functionality, such as tighter control that can improve portability of these tools across platforms.

Luciferase Controlled Protein Interactions

Protein trafficking and protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are central to regulatory processes in cells. Induced dimerization systems have been developed to control PPIs and regulate protein trafficking (localization) or interactions. Chemically induced dimerization (CID) has proven to be a robust approach to control protein interactions and localization. The most recent embodiment of this technology relies on CID conjugates that react with a self-labeling protein on one side and a photocaged ligand on the other side to provide spatiotemporal control of the interaction with the protein of interest. Advancing this technology further is limited by the light delivery problem and the phototoxicity of intense irradiation necessary to achieve photouncaging. Herein, we designed a novel chemically induced dimerization system that was triggered by bioluminescence, instead of external light. Protein dimerization showed fast kinetics and was validated by an induced change of localization of a target protein (to and from the nucleus or plasma membrane) upon trigger. The technology was used transiently to activate the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/mTOR pathway and measure the impact on lipid synthesis/metabolism, assessed by lipidomics.

Optogenetic Tools for Manipulating Protein Subcellular Localization and Intracellular Signaling at Organelle Contact Sites

Intracellular signaling processes are frequently based on direct interactions between proteins and organelles. A fundamental strategy to elucidate the physiological significance of such interactions is to utilize optical dimerization tools. These tools are based on the use of small proteins or domains that interact with each other upon light illumination. Optical dimerizers are particularly suitable for reproducing and interrogating a given protein-protein interaction and for investigating a protein's intracellular role in a spatially and temporally precise manner. Described in this article are genetic engineering strategies for the generation of modular light-activatable protein dimerization units and instructions for the preparation of optogenetic applications in mammalian cells. Detailed protocols are provided for the use of light-tunable switches to regulate protein recruitment to intracellular compartments, induce intracellular organellar membrane tethering, and reconstitute protein function using enhanced Magnets (eMags), a recently engineered optical dimerization system. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Genetic engineering strategy for the generation of modular light-activated protein dimerization units Support Protocol 1: Molecular cloning Basic Protocol 2: Cell culture and transfection Support Protocol 2: Production of dark containers for optogenetic samples Basic Protocol 3: Confocal microscopy and light-dependent activation of the dimerization system Alternate Protocol 1: Protein recruitment to intracellular compartments Alternate Protocol 2: Induction of organelles' membrane tethering Alternate Protocol 3: Optogenetic reconstitution of protein function Basic Protocol 4: Image analysis Support Protocol 3: Analysis of apparent on- and off-kinetics Support Protocol 4: Analysis of changes in organelle overlap over time.

Sphingomyelin Biosynthesis Is Essential for Phagocytic Signaling during Mycobacterium tuberculosis Host Cell Entry

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) invades alveolar macrophages through phagocytosis to establish infection and cause disease. The molecular mechanisms underlying Mtb entry are still poorly understood.

Phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages is the obligate first step in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection, yet the mechanism underlying this process is incompletely understood. Here, we show that Mtb invasion relies on an intact sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway. Inhibition or knockout of early sphingolipid biosynthetic enzymes greatly reduces Mtb uptake across multiple phagocytic cell types without affecting other forms of endocytosis. While the phagocytic receptor dectin-1 undergoes normal clustering at the pathogen contact sites, sphingolipid biosynthetic mutant cells fail to segregate the regulatory phosphatase CD45 from the clustered receptors. Blocking sphingolipid production also impairs downstream activation of Rho GTPases, actin dynamics, and phosphoinositide turnover at the nascent phagocytic cup. Moreover, we found that production of sphingomyelin, not glycosphingolipids, is essential for Mtb uptake. Collectively, our data support a critical role of sphingomyelin biosynthesis in an early stage of Mtb infection and provide novel insights into the mechanism underlying phagocytic entry of this pathogen.

