1
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Zhou J, Miao Y, Ding H, Ren Y, Ye L, Yue B, He H. Direct and stable hydrogenation of CO 2 to aromatics over a tandem catalyst Zn 0.1Ti 0.9O x/HZSM-5. iScience 2024; 27:110360. [PMID: 39071884 PMCID: PMC11277381 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Direct and stable conversion of CO2 to aromatics (CTA) is an attractive route for reducing CO2 emissions. However, due to the chemical inertness of CO2, direct CTA reaction with high aromatics selectivity is still challenging. In this work, a tandem catalyst Zn0.1Ti0.9Ox/HZSM-5 with appropriate density and strength of acid sites exhibits a high aromatics selectivity of 67.2% and long-term stability over 100 h. Furthermore, the total selectivity of benzene, toluene, and xylene achieves 24.1% over Zn0.1Ti0.9Ox/HZSM-5 with a modified hydrophilic surface. In addition, the CTA via the formate route has been determined in this reaction system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junfu Zhou
- Department of Chemistry and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Yuting Miao
- Department of Chemistry and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Hongxin Ding
- Department of Chemistry and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Yuanhang Ren
- Department of Chemistry and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Lin Ye
- Department of Chemistry and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Bin Yue
- Department of Chemistry and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Heyong He
- Department of Chemistry and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Shanghai 200438, China
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2
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Ma Q, Fu T, Wang Z, Li C, Wu X, Yang N, Li Z. Hollow Zeolite Nanoreactor with Double Shells for Methanol Aromatization: Explicit Recognition on Catalytic Function of Inverse Elemental Zone and Shell-Cavity. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2308502. [PMID: 38168120 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202308502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Core@shell catalyst composited of dual aluminosilicate zeolite can effectively regulate the distribution of acid sites to control hydrocarbon conversion process for the stable formation of target product. However, the diffusion restriction reduces the accessibility of inner active sites and affects synergy between core and shell. Herein, hollow ZSM-5 zeolite nanoreactor with inverse aluminum distribution and double shells are prepared and employed for methanol aromatization. It is demonstrated that the intershell cavity alleviated the steric hindrance from zeolites channel and provided more paths and pore entrance for guest molecule. Correspondingly, olefin intermediates generated from methanol over the external shell are easier to adsorb at internal acid sites for further reactions. Importantly, the diffusion of generated aromatic macromolecules to the external surface is also promoted, which slows down the formation of internal coke, and ensures the use of internal acid sites for aromatization. The aromatics selectivity of the nanoreactor remained at 8% after 154 h, while that of solid core@shell catalyst decreased to 2% after 75 h. This finding promises broader insight to improve internal active site utilization of core@shell catalyst at the diffusion level and can be great aid in the flexible design of multifunctional nanoreactors to enhance the relay efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Clean and Efficient Coal Utilization, College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030024, China
| | - Tingjun Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Clean and Efficient Coal Utilization, College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030024, China
| | - Zhuo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean and Efficient Coal Utilization, College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030024, China
| | - Caiyan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Clean and Efficient Coal Utilization, College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030024, China
| | - Xueqing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Clean and Efficient Coal Utilization, College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030024, China
| | - Ning Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean and Efficient Coal Utilization, College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030024, China
| | - Zhong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Clean and Efficient Coal Utilization, College of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 030024, China
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3
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Filez M, Walke P, Le-The H, Toyouchi S, Peeters W, Tomkins P, Eijkel JCT, De Feyter S, Detavernier C, De Vos DE, Uji-I H, Roeffaers MBJ. Nanoscale Chemical Diversity of Coke Deposits on Nanoprinted Metal Catalysts Visualized by Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2305984. [PMID: 37938141 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202305984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
Coke formation is the prime cause of catalyst deactivation, where undesired carbon wastes block the catalyst surface and hinder further reaction in a broad gamut of industrial chemical processes. Yet, the origins of coke formation and their distribution across the catalyst remain elusive, obstructing the design of coke-resistant catalysts. Here, the first-time application of tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) is demonstrated as a nanoscale chemical probe to localize and identify coke deposits on a post-mortem metal nanocatalyst. Monitoring coke at the nanoscale circumvents bulk averaging and reveals the local nature of coke with unmatched detail. The nature of coke is chemically diverse and ranges from nanocrystalline graphite to disordered and polymeric coke, even on a single nanoscale location of a top-down nanoprinted SiO2 -supported Pt catalyst. Surprisingly, not all Pt is an equal producer of coke, where clear isolated coke "hotspots" are present non-homogeneously on Pt which generate large amounts of disordered coke. After their formation, coke shifts to the support and undergoes long-range transport on the surrounding SiO2 surface, where it becomes more graphitic. The presented results provide novel guidelines to selectively free-up the coked metal surface at more mild rejuvenation conditions, thus securing the long-term catalyst stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Filez
- Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
- Conformal Coating of Nanomaterials (CoCooN), Department of Solid State Sciences, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281/S1, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Peter Walke
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Hai Le-The
- BIOS Lab-on-a-Chip Group, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, Enschede, NB, 7522, The Netherlands
| | - Shuichi Toyouchi
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Wannes Peeters
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Patrick Tomkins
- Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Jan C T Eijkel
- BIOS Lab-on-a-Chip Group, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, Enschede, NB, 7522, The Netherlands
| | - Steven De Feyter
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Christophe Detavernier
- Conformal Coating of Nanomaterials (CoCooN), Department of Solid State Sciences, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281/S1, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Dirk E De Vos
- Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
| | - Hiroshi Uji-I
- Division of Molecular Imaging and Photonics, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
- Research Institute for Electronic Science (RIES), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 001-0020, Japan
- Division of Information Science and Technology, Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0814, Japan
| | - Maarten B J Roeffaers
- Centre for Membrane Separations, Adsorption, Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions (cMACS), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven, 3001, Belgium
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4