Induced Dimerization Tools to Deplete Specific Phosphatidylinositol Phosphates

Chemical dimerization systems have been used to drive acute depletion of polyphosphoinsitides (PPIns). They do so by inducing subcellular localization of enzymes that catabolize PPIns. By using this approach, all seven PPIns can be depleted in living cells and in real time. The rapid permeation of dimerizer agents and the specific expression of recruiter proteins confer great spatial and temporal resolution with minimal cell perturbation. In this chapter, we provide detailed instructions to monitor and induce depletion of PPIns in live cells.

Chemogenetic Control of Protein Localization and Mammalian Cell Signaling by SLIPT

Chemical control of protein localization is a powerful approach for manipulating mammalian cellular processes. Self-localizing ligand-induced protein translocation (SLIPT) is an emerging platform that enables control of protein localization in living mammalian cells using synthetic self-localizing ligands (SLs). We recently established a chemogenetic SLIPT system, in which any protein of interest fused to an engineered variant of Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase, DHFR^iK6, can be rapidly and specifically translocated from the cytoplasm to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane (PM) using a trimethoprim (TMP)-based PM-targeting SL, m^DcTMP. The m^DcTMP-mediated PM recruitment of DHFR^iK6-fusion proteins can be efficiently returned to the cytoplasm by subsequent addition of free TMP, enabling temporal and reversible control over the protein localization. Here we describe the use of this m^DcTMP/DHFR^iK6-based SLIPT system for inducing (1) reversible protein translocation and (2) synthetic activation of the Raf/ERK pathway. This system provides a simple and versatile tool in mammalian synthetic biology for temporally manipulating various signaling molecules and pathways at the PM.

Reversible spatial and temporal control of lipid signaling

Herein, we introduce versatile molecular tools that enable specific delivery and visualization of photoswitchable lipids at cellular membranes, namely at the plasma membrane and internal membranes. These molecules were prepared by tethering ortho-nitrobenzyl-based fluorescent cages with a signaling lipid bearing an azobenzene photoswitch. They permit two sequential photocontrolled reactions, which are uncaging of a lipid analogue and then its repeated activation and deactivation. We used these molecules to activate GPR40 receptor transiently expressed in HeLa cells and demonstrated downstream modulation of intracellular Ca2+ levels.

Engineering Orthogonal, Plasma Membrane-Specific SLIPT Systems for Multiplexed Chemical Control of Signaling Pathways in Living Single Cells

Most cell behaviors are the outcome of processing information from multiple signals generated upon cell stimulation. Thus, a systematic understanding of cellular systems requires methods that allow the activation of more than one specific signaling molecule or pathway within a cell. However, the construction of tools suitable for such multiplexed signal control remains challenging. In this work, we aimed to develop a platform for chemically manipulating multiple signaling molecules/pathways in living mammalian cells based on self-localizing ligand-induced protein translocation (SLIPT). SLIPT is an emerging chemogenetic tool that controls protein localization and cell signaling using synthetic self-localizing ligands (SLs). Focusing on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane (PM), where there is a hub of intracellular signaling networks, here we present the design and engineering of two new PM-specific SLIPT systems based on an orthogonal eDHFR and SNAP-tag pair. These systems rapidly induce translocation of eDHFR- and SNAP-tag-fusion proteins from the cytoplasm to the PM specifically in a time scale of minutes upon addition of the corresponding SL. We then show that the combined use of the two systems enables chemically inducible, individual translocation of two distinct proteins in the same cell. Finally, by integrating the orthogonal SLIPT systems with fluorescent reporters, we demonstrate simultaneous multiplexed activation and fluorescence imaging of endogenous ERK and Akt activities in a single cell. Collectively, orthogonal PM-specific SLIPT systems provide a powerful new platform for multiplexed chemical signal control in living single cells, offering new opportunities for dissecting cell signaling networks and synthetic cell manipulation.