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Zand F, Hangx SJT, Spiers CJ, van den Brink PJ, Burns J, Boebinger MG, Poplawsky JD, Monai M, Weckhuysen BM. Elucidating the Structure and Composition of Individual Bimetallic Nanoparticles in Supported Catalysts by Atom Probe Tomography. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:17299-17308. [PMID: 37490556 PMCID: PMC10416302 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c04474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Understanding and controlling the structure and composition of nanoparticles in supported metal catalysts are crucial to improve chemical processes. For this, atom probe tomography (APT) is a unique tool, as it allows for spatially resolved three-dimensional chemical imaging of materials with sub-nanometer resolution. However, thus far APT has not been applied for mesoporous oxide-supported metal catalyst materials, due to the size and number of pores resulting in sample fracture during experiments. To overcome these issues, we developed a high-pressure resin impregnation strategy and showcased the applicability to high-porous supported Pd-Ni-based catalyst materials, which are active in CO2 hydrogenation. Within the reconstructed volume of 3 × 105 nm3, we identified over 400 Pd-Ni clusters, with compositions ranging from 0 to 16 atom % Pd and a size distribution of 2.6 ± 1.6 nm. These results illustrate that APT is capable of quantitatively assessing the size, composition, and metal distribution for a large number of nanoparticles at the sub-nm scale in industrial catalysts. Furthermore, we showcase that metal segregation occurred predominately between nanoparticles, shedding light on the mechanism of metal segregation. We envision that the presented methodology expands the capabilities of APT to investigate porous functional nanomaterials, including but not limited to solid catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Zand
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Institute for Sustainable and Circular
Chemistry and Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Suzanne J. T. Hangx
- High
Pressure and Temperature Laboratory, Utrecht
University, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Christopher J. Spiers
- High
Pressure and Temperature Laboratory, Utrecht
University, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - James Burns
- Center
for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Matthew G. Boebinger
- Center
for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Jonathan D. Poplawsky
- Center
for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Matteo Monai
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Institute for Sustainable and Circular
Chemistry and Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Institute for Sustainable and Circular
Chemistry and Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
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5
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Le TT, Qin W, Agarwal A, Nikolopoulos N, Fu D, Patton MD, Weiland C, Bare SR, Palmer JC, Weckhuysen BM, Rimer JD. Elemental zoning enhances mass transport in zeolite catalysts for methanol to hydrocarbons. Nat Catal 2023. [DOI: 10.1038/s41929-023-00927-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
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6
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Hua Z, Yang Y, Liu J. Direct hydrogenation of carbon dioxide to value-added aromatics. Coord Chem Rev 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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7
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Li J, Gao M, Yan W, Yu J. Regulation of the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions of zeolites and their impact on properties. Chem Sci 2023; 14:1935-1959. [PMID: 36845940 PMCID: PMC9945477 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc06010h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Zeolites are typically a class of crystalline microporous aluminosilicates that are constructed by SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra. Because of their unique porous structures, strong Brönsted acidity, molecular-level shape selectivity, exchangeable cations, and high thermal/hydrothermal stability, zeolites are widely used as catalysts, adsorbents, and ion-exchangers in industry. The activity, selectivity, and stability/durability of zeolites in applications are closely related to their Si/Al ratios and Al distributions in the framework. In this review, we discussed the basic principles and the state-of-the-art methodologies for regulating the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions of zeolites, including seed-assisted recipe modification, interzeolite transformation, fluoride media, and usage of organic structure-directing agents (OSDAs), etc. The conventional and newly developed characterization methods for determining the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions were summarized, which include X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), solid state 29Si/27Al magic-angle-spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (29Si/27Al MAS NMR), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), etc. The impact of Si/Al ratios and Al distributions on the catalysis, adsorption/separation, and ion-exchange performance of zeolites were subsequently demonstrated. Finally, we presented a perspective on the precise control of the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions of zeolites and the corresponding challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
| | - Mingkun Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
| | - Wenfu Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
| | - Jihong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China .,International Center of Future Science, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
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8
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Catalytic methane halogenation by bromine over microporous SAPO-34 zeolite material towards methyl bromide, dibromomethane and hydrogen bromide. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2022.104645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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9
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Ji Y, Liu Z, Zhao Z, Gao P, Bao X, Chen K, Hou G. Untangling Framework Confinements: A Dynamical Study on Bulky Aromatic Molecules in MFI Zeolites. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c04646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, 2011-Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan Road 457, Dalian116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Zhengmao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, 2011-Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan Road 457, Dalian116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100049, China
| | - Zhenchao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, 2011-Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan Road 457, Dalian116023, China
| | - Pan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, 2011-Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan Road 457, Dalian116023, China
| | - Xinhe Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, 2011-Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan Road 457, Dalian116023, China
| | - Kuizhi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, 2011-Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan Road 457, Dalian116023, China
| | - Guangjin Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, 2011-Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan Road 457, Dalian116023, China
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10
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van Vreeswijk S, Monai M, Oord R, Schmidt JE, Parvulescu AN, Yarulina I, Karwacki L, Poplawsky JD, Weckhuysen BM. Detecting Cage Crossing and Filling Clusters of Magnesium and Carbon Atoms in Zeolite SSZ-13 with Atom Probe Tomography. JACS AU 2022; 2:2501-2513. [PMID: 36465530 PMCID: PMC9709938 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.2c00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The conversion of methanol to valuable hydrocarbon molecules is of great commercial interest, as the process serves as a sustainable alternative for the production of, for instance, the base chemicals for plastics. The reaction is catalyzed by zeolite materials. By the introduction of magnesium as a cationic metal, the properties of the zeolite, and thereby the catalytic performance, are changed. With atom probe tomography (APT), nanoscale relations within zeolite materials can be revealed: i.e., crucial information for a fundamental mechanistic understanding. We show that magnesium forms clusters within the cages of zeolite SSZ-13, while the framework elements are homogeneously distributed. These clusters of just a few nanometers were analyzed and visualized in 3-D. Magnesium atoms seem to initially be directed to the aluminum sites, after which they aggregate and fill one or two cages in the zeolite SSZ-13 structure. The presence of magnesium in zeolite SSZ-13 increases the lifetime as well as the propylene selectivity. By using operando UV-vis spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction techniques, we are able to show that these findings are related to the suppression of aromatic intermediate products, while maintaining the formation of polyaromatic compounds. Further nanoscale analysis of the spent catalysts showed indications of magnesium redistribution after catalysis. Unlike zeolite H-SSZ-13, for which only a homogeneous distribution of carbon was found, carbon can be either homogeneously or heterogeneously distributed within zeolite Mg-SSZ-13 crystals as the magnesium decreases the coking rate. Carbon clusters were isolated, visualized, and analyzed and were assumed to be polyaromatic compounds. Small one-cage-filling polyaromatic compounds were identified; furthermore, large-cage-crossing aromatic molecules were found by isolating large coke clusters, demonstrating the unique coking mechanism in zeolite SSZ-13. Short-length-scale evidence for the formation of polyaromatic compounds at acid sites is discovered, as clear nanoscale relations between aluminum and carbon atoms exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie
H. van Vreeswijk
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, Utrecht 3854 CG, The Netherlands
| | - Matteo Monai
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, Utrecht 3854 CG, The Netherlands
| | - Ramon Oord
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, Utrecht 3854 CG, The Netherlands
| | - Joel E. Schmidt
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, Utrecht 3854 CG, The Netherlands
| | | | - Irina Yarulina
- BASF, Carl-Bosch-Straße 38, 67063 Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany
| | - Lukasz Karwacki
- BASF, Carl-Bosch-Straße 38, 67063 Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany
| | - Jonathan D. Poplawsky
- Center
for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic
Chemistry and Catalysis group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, Utrecht 3854 CG, The Netherlands
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11
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Wennmacher JTC, Mahmoudi S, Rzepka P, Sik Lee S, Gruene T, Paunović V, van Bokhoven JA. Electron Diffraction Enables the Mapping of Coke in ZSM-5 Micropores Formed during Methanol-to-Hydrocarbons Conversion. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202205413. [PMID: 35513343 PMCID: PMC9401574 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202205413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Unveiling the coke formation in zeolites is an essential prerequisite for tackling the deactivation of these catalysts in the transformations of hydrocarbons. Herein, we present the direct mapping of coke in the micropores of ZSM‐5 catalysts used in methanol‐to‐hydrocarbons conversion by single‐crystal electron diffraction analysis. The latter technique revealed a polycyclic aromatic structure along the straight channel, wherein the high‐quality data permit refinement of its occupancy to about 40 %. These findings were exploited to analyze the evolution of micropore coke during the reaction. Herein, coke‐associated signals, which correlate with the activity loss, indicate that the nucleation of coke commences in the intersections of sinusoidal and straight channels, while the formation of coke in the straight pores occurs in the late stages of deactivation. The findings uncover an attractive method for analyzing coke deposition in the micropore domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian T C Wennmacher
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Soheil Mahmoudi
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,Vienna Doctoral School in Chemistry (DoSChem), University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Przemyslaw Rzepka
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Sung Sik Lee
- Scientific Center of Optical and Electron Microscopy, ETH Zurich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tim Gruene
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Vladimir Paunović
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Jeroen A van Bokhoven
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
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12
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Electron Diffraction Enables the Mapping of Coke in ZSM‐5 Micropores Formed during Methanol‐to‐Hydrocarbons Conversion. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202205413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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13
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Hedlun J, Zhou M, Faisal A, G. W. Öhrman O, Finelli V, Signorile M, Crocellà V, Grahn M. Controlling Diffusion Resistance, Selectivity and Deactivation of ZSM-5 Catalysts by Crystal Thickness and Defects. J Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2022.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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14
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van Vreeswijk SH, Weckhuysen BM. Emerging Analytical Methods to Characterize Zeolite-Based Materials. Natl Sci Rev 2022; 9:nwac047. [PMID: 36128456 PMCID: PMC9477204 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwac047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Zeolites and zeolitic materials are, through their use in numerous conventional and sustainable applications, very important to our daily lives, including to foster the necessary transition to a more circular society. The characterization of zeolite-based materials has a tremendous history and a great number of applications and properties of these materials have been discovered in the past decades. This review focuses on recently developed novel as well as more conventional techniques applied with the aim of better understanding zeolite-based materials. Recently explored analytical methods, e.g. atom probe tomography, scanning transmission X-ray microscopy, confocal fluorescence microscopy and photo-induced force microscopy, are discussed on their important contributions to the better understanding of zeolites as they mainly focus on the micro- to nanoscale chemical imaging and the revelation of structure–composition–performance relationships. Some other techniques have a long and established history, e.g. nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared, neutron scattering, electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction techniques, and have gone through increasing developments allowing the techniques to discover new and important features in zeolite-based materials. Additional to the increasing application of these methods, multiple techniques are nowadays used to study zeolites under working conditions (i.e. the in situ/operando mode of analysis) providing new insights in reaction and deactivation mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H van Vreeswijk
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - B M Weckhuysen
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
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15
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Paunović V, Sushkevich V, Rzepka P, Artiglia L, Hauert R, Sik Lee S, van Bokhoven JA. Reactivation of catalysts for methanol–to–hydrocarbons conversion with hydrogen. J Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2022.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Abstract
Catalysis is at the core of chemistry and has been essential to make all the goods surrounding us, including fuels, coatings, plastics and other functional materials. In the near future, catalysis will also be an essential tool in making the shift from a fossil-fuel-based to a more renewable and circular society. To make this reality, we have to better understand the fundamental concept of the active site in catalysis. Here, we discuss the physical meaning - and deduce the validity and, therefore, usefulness - of some common approaches in heterogeneous catalysis, such as linking catalyst activity to a 'turnover frequency' and explaining catalytic performance in terms of 'structure sensitivity' or 'structure insensitivity'. Catalytic concepts from the fields of enzymatic and homogeneous catalysis are compared, ultimately realizing that the struggle that one encounters in defining the active site in most solid catalysts is likely the one we must overcome to reach our end goal: tailoring the precise functioning of the active sites with respect to many different parameters to satisfy our ever-growing needs. This article ends with an outlook of what may become feasible within the not-too-distant future with modern experimental and theoretical tools at hand.
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17
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van Vreeswijk SH, Monai M, Oord R, Schmidt JE, Vogt ETC, Poplawsky JD, Weckhuysen BM. Nano-scale insights regarding coke formation in zeolite SSZ-13 subject to the methanol-to-hydrocarbons reaction. Catal Sci Technol 2022; 12:1220-1228. [PMID: 35310769 PMCID: PMC8859524 DOI: 10.1039/d1cy01938d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The methanol-to-hydrocarbons (MTH) process, commonly catalyzed by zeolites, is of great commercial interest and therefore widely studied both in industry and academia. However, zeolite-based catalyst materials are notoriously hard to study at the nano-scale. Atom probe tomography (APT) is uniquely positioned among the suite of characterization techniques, as it can provide 3D chemical information with sub-nm resolution. In this work, we have used APT to study the nano-scale coking behavior of zeolite SSZ-13 and its relation to bulk coke formation on the macro-/micro-scale studied with operando and in situ UV-vis spectroscopy and microscopy. Radial distribution function analysis (RDF) of the APT data revealed short carbon–carbon length scale affinities, consistent with the formation of larger aromatic molecules (coke species). Using nearest neighbor distribution (NND) analysis, an increase in the homogeneity of carbon was found with increasing time-on-stream. However, carbon clusters could not be isolated due to spatial noise and limited clustering. Therefore, it was found that the coke formation in zeolite SSZ-13 (CHA) is reasonably homogeneous on the nano-scale, and is rather similar to the silicoaluminophosphate analogue SAPO-34 (CHA) but different in nano-scale coking behavior compared to previously studied zeolite ZSM-5 (MFI). A correlation between the micro- and nano-scale coking behavior of SSZ-13 was discovered with in situ/operando spectroscopy and atom probe tomography (APT), which allows for spatial reconstruction and analysis of relations between framework elements and carbon atoms.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- S. H. van Vreeswijk