A GTPase-induced switch in phospholipid affinity of collybistin contributes to synaptic gephyrin clustering

Synaptic transmission between neurons relies on the exact spatial organization of postsynaptic transmitter receptors, which are recruited and positioned by dedicated scaffolding and regulatory proteins. At GABAergic synapses, the regulatory protein collybistin (Cb, also known as ARHGEF9) interacts with small GTPases, cell adhesion proteins and phosphoinositides to recruit the scaffolding protein gephyrin and GABA_A receptors to nascent synapses. We dissected the interaction of Cb with the small Rho-like GTPase TC10 (also known as RhoQ) and phospholipids. Our data define a protein-lipid interaction network that controls the clustering of gephyrin at synapses. Within this network, TC10 and monophosphorylated phosphoinositides, particulary phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P), provide a coincidence detection platform that allows the accumulation and activation of Cb in endomembranes. Upon activation, TC10 induces a phospholipid affinity switch in Cb, which allows Cb to specifically interact with phosphoinositide species present at the plasma membrane. We propose that this GTPase-based regulatory switch mechanism represents an important step in the process of tethering of Cb-dependent scaffolds and receptors at nascent postsynapses.

Cracking the context-specific PI3K signaling code

Specificity in signal transduction is determined by the ability of cells to "encode" and subsequently "decode" different environmental signals. Akin to computer software, this "signaling code" governs context-dependent execution of cellular programs through modulation of signaling dynamics and can be corrupted by disease-causing mutations. Class IA phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling is critical for normal growth and development and is dysregulated in human disorders such as benign overgrowth syndromes, cancer, primary immune deficiency, and metabolic syndrome. Despite decades of PI3K research, understanding of context-dependent regulation of the PI3K pathway and of the underlying signaling code remains rudimentary. Here, we review current knowledge on context-specific PI3K signaling and how technological advances now make it possible to move from a qualitative to quantitative understanding of this pathway. Insight into how cellular PI3K signaling is encoded or decoded may open new avenues for rational pharmacological targeting of PI3K-associated diseases. The principles of PI3K context-dependent signal encoding and decoding described here are likely applicable to most, if not all, major cell signaling pathways.

Chemical activation of divergent protein tyrosine phosphatase domains with cyanine-based biarsenicals

Strategies for the direct chemical activation of specific signaling proteins could provide powerful tools for interrogating cellular signal transduction. However, targeted protein activation is chemically challenging, and few broadly applicable activation strategies for signaling enzymes have been developed. Here we report that classical protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) domains from multiple subfamilies can be systematically sensitized to target-specific activation by the cyanine-based biarsenical compounds AsCy3 and AsCy5. Engineering of the activatable PTPs (actPTPs) is achieved by the introduction of three cysteine residues within a conserved loop of the PTP domain, and the positions of the sensitizing mutations are readily identifiable from primary sequence alignments. In the current study we have generated and characterized actPTP domains from three different subfamilies of both receptor and non-receptor PTPs. Biarsenical-induced stimulation of the actPTPs is rapid and dose-dependent, and is operative with both purified enzymes and complex proteomic mixtures. Our results suggest that a substantial fraction of the classical PTP family will be compatible with the act-engineering approach, which provides a novel chemical-biological tool for the control of PTP activity and the study of PTP function.

A Coumarin Triflate Reagent Enables One-Step Synthesis of Photo-Caged Lipid Metabolites for Studying Cell Signaling

Photorelease of caged compounds is among the most powerful experimental approaches for studying cellular functions on fast timescales. However, its full potential has yet to be exploited, as the number of caged small molecules available for cell biological studies has been limited by synthetic challenges. Addressing this problem, a straightforward, one‐step procedure for efficiently synthesizing caged compounds was developed. An in situ generated benzylic coumarin triflate reagent was used to specifically functionalize carboxylate and phosphate moieties in the presence of free hydroxy groups, generating various caged lipid metabolites, including a number of GPCR ligands. By combining the photo‐caged ligands with the respective receptors, an easily implementable experimental platform for the optical control and analysis of GPCR‐mediated signal transduction in living cells was developed. Ultimately, the described synthetic strategy allows rapid generation of photo‐caged small molecules and thus greatly facilitates the analysis of their biological roles in live cell microscopy assays.