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - M. Monai
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - R. Oord
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - J. E. Schmidt
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - E. T. C. Vogt
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - J. D. Poplawsky
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - B. M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
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18
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Bienz S, van Vreeswijk SH, Pandey Y, Bartolomeo GL, Weckhuysen BM, Zenobi R, Kumar N. Probing coke formation during the methanol-to-hydrocarbon reaction on zeolite ZSM-5 catalyst at the nanoscale using tip-enhanced fluorescence microscopy. Catal Sci Technol 2022; 12:5795-5801. [PMID: 36324827 PMCID: PMC9528927 DOI: 10.1039/d2cy01348g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The deactivation mechanism of the widely used zeolite ZSM-5 catalysts remains unclear to date due to the lack of analytical techniques with sufficient sensitivity and/or spatial resolution. Herein, a combination of hyperspectral confocal fluorescence microscopy (CFM) and tip-enhanced fluorescence (TEFL) microscopy is used to study the formation of different coke (precursor) species involved in the deactivation of zeolite ZSM-5 during the methanol-to-hydrocarbon (MTH) reaction. CFM submicron-scale imaging shows a preferential formation of graphite-like coke species at the edges of zeolite ZSM-5 crystals within 10 min of the MTH reaction (i.e., working catalyst), whilst the amount of graphite-like coke species uniformly increased over the entire zeolite ZSM-5 surface after 90 min (i.e., deactivated catalyst). Furthermore, TEFL nanoscale imaging with ∼35 nm spatial resolution revealed that formation of coke species on the zeolite ZSM-5 surface is non-uniform and a relatively larger amount of coke is formed at the crystal steps, indicating a higher initial catalytic activity. Inhomogeneities in coke formation during methanol-to-hydrocarbon reaction on the zeolite ZSM-5 catalyst are imaged with ∼35 nm spatial resolution using tip-enhanced fluorescence microscopy.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Siiri Bienz
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sophie H. van Vreeswijk
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis group, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Yashashwa Pandey
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Giovanni Luca Bartolomeo
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis group, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Renato Zenobi
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Naresh Kumar
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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19
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Harte Röntgen‐Nanotomographie zur 3D‐Analyse der Verkokung in Nickel‐basierten Katalysatoren. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202106380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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20
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Weber S, Batey D, Cipiccia S, Stehle M, Abel KL, Gläser R, Sheppard TL. Hard X-Ray Nanotomography for 3D Analysis of Coking in Nickel-Based Catalysts. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:21772-21777. [PMID: 34339595 PMCID: PMC8518723 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202106380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Understanding catalyst deactivation by coking is crucial for knowledge-based catalyst and process design in reactions with carbonaceous species. Post-mortem analysis of catalyst coking is often performed by bulk characterization methods. Here, hard X-ray ptychographic computed tomography (PXCT) was used to study Ni/Al2 O3 catalysts for CO2 methanation and CH4 dry reforming after artificial coking treatment. PXCT generated quantitative 3D maps of local electron density at ca. 80 nm resolution, allowing to visualize and evaluate the severity of coking in entire catalyst particles of ca. 40 μm diameter. Coking was primarily revealed in the nanoporous solid, which was not detectable in resolved macropores. Coke formation was independently confirmed by operando Raman spectroscopy. PXCT is highlighted as an emerging characterization tool for nanoscale identification, co-localization, and potentially quantification of deactivation phenomena in 3D space within entire catalyst particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Weber
- Institute for Chemical Technology and Polymer ChemistryKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Engesserstr. 2076131KarlsruheGermany
- Institute of Catalysis Research and TechnologyKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 176344Eggenstein-LeopoldshafenGermany
| | - Darren Batey
- Diamond Light SourceHarwell Science and Innovation CampusFermi AveDidcotOX11 0DEUK
| | - Silvia Cipiccia
- Dept. of Medical Physics & Biomedical EngineeringUniversity College LondonMalet Place, Gower StreetLondonWC1E 6BTUK
| | - Matthias Stehle
- Institute for Chemical Technology and Polymer ChemistryKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Engesserstr. 2076131KarlsruheGermany
| | - Ken L. Abel
- Institute of Chemical TechnologyUniversität LeipzigLinnéstr. 304103LeipzigGermany
| | - Roger Gläser
- Institute of Chemical TechnologyUniversität LeipzigLinnéstr. 304103LeipzigGermany
| | - Thomas L. Sheppard
- Institute for Chemical Technology and Polymer ChemistryKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Engesserstr. 2076131KarlsruheGermany
- Institute of Catalysis Research and TechnologyKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 176344Eggenstein-LeopoldshafenGermany
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21
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Li T, Shoinkhorova T, Gascon J, Ruiz-Martínez J. Aromatics Production via Methanol-Mediated Transformation Routes. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c01422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Teng Li
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KAUST Catalysis Center (KCC), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tuiana Shoinkhorova
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KAUST Catalysis Center (KCC), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jorge Gascon
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KAUST Catalysis Center (KCC), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Javier Ruiz-Martínez
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KAUST Catalysis Center (KCC), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
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22
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Hutchings GJ. Spiers Memorial Lecture: Understanding reaction mechanisms in heterogeneously catalysed reactions. Faraday Discuss 2021; 229:9-34. [PMID: 34075992 DOI: 10.1039/d1fd00023c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Heterogeneous catalysis lies at the heart of the chemical and fuel manufacturing industries and hence is a cornerstone of many economies. Many of the commercially operated heterogeneous catalysts have remained basically unchanged for decades, undergoing small but important optimisation of their formulations. Yet we all acknowledge that there is a continuous drive towards improved catalysts or designing new ones. At the heart of these studies has been the need to gain an improved understanding of the reaction mechanism for these important reactions since this can unlock new ways to improve catalyst design and, of course, the ultimate aim is to design catalysts based on the detailed understanding of the reaction mechanism. These advanced studies have been aided in the last decade by two key factors, namely: (a) access to advanced characterisation techniques based on synchrotron methods and aberration-corrected microscopy that can probe the nature of the active site, and (b) the application of high-level computational methods to understand how the reactants and products interact at the active site. In this paper this theme will be explored using two examples to bring out the complexity in gaining an understanding of a reaction mechanism. Using the zeolite H-ZSM-5 as an example of a single site catalyst, the mechanism of the conversion of methanol to the first hydrocarbon carbon-carbon bond will be discussed. In this section the use of model reactants and reaction probes will be used to try to differentiate between different mechanistic proposals. The second example explores the use of gold catalysts for CO oxidation and acetylene hydrochlorination. In both these examples the importance of advanced characterisation and theory will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham J Hutchings
- Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK.
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23
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Veselý M, Valadian R, Lohse LM, Toepperwien M, Spiers K, Garrevoet J, Vogt ETC, Salditt T, Weckhuysen BM, Meirer F. 3‐D X‐ray Nanotomography Reveals Different Carbon Deposition Mechanisms in a Single Catalyst Particle. ChemCatChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202100276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Veselý
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Roozbeh Valadian
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Leon Merten Lohse
- Institute for X-ray Physics University of Göttingen Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1 37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Mareike Toepperwien
- Institute for X-ray Physics University of Göttingen Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1 37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Kathryn Spiers
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY Notkestrasse 85 22607 Hamburg Germany
| | - Jan Garrevoet
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY Notkestrasse 85 22607 Hamburg Germany
| | - Eelco T. C. Vogt
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
- Albemarle Catalysts Company BV Research Center Amsterdam PO box 37650 1030 BE Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Tim Salditt
- Institute for X-ray Physics University of Göttingen Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1 37077 Göttingen Germany
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Florian Meirer
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
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24
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Nezam I, Zhou W, Gusmão GS, Realff MJ, Wang Y, Medford AJ, Jones CW. Direct aromatization of CO2 via combined CO2 hydrogenation and zeolite-based acid catalysis. J CO2 UTIL 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2020.101405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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25
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26
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Fu D, van der Heijden O, Stanciakova K, Schmidt JE, Weckhuysen BM. Disentangling Reaction Processes of Zeolites within Single-Oriented Channels. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:15502-15506. [PMID: 32026555 PMCID: PMC7496746 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201916596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Establishing structure-reactivity relationships for specific channel orientations of zeolites is vital to developing new, superior materials for various applications, including oil and gas conversion processes. Herein, a well-defined model system was developed to build structure-reactivity relationships for specific zeolite-channel orientations during various catalytic reaction processes, for example, the methanol- and ethanol-to-hydrocarbons (MTH and ETH) process as well as oligomerization reactions. The entrapped and effluent hydrocarbons from single-oriented zeolite ZSM-5 channels during the MTH process were monitored by using operando UV/Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) and on-line mass spectrometry (MS), respectively. The results reveal that the straight channels favor the formation of internal coke, promoting the aromatic cycle. Furthermore, the sinusoidal channels produce aromatics, (e.g., toluene) that further grow into larger polyaromatics (e.g., graphitic coke) leading to deactivation of the zeolites. This underscores the importance of careful engineering of materials to suppress coke formation and tune product distribution by rational control of the location of zeolite acid sites and crystallographic orientations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donglong Fu
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceFaculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Onno van der Heijden
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceFaculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Katarina Stanciakova
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceFaculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Joel E. Schmidt
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceFaculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceFaculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUniversiteitsweg 993584CGUtrechtThe Netherlands
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27
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Fu D, Heijden O, Stanciakova K, Schmidt JE, Weckhuysen BM. Disentangling Reaction Processes of Zeolites within Single‐Oriented Channels. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201916596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Donglong Fu
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Faculty of Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Onno Heijden
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Faculty of Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Katarina Stanciakova
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Faculty of Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Joel E. Schmidt
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Faculty of Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science Faculty of Science Utrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht The Netherlands
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28
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Wang X, Hatzoglou C, Sneed B, Fan Z, Guo W, Jin K, Chen D, Bei H, Wang Y, Weber WJ, Zhang Y, Gault B, More KL, Vurpillot F, Poplawsky JD. Interpreting nanovoids in atom probe tomography data for accurate local compositional measurements. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1022. [PMID: 32094330 PMCID: PMC7039975 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14832-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantifying chemical compositions around nanovoids is a fundamental task for research and development of various materials. Atom probe tomography (APT) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) are currently the most suitable tools because of their ability to probe materials at the nanoscale. Both techniques have limitations, particularly APT, because of insufficient understanding of void imaging. Here, we employ a correlative APT and STEM approach to investigate the APT imaging process and reveal that voids can lead to either an increase or a decrease in local atomic densities in the APT reconstruction. Simulated APT experiments demonstrate the local density variations near voids are controlled by the unique ring structures as voids open and the different evaporation fields of the surrounding atoms. We provide a general approach for quantifying chemical segregations near voids within an APT dataset, in which the composition can be directly determined with a higher accuracy than STEM-based techniques. Atom probe tomography can image chemical composition at the nanoscale, but our understanding of how it images voids, or empty spaces, is still lacking. Here, the authors combine atom probe tomography, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and field-evaporation theory to show how voids are imaged and subsequently measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Wang
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
| | - Constantinos Hatzoglou
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, Groupe de Physique des Matériaux, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Brian Sneed
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Zhe Fan
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Wei Guo
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Ke Jin
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Di Chen
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
| | - Hongbin Bei
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Yongqiang Wang
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
| | - William J Weber
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Yanwen Zhang
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Baptiste Gault
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung, Max-Planck-Str, 1, 40237, Düsseldorf, Germany.,Department of Materials, Imperial College London, Royal School of Mine, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Karren L More
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Francois Vurpillot
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, Groupe de Physique des Matériaux, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Jonathan D Poplawsky
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
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29
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Wang Z, Li T, Jiang Y, Lafon O, Liu Z, Trébosc J, Baiker A, Amoureux JP, Huang J. Acidity enhancement through synergy of penta- and tetra-coordinated aluminum species in amorphous silica networks. Nat Commun 2020; 11:225. [PMID: 31932684 PMCID: PMC6957685 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13907-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Amorphous silica-aluminas (ASAs) are widely used in acid-catalyzed C-H activation reactions and biomass conversions in large scale, which can be promoted by increasing the strength of surface Brønsted acid sites (BAS). Here, we demonstrate the first observation on a synergistic effect caused by two neighboring Al centers interacting with the same silanol group in flame-made ASAs with high Al content. The two close Al centers decrease the electron density on the silanol oxygen and thereby enhance its acidity, which is comparable to that of dealuminated zeolites, while ASAs with small or moderate Al contents provide mainly moderate acidity, much lower than that of zeolites. The ASAs with enhanced acidity exhibit outstanding performances in C-H bond activation of benzene and glucose dehydration to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, simultaneously with an excellent calcination stability and resistance to leaching, and they offer an interesting potential for a wide range of acid and multifunctional catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zichun Wang
- Laboratory for Catalysis Engineering, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering & Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
- Department of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Tong Li
- Institute for Materials & ZGH, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44801, Bochum, Germany
| | - Yijiao Jiang
- Department of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Olivier Lafon
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8181, UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et de Chimie du Solide, F-59000, Lille, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Centrale Lille, ENSCL, Villeneuve-d'Ascq, France
| | - Zongwen Liu
- Laboratory for Catalysis Engineering, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering & Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Julien Trébosc
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, INRA, Centrale Lille, ENSCL, Univ. Artois, FR 2638 - IMEC - Institut Michel-Eugène Chevreul, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Alfons Baiker
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH, Zürich, Hönggerberg, HCI, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Paul Amoureux
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8181, UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et de Chimie du Solide, F-59000, Lille, France.
- Bruker Biospin, 34, rue de l'industrie, 67166, Wissembourg, France.
- Riken NMR Science and Development Division, Yokohama, 230-0045, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Jun Huang
- Laboratory for Catalysis Engineering, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering & Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia.