Light-Induced Dimerization Approaches to Control Cellular Processes

Light‐inducible approaches provide a means to control biological systems with spatial and temporal resolution that is unmatched by traditional genetic perturbations. Recent developments of optogenetic and chemo‐optogenetic systems for induced proximity in cells facilitate rapid and reversible manipulation of highly dynamic cellular processes and have become valuable tools in diverse biological applications. New expansions of the toolbox facilitate control of signal transduction, genome editing, “painting” patterns of active molecules onto cellular membranes, and light‐induced cell cycle control. A combination of light‐ and chemically induced dimerization approaches have also seen interesting progress. Herein, an overview of optogenetic systems and emerging chemo‐optogenetic systems is provided, and recent applications in tackling complex biological problems are discussed.

A genetically encoded toolkit of functionalized nanobodies against fluorescent proteins for visualizing and manipulating intracellular signalling

BACKGROUND

Intrabodies enable targeting of proteins in live cells, but generating specific intrabodies against the thousands of proteins in a proteome poses a challenge. We leverage the widespread availability of fluorescently labelled proteins to visualize and manipulate intracellular signalling pathways in live cells by using nanobodies targeting fluorescent protein tags.

RESULTS

We generated a toolkit of plasmids encoding nanobodies against red and green fluorescent proteins (RFP and GFP variants), fused to functional modules. These include fluorescent sensors for visualization of Ca2+, H+ and ATP/ADP dynamics; oligomerising or heterodimerising modules that allow recruitment or sequestration of proteins and identification of membrane contact sites between organelles; SNAP tags that allow labelling with fluorescent dyes and targeted chromophore-assisted light inactivation; and nanobodies targeted to lumenal sub-compartments of the secretory pathway. We also developed two methods for crosslinking tagged proteins: a dimeric nanobody, and RFP-targeting and GFP-targeting nanobodies fused to complementary hetero-dimerizing domains. We show various applications of the toolkit and demonstrate, for example, that IP3 receptors deliver Ca2+ to the outer membrane of only a subset of mitochondria and that only one or two sites on a mitochondrion form membrane contacts with the plasma membrane.

CONCLUSIONS

This toolkit greatly expands the utility of intrabodies and will enable a range of approaches for studying and manipulating cell signalling in live cells.

Characteristic, completion or matching timescales? An analysis of temporary boundaries in enzyme kinetics

Scaling analysis exploiting timescale separation has been one of the most important techniques in the quantitative analysis of nonlinear dynamical systems in mathematical and theoretical biology. In the case of enzyme catalyzed reactions, it is often overlooked that the characteristic timescales used for the scaling the rate equations are not ideal for determining when concentrations and reaction rates reach their maximum values. In this work, we first illustrate this point by considering the classic example of the single-enzyme, single-substrate Michaelis-Menten reaction mechanism. We then extend this analysis to a more complicated reaction mechanism, the auxiliary enzyme reaction, in which a substrate is converted to product in two sequential enzyme-catalyzed reactions. In this case, depending on the ordering of the relevant timescales, several dynamic regimes can emerge. In addition to the characteristic timescales for these regimes, we derive matching timescales that determine (approximately) when the transitions from transient to quasi-steady-state kinetics occurs. The approach presented here is applicable to a wide range of singular perturbation problems in nonlinear dynamical systems.

Nitrobenzyl-based fluorescent photocages for spatial and temporal control of signalling lipids in cells

Here we present a set of fluorescent cages prepared by tethering fluorescent dyes to a photolabile group.

A high-avidity biosensor reveals plasma membrane PI(3,4)P2 is predominantly a class I PI3K signaling product

Class I phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase (PI3K) signaling is central to animal growth and metabolism, and pathological disruption of this pathway affects cancer and diabetes. However, the specific spatial/temporal dynamics and signaling roles of its minor lipid messenger, phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P₂), are not well understood. This owes principally to a lack of tools to study this scarce lipid. Here we developed a high-sensitivity genetically encoded biosensor for PI(3,4)P₂, demonstrating high selectivity and specificity of the sensor for the lipid. We show that despite clear evidence for class II PI3K in PI(3,4)P₂-driven function, the overwhelming majority of the lipid accumulates through degradation of class I PI3K-produced PIP₃ However, we show that PI(3,4)P₂ is also subject to hydrolysis by the tumor suppressor lipid phosphatase PTEN. Collectively, our results show that PI(3,4)P₂ is potentially an important driver of class I PI3K-driven signaling and provides powerful new tools to begin to resolve the biological functions of this lipid downstream of class I and II PI3K.

FKBP Ligands-Where We Are and Where to Go?

In recent years, many members of the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) family were increasingly linked to various diseases. The binding domain of FKBPs differs only in a few amino acid residues, but their biological roles are versatile. High-affinity ligands with selectivity between close homologs are scarce. This review will give an overview of the most prominent ligands developed for FKBPs and highlight a perspective for future developments. More precisely, human FKBPs and correlated diseases will be discussed as well as microbial FKBPs in the context of anti-bacterial and anti-fungal therapeutics. The last section gives insights into high-affinity ligands as chemical tools and dimerizers.

Reversible Control of Protein Localization in Living Cells Using a Photocaged-Photocleavable Chemical Dimerizer

Many dynamic biological processes are regulated by protein-protein interactions and protein localization. Experimental techniques to probe such processes with temporal and spatial precision include photoactivatable proteins and chemically induced dimerization (CID) of proteins. CID has been used to study several cellular events, especially cell signaling networks, which are often reversible. However, chemical dimerizers that can be both rapidly activated and deactivated with high spatiotemporal resolution are currently limited. Herein, we present a novel chemical inducer of protein dimerization that can be rapidly turned on and off using single pulses of light at two orthogonal wavelengths. We demonstrate the utility of this molecule by controlling peroxisome transport and mitotic checkpoint signaling in living cells. Our system highlights and enhances the spatiotemporal control offered by CID. This tool addresses biological questions on subcellular levels by controlling protein-protein interactions.

A new temperature-dependent strategy to modulate the epidermal growth factor receptor

The dynamic manipulation of kinases remains a major obstacle to unraveling cell-signaling networks responsible for the activation of biological systems. For example, epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulates the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR/ErbB1); however, EGF also recruits other kinases (HER2/ErbB2) involved with various signaling pathways. To better study EGFR we report a new strategy to selectively activate receptor tyrosine kinases fused to elastin-like polypeptides (ELPs), which can be visualized inside mammalian cells using fixed and live-cell fluorescence microscopy. ELPs are high molecular weight polypeptides that phase separate abruptly upon heating. When an EGFR-ELP fusion is heated, it clusters, initiates receptor internalization, phosphorylates, initiates downstream kinase signaling, and undergoes retrograde transport towards the cell body. Unlike other strategies to block EGFR (small molecule inhibitors, RNAi, or transcriptional regulators), EGFR-ELP clustering can be specifically switched on or off within minutes. Live-cell imaging suggests that EGFR-ELPs assemble in most cells with only a 3 °C increase in temperature. This strategy was found reversible and able to dynamically control the downstream phosphorylation/activation of the ERK1/2 pathway. For the first time, this strategy enables the rational engineering of specific temperature-sensitive receptors that may have broad applications in the study and manipulation of biological processes.