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30
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Wu D, Yu X, Chen X, Yu G, Zhang K, Qiu M, Xue W, Yang C, Liu Z, Sun Y. Morphology-Controlled Synthesis of H-type MFI Zeolites with Unique Stacked Structures through a One-Pot Solvent-Free Strategy. CHEMSUSCHEM 2019; 12:3871-3877. [PMID: 31168958 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201900663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
H-type aluminosilicate zeolites are extensively used as solid-acid catalysts and support materials in industrial catalysis. However, the conventional synthesis methods involving hydrothermal syntheses and ion-exchange processes suffer from severe water pollution and toxic gas emissions. Herein, H-type MFI zeolite catalysts with a unique stacked structure were directly synthesized in the presence of NH4 F and with the help of zeolite confinement through a solvent-free route without further ion-exchange procedures. A range of ex situ and in situ characterization procedures were used to provide evidence of the simultaneous use of pre-made ZSM-5 and NH4 F as a confined Al source and mineralizer, respectively. The confined zeolite framework of ZSM-5 prevented the formation of AlFx species between NH4 F and Al atoms, ensuring that the prepared samples had desirable acidic properties. Moreover, the resulting morphology could be controlled by using different silica substrates. The obtained H-type MFI zeolites showed excellent catalytic performance in methanol-to-gasoline reactions owing to their unique structure and directly exposed acidic sites. The developed one-pot strategy provides an alternative method for the facile synthesis of H-type zeolites with defined morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
| | - Xing Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P.R. China
| | - Xinqing Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P.R. China
| | - Gan Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
- School of Physical Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, No. 3663, North Zhongshan Rd., Shanghai, 200062, P.R. China
| | - Minghuang Qiu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
| | - Wenjie Xue
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
| | - Chengguang Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
| | - Ziyu Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
| | - Yuhan Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory of Low-carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
- School of Physical Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, 201210, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P.R. China
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31
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Uslamin EA, Kosinov N, Filonenko GA, Mezari B, Pidko E, Hensen EJ. Co-Aromatization of Furan and Methanol over ZSM-5—A Pathway to Bio-Aromatics. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b02259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Evgeny A. Uslamin
- Inorganic Materials & Catalysis group, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 Eindhoven, MB, The Netherlands
| | - Nikolay Kosinov
- Inorganic Materials & Catalysis group, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 Eindhoven, MB, The Netherlands
| | - Georgy A. Filonenko
- Inorganic Systems Engineering group, Delft University of Technology, 2629 Delft, HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Brahim Mezari
- Inorganic Materials & Catalysis group, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 Eindhoven, MB, The Netherlands
| | - Evgeny Pidko
- Inorganic Systems Engineering group, Delft University of Technology, 2629 Delft, HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Emiel J.M. Hensen
- Inorganic Materials & Catalysis group, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 Eindhoven, MB, The Netherlands
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32
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Abstract
Atom probe tomography is a well-established analytical instrument for imaging the 3D structure and composition of materials with high mass resolution, sub-nanometer spatial resolution and ppm elemental sensitivity. Thanks to recent hardware developments in Atom Probe Tomography (APT), combined with progress on site-specific focused ion beam (FIB)-based sample preparation methods and improved data treatment software, complex materials can now be routinely investigated. From model samples to complex, usable porous structures, there is currently a growing interest in the analysis of catalytic materials. APT is able to probe the end state of atomic-scale processes, providing information needed to improve the synthesis of catalysts and to unravel structure/composition/reactivity relationships. This review focuses on the study of catalytic materials with increasing complexity (tip-sample, unsupported and supported nanoparticles, powders, self-supported catalysts and zeolites), as well as sample preparation methods developed to obtain suitable specimens for APT experiments.
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33
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Lee S, Choi M. Unveiling coke formation mechanism in MFI zeolites during methanol-to-hydrocarbons conversion. J Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2019.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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34
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Zhou W, Shi S, Wang Y, Zhang L, Wang Y, Zhang G, Min X, Cheng K, Zhang Q, Kang J, Wang Y. Selective Conversion of Syngas to Aromatics over a Mo−ZrO
2
/H‐ZSM‐5 Bifunctional Catalyst. ChemCatChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201801937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
| | - Shulin Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
| | - Yang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
| | - Lei Zhang
- State Energy Key Lab of Clean Coal Grading ConversionShaanxi Coal and Chemical Technology Institute Co., Ltd. Xi'an 710070 P. R. China
| | - Yi Wang
- State Energy Key Lab of Clean Coal Grading ConversionShaanxi Coal and Chemical Technology Institute Co., Ltd. Xi'an 710070 P. R. China
| | - Guoquan Zhang
- State Energy Key Lab of Clean Coal Grading ConversionShaanxi Coal and Chemical Technology Institute Co., Ltd. Xi'an 710070 P. R. China
| | - Xiaojian Min
- State Energy Key Lab of Clean Coal Grading ConversionShaanxi Coal and Chemical Technology Institute Co., Ltd. Xi'an 710070 P. R. China
| | - Kang Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
| | - Qinghong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
| | - Jincan Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
| | - Ye Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials National Engineering Laboratory for Green Chemical Productions of Alcohols, Ethers and Esters College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringXiamen University Xiamen 361005 P. R. China
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35
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Yuan DJ, Hengne AM, Saih Y, Huang KW. Nonoxidative Dehydrogenation of Methanol to Methyl Formate through Highly Stable and Reusable CuMgO-Based Catalysts. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:1854-1860. [PMID: 31459440 PMCID: PMC6648458 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b03069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Nonoxidative dehydrogenation of methanol to methyl formate over a CuMgO-based catalyst was investigated. Although the active site is metallic copper (Cu0), the best reaction conditions were obtained by tuning the ratio of Cu/Mg and doping the catalyst with 1 wt % of Pd to achieve a very specific activity for methyl formate synthesis. On the basis of the CO2 temperature-programmed desorption study, the basic strength of the catalyst plays a role in the efficient conversion of methanol to methyl formate via dehydrogenation. These CuMgO-based catalysts show excellent thermal stability during the reaction and the regeneration processes. Approx. 80% methanol conversion with constant selectivity to methyl formate was achieved even after 4 rounds of usage for a total reaction time exceeding 200 h, indicative of their potential for practical applications.
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36
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Schmidt JE, Ye X, van Ravenhorst IK, Oord R, Shapiro DA, Yu Y, Bare SR, Meirer F, Poplawsky JD, Weckhuysen BM. Probing the Location and Speciation of Elements in Zeolites with Correlated Atom Probe Tomography and Scanning Transmission X-Ray Microscopy. ChemCatChem 2019; 11:488-494. [PMID: 31123533 PMCID: PMC6519228 DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201801378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Characterizing materials at nanoscale resolution to provide new insights into structure property performance relationships continues to be a challenging research target due to the inherently low signal from small sample volumes, and is even more difficult for nonconductive materials, such as zeolites. Herein, we present the characterization of a single Cu-exchanged zeolite crystal, namely Cu-SSZ-13, used for NOX reduction in automotive emissions, that was subject to a simulated 135,000-mile aging. By correlating Atom Probe Tomography (APT), a single atom microscopy method, and Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy (STXM), which produces high spatial resolution X-ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy (XANES) maps, we show that a spatially non-uniform proportion of the Al was removed from the zeolite framework. The techniques reveal that this degradation is heterogeneous at length scales from micrometers to tens of nanometers, providing complementary insight into the long-term deactivation of this catalyst system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel E. Schmidt
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Faculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUtrecht3584 CGNetherlands
| | - Xinwei Ye
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Faculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUtrecht3584 CGNetherlands
- School of Materials Science and Engineering Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (MOE) Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and EngineeringNankai UniversityTianjin300350P.R. China
| | - Ilse K. van Ravenhorst
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Faculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUtrecht3584 CGNetherlands
| | - Ramon Oord