A chemically induced proximity system engineered from the plant auxin signaling pathway

Methods based on chemically induced proximity (CIP) serve as powerful tools to control cellular processes in a temporally specific manner. To expand the repertoire of CIP systems available for studies of cellular processes, we engineered the plant auxin signaling pathway to create a new indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) based CIP method. Auxin-induced protein degradation that occurs in the natural pathway was eliminated in the system. The new IAA based method is both readily inducible and reversible, and used to control the production of therapeutic proteins that induced the apoptosis of cancer cells. The approach is also orthogonal to existing CIP systems and used to construct a biological Boolean logic gate controlling gene expression system. We believe that the new CIP method will be applicable to the artificial control and dissection of complex cellular functions.

Tunable and Photoswitchable Chemically Induced Dimerization for Chemo-optogenetic Control of Protein and Organelle Positioning

The spatiotemporal dynamics of proteins and organelles play an important role in controlling diverse cellular processes. Optogenetic tools using photosensitive proteins and chemically induced dimerization (CID), which allow control of protein dimerization, have been used to elucidate the dynamics of biological systems and to dissect the complicated biological regulatory networks. However, the inherent limitations of current optogenetic and CID systems remain a significant challenge for the fine‐tuning of cellular activity at precise times and locations. Herein, we present a novel chemo‐optogenetic approach, photoswitchable chemically induced dimerization (psCID), for controlling cellular function by using blue light in a rapid and reversible manner. Moreover, psCID is tunable; that is, the dimerization and dedimerization degrees can be fine‐tuned by applying different doses of illumination. Using this approach, we control the localization of proteins and positioning of organelles in live cells with high spatial (μm) and temporal (ms) precision.

Light-activated protein interaction with high spatial subcellular confinement

Methods to acutely manipulate protein interactions at the subcellular level are powerful tools in cell biology. Several blue-light-dependent optical dimerization tools have been developed. In these systems one protein component of the dimer (the bait) is directed to a specific subcellular location, while the other component (the prey) is fused to the protein of interest. Upon illumination, binding of the prey to the bait results in its subcellular redistribution. Here, we compared and quantified the extent of light-dependent dimer occurrence in small, subcellular volumes controlled by three such tools: Cry2/CIB1, iLID, and Magnets. We show that both the location of the photoreceptor protein(s) in the dimer pair and its (their) switch-off kinetics determine the subcellular volume where dimer formation occurs and the amount of protein recruited in the illuminated volume. Efficient spatial confinement of dimer to the area of illumination is achieved when the photosensitive component of the dimerization pair is tethered to the membrane of intracellular compartments and when on and off kinetics are extremely fast, as achieved with iLID or Magnets. Magnets and the iLID variants with the fastest switch-off kinetics induce and maintain protein dimerization in the smallest volume, although this comes at the expense of the total amount of dimer. These findings highlight the distinct features of different optical dimerization systems and will be useful guides in the choice of tools for specific applications.

Mitochondria-specific photoactivation to monitor local sphingosine metabolism and function

Photoactivation ('uncaging’) is a powerful approach for releasing bioactive small-molecules in living cells. Current uncaging methods are limited by the random distribution of caged molecules within cells. We have developed a mitochondria-specific photoactivation method, which permitted us to release free sphingosine inside mitochondria and thereafter monitor local sphingosine metabolism by lipidomics. Our results indicate that sphingosine was quickly phosphorylated into sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) driven by sphingosine kinases. In time-course studies, the mitochondria-specific uncaged sphingosine demonstrated distinct metabolic patterns compared to globally-released sphingosine, and did not induce calcium spikes. Our data provide direct evidence that sphingolipid metabolism and signaling are highly dependent on the subcellular location and opens up new possibilities to study the effects of lipid localization on signaling and metabolic fate.

Fatty or oily molecules called lipids are essential components of the membranes of cells and important signaling molecules too. They are made in specific compartments of the cell, but most are found in all membranes, albeit in varying amounts. Their widespread distribution suggests that there are extensive networks for transporting lipids within cells. Yet scientists know little about lipid transport inside living cells because it is difficult to detect their movements.

Mitochondria are cellular compartments that are often referred to as the “powerhouses of the cell”. Many lipids are found in mitochondria including one called sphingosine, which is a common component of many other cell membranes too. Sphingosine can increase the concentration of calcium ions inside the cells, and when converted to a molecule called sphingosine 1 phosphate it forms a signaling molecule that regulates fundamental processes like cell survival and migration. However, it was not known if sphingosine localized in the mitochondria was processed differently to the same molecule elsewhere in the cell, or if its signaling activity was affected by its location.

In the laboratory, Feng et al. synthesized an inactive sphingosine-like molecule that would only localize to mitochondria and which could be activated with a flash of light. By adding this molecule to human cells, they showed that sphingosine could be converted to sphingosine 1 phosphate within the mitochondria, before being exported rapidly to another compartment in the cell. The experiments allowed Feng et al. to observe the process in enough detail to to conclude that, despite its rapid transport, when localized only inside mitochondria, sphingosine could not trigger its normal signaling response.

This new light-activated lipid molecule will be a useful tool for many researchers studying both metabolism and signaling. In principle, a similar tool could be developed for many compounds and it should also be possible to localize the compound to different locations within the cell. This new generation of compounds would give scientists a better understanding of mitochondria biology. They could be applied to the study of diseases where the mitochondria do not function as they should, for example Barth syndrome, where a mitochondria specific lipid called cardiolipin is not properly synthesized.

An improved Akt reporter reveals intra- and inter-cellular heterogeneity and oscillations in signal transduction

Akt is a key node in a range of signal transduction cascades and play a critical role in diseases such as cancer and diabetes. Fluorescently-tagged Akt reporters have been used to discern Akt localisation, yet it has not been clear how well these tools recapitulate the behaviour of endogenous Akt proteins. Here, we observed that fusion of eGFP to Akt2 impaired both its insulin-stimulated plasma membrane recruitment and its phosphorylation. Endogenous-like responses were restored by replacing eGFP with TagRFP-T. The improved response magnitude and sensitivity afforded by TagRFP-T-Akt2 over eGFP-Akt2 enabled monitoring of signalling outcomes in single cells at physiological doses of insulin with subcellular resolution and revealed two previously unreported features of Akt biology. In 3T3-L1 adipocytes, stimulation with insulin resulted in recruitment of Akt2 to the plasma membrane in a polarised fashion. Additionally, we observed oscillations in plasma membrane localised Akt2 in the presence of insulin with a consistent periodicity of 2 min. Our studies highlight the importance of fluorophore choice when generating reporter constructs and shed light on new Akt signalling responses that may encode complex signalling information.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Synchronized HIV assembly by tunable PIP2 changes reveals PIP2 requirement for stable Gag anchoring

HIV-1 assembles at the plasma membrane (PM) of infected cells. PM association of the main structural protein Gag depends on its myristoylated MA domain and PM PI(4,5)P₂. Using a novel chemical biology tool that allows rapidly tunable manipulation of PI(4,5)P₂ levels in living cells, we show that depletion of PI(4,5)P₂ completely prevents Gag PM targeting and assembly site formation. Unexpectedly, PI(4,5)P₂ depletion also caused loss of pre-assembled Gag lattices from the PM. Subsequent restoration of PM PI(4,5)P₂ reinduced assembly site formation even in the absence of new protein synthesis, indicating that the dissociated Gag molecules remained assembly competent. These results reveal an important role of PI(4,5)P₂ for HIV-1 morphogenesis beyond Gag recruitment to the PM and suggest a dynamic equilibrium of Gag-lipid interactions. Furthermore, they establish an experimental system that permits synchronized induction of HIV-1 assembly leading to induced production of infectious virions by targeted modulation of Gag PM targeting.