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Faculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUtrecht3584 CGNetherlands
| | - David A. Shapiro
- Advanced Light SourceLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeley CA94720USA
| | - Young‐Sang Yu
- Advanced Light SourceLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeley CA94720USA
| | - Simon R. Bare
- SLAC National Accelerator LaboratoryMenlo Park CA94025USA
| | - Florian Meirer
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Faculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUtrecht3584 CGNetherlands
| | - Jonathan D. Poplawsky
- Center for Nanophase Materials SciencesOak Ridge National LaboratoryOak RidgeTN 37831USA
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Faculty of ScienceUtrecht UniversityUtrecht3584 CGNetherlands
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37
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Zhai Y, Zhang S, Shang Y, Song Y, Wang W, Ma T, Zhang L, Gong Y, Xu J, Deng F. Boosting the turnover number of core–shell Al-ZSM-5@B-ZSM-5 zeolite for methanol to propylene reaction by modulating its gradient acid site distribution and low consumption diffusion. Catal Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cy02177e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hierarchical Al-ZSM-5@B-ZSM-5 core–shell zeolite was prepared to boost turnover number of MTP reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanliang Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Shaolong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Yunshan Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Yu Song
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Wenxuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Tong Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Luoming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Yanjun Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and the Key Laboratory of Catalysis of CNPC
- China University of Petroleum
- Beijing 102249
- China
| | - Jun Xu
- Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan 430071
- China
| | - Feng Deng
- Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan 430071
- China
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38
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Zhang Y, Li M, Xing E, Luo Y, Shu X. Coke evolution on mesoporous ZSM-5 during methanol to propylene reaction. CATAL COMMUN 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2018.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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39
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Danisi RM, Schmidt JE, Lucini Paioni A, Houben K, Poplawsky JD, Baldus M, Weckhuysen BM, Vogt ETC. Revealing long- and short-range structural modifications within phosphorus-treated HZSM-5 zeolites by atom probe tomography, nuclear magnetic resonance and powder X-ray diffraction. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:27766-27777. [PMID: 30177980 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp03828g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The average and the local structure of phosphorus-treated HZSM-5 zeolites were investigated by means of atom probe tomography, powder X-ray diffraction (at ambient and cryogenic temperatures) and 1H, 29Si, 27Al, and 31P magic angle spinning (MAS) solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Phosphatation to yield a product with P/Al ≤ 1 followed by thermal treatment leads to breaking of the Si-OH-Al bridging groups, and subsequent partial dealumination of the zeolite framework, as shown by the contraction of the orthorhombic unit-cell volume and by the loss of tetrahedral framework Al, as observed in the 27Al Multiple Quantum (MQ) MAS NMR spectrum. Most of the framework Al is present in an electronic environment distorted by the presence of phosphorus and appears not to be involved in classic Si-OH-Al Brønsted acid sites. The 31P MAS NMR signals indicate that phosphorus interacts with the zeolitic framework to locally form silico-aluminophosphate (SAPO) domains and the presence of a new kind of acidic site was confirmed by the resonance at ∼8.6 ppm in the 1H MAS NMR spectra, attributed to P-OH groups. Increasing the phosphorus loading (P/Al ≫ 1) promotes further dealumination of the framework and cross-dehydroxylation between P-OH and Si-OH species, leading to the formation of a crystalline silicon orthophosphate phase. With decreasing Al content, the monoclinic HZSM-5 structure becomes preferred, especially at 85 K where the strain relaxation is higher. However, the presence of a higher amount of silicophosphate impurities hinders the low-temperature strain release of the framework, indicating that some of these species are localized in the zeolite pores and contribute to the strain build up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Micaela Danisi
- Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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40
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Ma Z, Ghosh A, Asthana N, van Bokhoven J. Visualization of Structural Changes During Deactivation and Regeneration of FAU Zeolite for Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis of Lignin Using NMR and Electron Microscopy Techniques. ChemCatChem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201800670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Ma
- HCI E 127 ICB, D-CHABETH Zürich Zurich 8093 Switzerland
- Current address: Department of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Rochester Rochester NY 14627 USA
| | - Ashim Ghosh
- SABIC Technology CenterSugar Land TX 77478 USA
| | | | - Jeroen van Bokhoven
- HCI E 127 ICB, D-CHABETH Zürich Zurich 8093 Switzerland
- WLGA 135Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable ChemistryPaul Scherrer Institute (PSI) Villigen 5232 Switzerland
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41
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Schmidt JE, Peng L, Poplawsky JD, Weckhuysen BM. Nanoskalige chemische Bildgebung von Zeolithen durch Atomsondentomographie. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201712952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joel E. Schmidt
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Niederlande
| | - Linqing Peng
- Grinnell College 1115 8th Ave Grinnell, IA 50112 USA
| | - Jonathan D. Poplawsky
- Center for Nanophase Materials SciencesOak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge TN 37831-6064 USA
| | - Bert M. Weckhuysen
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials ScienceUtrecht University Universiteitsweg 99 3584 CG Utrecht Niederlande
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42
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Schmidt JE, Peng L, Poplawsky JD, Weckhuysen BM. Nanoscale Chemical Imaging of Zeolites Using Atom Probe Tomography. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:10422-10435. [PMID: 29718553 PMCID: PMC6519151 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201712952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Understanding structure-composition-property relationships in zeolite-based materials is critical to engineering improved solid catalysts. However, this can be difficult to realize as even single zeolite crystals can exhibit heterogeneities spanning several orders of magnitude, with consequences for, for example, reactivity, diffusion as well as stability. Great progress has been made in characterizing these porous solids using tomographic techniques, though each method has an ultimate spatial resolution limitation. Atom probe tomography (APT) is the only technique so far capable of producing 3D compositional reconstructions with sub-nanometer-scale resolution, and has only recently been applied to zeolite-based catalysts. Herein, we discuss the use of APT to study zeolites, including the critical aspects of sample preparation, data collection, assignment of mass spectral peaks including the predominant CO peak, the limitations of spatial resolution for the recovery of crystallographic information, and proper data analysis. All sections are illustrated with examples from recent literature, as well as previously unpublished data and analyses to demonstrate practical strategies to overcome potential pitfalls in applying APT to zeolites, thereby highlighting new insights gained from the APT method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel E Schmidt
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584, CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Linqing Peng
- Grinnell College, 1115 8th Ave, Grinnell, IA, 50112, USA
| | - Jonathan D Poplawsky
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6064, USA
| | - Bert M Weckhuysen
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584, CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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43
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Schmidt JE, Peng L, Paioni AL, Ehren HL, Guo W, Mazumder B, Matthijs de Winter DA, Attila Ö, Fu D, Chowdhury AD, Houben K, Baldus M, Poplawsky JD, Weckhuysen BM. Isolating Clusters of Light Elements in Molecular Sieves with Atom Probe Tomography. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:9154-9158. [PMID: 30003782 PMCID: PMC6065070 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b04494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Understanding the
3-D distribution and nature of active sites in
heterogeneous catalysts is critical to developing structure–function
relationships. However, this is difficult to achieve in microporous
materials as there is little relative z-contrast between active and
inactive framework elements (e.g., Al, O, P, and Si), making them
difficult to differentiate with electron microscopies. We have applied
atom probe tomography (APT), currently the only nanometer-scale 3-D
microscopy to offer routine light element contrast, to the methanol-to-hydrocarbons
(MTH) catalyst SAPO-34, with Si as the active site, which may be present
in the framework as either isolated Si species or clusters (islands)
of Si atoms. 29Si solid-state NMR data on isotopically
enriched and natural abundance materials are consistent with the presence
of Si islands, and the APT results have been complemented with simulations
to show the smallest detectable cluster size as a function of instrument
spatial resolution and detector efficiency. We have identified significant
Si–Si affinity in the materials, as well as clustering of coke
deposited by the MTH reaction (13CH3OH used)
and an affinity between Brønsted acid sites and coke. A comparison
with simulations shows that the ultimate spatial resolution that can
be attained by APT applied to molecular sieves is 0.5–1 nm.