Trifunctional lipid probes for comprehensive studies of single lipid species in living cells

Lipid-mediated signaling events regulate many cellular processes. Investigations of the complex underlying mechanisms are difficult because several different methods need to be used under varying conditions. Here we introduce multifunctional lipid derivatives to study lipid metabolism, lipid-protein interactions, and intracellular lipid localization with a single tool per target lipid. The probes are equipped with two photoreactive groups to allow photoliberation (uncaging) and photo-cross-linking in a sequential manner, as well as a click-handle for subsequent functionalization. We demonstrate the versatility of the design for the signaling lipids sphingosine and diacylglycerol; uncaging of the probe for these two species triggered calcium signaling and intracellular protein translocation events, respectively. We performed proteomic screens to map the lipid-interacting proteome for both lipids. Finally, we visualized a sphingosine transport deficiency in patient-derived Niemann-Pick disease type C fibroblasts by fluorescence as well as correlative light and electron microscopy, pointing toward the diagnostic potential of such tools. We envision that this type of probe will become important for analyzing and ultimately understanding lipid signaling events in a comprehensive manner.

Reversible Chemical Dimerization by rCD1

An optimal tool to unravel the role of a specific player within a cellular network or process requires its spatiotemporally resolved perturbation. Chemically induced dimerization (CID) by the rapamycin system has proven useful to induce protein dimerization or translocation with high spatiotemporal precision. Recently, we and others have added reversibility of the dimerization event as a novel feature to CID approaches. Among those, our reversible chemical dimerizer (rCD1) shows the fastest release kinetics observed, comparable to optogenetic methods. Induction and termination of enzyme activities, including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and 5-phosphatase (5Ptase), therefore allowed us to monitor the relaxation of the downstream effectors within living cells by imaging and traditional biochemical methods. Because switching off the rCD1-induced enzyme activity is sufficiently fast, it is possible to estimate kinetic parameters for enzyme activity and metabolism. Fast reversible CIDs are therefore unique tools for performing semiquantitative biochemistry in intact cells. In this chapter, we discuss advantages and constraints for the design of reversible CID applications. We provide detailed protocols for rCD1 synthesis, CID component expression in and delivery to mammalian cells and the determination of enzyme kinetics inside intact cells by a specially designed image acquisition and data analysis method.

Approaches to Study Phosphatases

Phosphatases play key roles in normal physiology and diseases. Studying phosphatases has been both essential and challenging, and the application of conventional genetic and biochemical methods has led to crucial but still limited understanding of their mechanisms, substrates, and exclusive functions within highly intricate networks. With the advances in technologies such as cellular imaging and molecular and chemical biology in terms of sensitive tools and methods, the phosphatase field has thrived in the past years and has set new insights for cell signaling studies and for therapeutic development. In this review, we give an overview of the existing interdisciplinary tools for phosphatases, give examples on how they have been applied to increase our understanding of these enzymes, and suggest how they-and other tools yet barely used in the phosphatase field-might be adapted to address future questions and challenges.

Photoswitchable diacylglycerols enable optical control of protein kinase C

Increased levels of the second messenger lipid diacylglycerol (DAG) induce downstream signaling events including the translocation of C1-domain-containing proteins toward the plasma membrane. Here, we introduce three light-sensitive DAGs, termed PhoDAGs, which feature a photoswitchable acyl chain. The PhoDAGs are inactive in the dark and promote the translocation of proteins that feature C1 domains toward the plasma membrane upon a flash of UV-A light. This effect is quickly reversed after the termination of photostimulation or by irradiation with blue light, permitting the generation of oscillation patterns. Both protein kinase C and Munc13 can thus be put under optical control. PhoDAGs control vesicle release in excitable cells, such as mouse pancreatic islets and hippocampal neurons, and modulate synaptic transmission in Caenorhabditis elegans. As such, the PhoDAGs afford an unprecedented degree of spatiotemporal control and are broadly applicable tools to study DAG signaling.