Finally, the observed 13C clusters are consistent with
hydrocarbon pool mechanism intermediates that are preferentially located
in regions of increased Brønsted acidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel E Schmidt
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science , Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99 , 3584 CG Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Linqing Peng
- Grinnell College , 1115 8th Ave , Grinnell , Iowa 50112 , United States
| | - Alessandra Lucini Paioni
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research , Utrecht University , Padualaan 8 , 3584 CH Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Helena Leona Ehren
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research , Utrecht University , Padualaan 8 , 3584 CH Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Wei Guo
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Baishakhi Mazumder
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - D A Matthijs de Winter
- Structural Geology & EM , Utrecht University , Postbus 80.021 , 3508 TA Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Özgün Attila
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science , Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99 , 3584 CG Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Donglong Fu
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science , Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99 , 3584 CG Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Abhishek Dutta Chowdhury
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science , Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99 , 3584 CG Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Klaartje Houben
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research , Utrecht University , Padualaan 8 , 3584 CH Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Marc Baldus
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research , Utrecht University , Padualaan 8 , 3584 CH Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Jonathan D Poplawsky
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Oak Ridge , Tennessee 37831 , United States
| | - Bert M Weckhuysen
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science , Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99 , 3584 CG Utrecht , The Netherlands
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44
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45
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Kosinov N, Liu C, Hensen EJM, Pidko EA. Engineering of Transition Metal Catalysts Confined in Zeolites. CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS : A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2018; 30:3177-3198. [PMID: 29861546 PMCID: PMC5973782 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.8b01311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Transition metal-zeolite composites are versatile catalytic materials for a wide range of industrial and lab-scale processes. Significant advances in fabrication and characterization of well-defined metal centers confined in zeolite matrixes have greatly expanded the library of available materials and, accordingly, their catalytic utility. In this review, we summarize recent developments in the field from the perspective of materials chemistry, focusing on synthesis, postsynthesis modification, (operando) spectroscopy characterization, and computational modeling of transition metal-zeolite catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay Kosinov
- Inorganic
Systems Engineering Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty
of Applied Sciences, Delft University of
Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
- E-mail: (N.K.)
| | - Chong Liu
- Inorganic
Systems Engineering Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty
of Applied Sciences, Delft University of
Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Emiel J. M. Hensen
- Schuit
Institute of Catalysis, Laboratory of Inorganic Materials Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- E-mail: (E.J.M.H.)
| | - Evgeny A. Pidko
- Inorganic
Systems Engineering Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty
of Applied Sciences, Delft University of
Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
- TheoMAT
group, ITMO University, Lomonosova str. 9, St. Petersburg 191002, Russia
- E-mail: (E.A.P.)
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46
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Wang N, Sun W, Hou Y, Ge B, Hu L, Nie J, Qian W, Wei F. Crystal-plane effects of MFI zeolite in catalytic conversion of methanol to hydrocarbons. J Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2017.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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47
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48
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Schmidt JE, Oord R, Guo W, Poplawsky JD, Weckhuysen BM. Nanoscale tomography reveals the deactivation of automotive copper-exchanged zeolite catalysts. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1666. [PMID: 29162802 PMCID: PMC5698465 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01765-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper-exchanged zeolite chabazite (Cu-SSZ-13) was recently commercialized for the selective catalytic reduction of NO X with ammonia in vehicle emissions as it exhibits superior reaction performance and stability compared to all other catalysts, notably Cu-ZSM-5. Herein, the 3D distributions of Cu as well as framework elements (Al, O, Si) in both fresh and aged Cu-SSZ-13 and Cu-ZSM-5 are determined with nanometer resolution using atom probe tomography (APT), and correlated with catalytic activity and other characterizations. Both fresh catalysts contain a heterogeneous Cu distribution, which is only identified due to the single atom sensitivity of APT. After the industry standard 135,000 mile simulation, Cu-SSZ-13 shows Cu and Al clustering, whereas Cu-ZSM-5 is characterized by severe Cu and Al aggregation into a copper aluminate phase (CuAl2O4 spinel). The application of APT as a sensitive and local characterization method provides identification of nanometer scale heterogeneities that lead to catalytic activity and material deactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel E Schmidt
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ramon Oord
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Wei Guo
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Jonathan D Poplawsky
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.
| | - Bert M Weckhuysen
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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49
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Fletcher RE, Ling S, Slater B. Violations of Löwenstein's rule in zeolites. Chem Sci 2017; 8:7483-7491. [PMID: 29163901 PMCID: PMC5676096 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc02531a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Zeolites, microporous aluminosilicates, are amongst the most widely used catalysts in the petrochemical industry. Zeolite catalytic functionality is influenced by the location of tetrahedral alumina and associated counter-cations in the aluminosilicate framework, yet little is definitively known about the factors that govern the framework aluminium arrangement. It is generally accepted that all zeolites obey Löwenstein's rule of "aluminium avoidance", and that -Al-O-Al- bond formation is forbidden. Here, we describe an unprecedented screening of aluminium distribution in catalytically active zeolite SSZ-13 (CHA) in both its protonated and sodium-containing forms, H-SSZ-13 and Na-SSZ-13, using density functional theory (DFT). We predict violations of Löwenstein's rule in high and low silica H-SSZ-13 and other protonated frameworks considered in this investigation: H-LTA, H-RHO, H-ABW and H-MOR. The synthetic realisation of these zeolites could spur the development of new catalytic routes and materials, and the optimisation of existing zeolite catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E Fletcher
- Department of Chemistry , University College London , 20 Gordon Street , London , WC1H 0AJ , UK .
| | - Sanliang Ling
- Department of Chemistry , University College London , 20 Gordon Street , London , WC1H 0AJ , UK .
| | - Ben Slater
- Department of Chemistry , University College London , 20 Gordon Street , London , WC1H 0AJ , UK .
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50
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Sheppard TL, Price SWT, Benzi F, Baier S, Klumpp M, Dittmeyer R, Schwieger W, Grunwaldt JD. In Situ Multimodal 3D Chemical Imaging of a Hierarchically Structured Core@Shell Catalyst. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:7855-7863. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b02177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas L. Sheppard
- Institute
for Chemical Technology and Polymer Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engesserstraße 20, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Stephen W. T. Price
- Science Division, Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Federico Benzi
- Institute
for Chemical Technology and Polymer Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engesserstraße 20, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Sina Baier
- Institute
for Chemical Technology and Polymer Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engesserstraße 20, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Michael Klumpp
- Institute
of Chemical Reaction Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Egerlandstraße 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Wilhelm Schwieger
- Institute
of Chemical Reaction Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Egerlandstraße 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jan-Dierk Grunwaldt
- Institute
for Chemical Technology and Polymer Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engesserstraße 20, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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