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Impact of Fetal Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Mixtures on FOXA3 Gene and Protein Expression in Adult Rat Testes. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021211. [PMID: 36674726 PMCID: PMC9863867 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Perinatal exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) has been shown to affect male reproductive functions. However, the effects on male reproduction of exposure to EDC mixtures at doses relevant to humans have not been fully characterized. In previous studies, we found that in utero exposure to mixtures of the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and the soy-based phytoestrogen genistein (Gen) induced abnormal testis development in rats. In the present study, we investigated the molecular basis of these effects in adult testes from the offspring of pregnant SD rats gavaged with corn oil or Gen + DEHP mixtures at 0.1 or 10 mg/kg/day. Testicular transcriptomes were determined by microarray and RNA-seq analyses. A protein analysis was performed on paraffin and frozen testis sections, mainly by immunofluorescence. The transcription factor forkhead box protein 3 (FOXA3), a key regulator of Leydig cell function, was identified as the most significantly downregulated gene in testes from rats exposed in utero to Gen + DEHP mixtures. FOXA3 protein levels were decreased in testicular interstitium at a dose previously found to reduce testosterone levels, suggesting a primary effect of fetal exposure to Gen + DEHP on adult Leydig cells, rather than on spermatids and Sertoli cells, also expressing FOXA3. Thus, FOXA3 downregulation in adult testes following fetal exposure to Gen + DEHP may contribute to adverse male reproductive outcomes.
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Ha EK, Lee SW, Kim JH, Shim S, Kim YH, Song JY, Koh HY, Shin YH, Han MY. Neurodevelopmental Outcomes in Infants Fed with Soy Formula: A Retrospective, National Population-Based Observational Cohort Study. J Nutr 2021; 151:3045-3052. [PMID: 34486658 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxab229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soy-based infant formulas are increasingly popular, but data regarding their effects on neurodevelopmental outcomes during early childhood is scanty. OBJECTIVE This study investigated the effect of consuming soy-based infant formula at 9-12 mo after birth on the subsequent development of epilepsy, neurodevelopmental disorders, and developmental status. METHODS This nationwide retrospective administrative study used health screening examinations and linked insurance claims data of children born in Korea during 2008 and 2009. Infants who received soy formula were compared with those who received cow's milk formula using propensity score matching that considered birth history, economic status, clinical conditions, and drug prescription records. Exposure was defined as soy formula feeding determined from questionnaires completed by the parents when children were 9-12 mo old. Outcomes were epilepsy, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and developmental status. Children were followed until 31 December, 2017. RESULTS A total of 153,841 eligible participants were enrolled; 11,535 (7.5%) children received soy formula, while 142,864 (92.5%) received cow's milk formula. The incidence rate of epilepsy during the follow-up period was 29.8 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI: 19.48, 41.65) in the soy formula group and 22.6 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI: 31.97, 59.07) in the cow's milk formula group, with no significant difference (aHR: 1.318; 95% CI: 0.825, 2.106). The 2 groups also had no difference based on prespecified analysis using different definitions of epilepsy. Likewise, no significant associations of soy formula with ADHD (aHR: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.60) or ASD (aHR: 0.99; 95% CI: 0.54, 1.83), or delays of developmental stages were observed. CONCLUSIONS Feeding with soy formula rather than cow's milk formula had no apparent association with increased risks of epilepsy, ADHD, ASD, and developmental status, according to this cohort composed of a general pediatric population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Kyo Ha
- Department of Pediatrics, Hallym University Kangnam Sacred Heart Hospital, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Data Science, Sejong University College of Software Convergence, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seung Won Lee
- Department of Data Science, Sejong University College of Software Convergence, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ju Hee Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Hallym University Kangdong Sacred Heart Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Somin Shim
- Department of Data Science, Sejong University College of Software Convergence, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young Hyeon Kim
- Department of Data Science, Sejong University College of Software Convergence, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joo Young Song
- Department of Pediatrics, CHA Gangnam Medical Center, CHA University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyun Yong Koh
- FM Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Youn Ho Shin
- Department of Pediatrics, CHA Gangnam Medical Center, CHA University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Man Yong Han
- Department of Pediatrics, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University School of Medicine, Seongnam, Korea
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Walker C, Ghazisaeidi S, Collet B, Boisvert A, Culty M. In utero exposure to low doses of genistein and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) alters innate immune cells in neonatal and adult rat testes. Andrology 2020; 8:943-964. [PMID: 32533902 DOI: 10.1111/andr.12840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although humans are exposed to mixtures of endocrine disruptor chemicals, few studies have examined their toxicity on male reproduction. We previously found that fetal exposure to a mixture of the phytoestrogen genistein (GEN) and the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) altered gene expression in adult rat testes. OBJECTIVES Our goal was to investigate the effects of fetal exposure to GEN-DEHP mixtures at two doses relevant to humans on testicular function and transcriptome in neonatal and adult rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Pregnant SD rats were gavaged with vehicle, GEN or DEHP, alone or mixed at 0.1 and 10 mg/kg/day, from gestation day 14 to birth. Fertility, steroid levels, and testis morphology were examined in neonatal and adult rats. Testicular transcriptomes were examined by gene array and functional pathway analyses. Cell-specific genes/proteins were determined by quantitative real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS GEN-DEHP mixtures increased the rates of infertility and abnormal testes in adult rats. Gene array analysis identified more genes exclusively altered by the mixtures than individual compounds. Altered top canonical pathways included urogenital/reproductive developmental and inflammatory processes. GEN-DEHP mixtures increased innate immune cells and macrophages markers at both doses and ages, more strongly and consistently than DEHP or GEN alone. Genes exclusively increased by the mixture in adult testis related to innate immune cells and macrophages included Kitlg, Rps6ka3 (Rsk2), Nr3c1, Nqo1, Lif, Fyn, Ptprj (Dep-1), Gpr116, Pfn2, and Ptgr1. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION These findings demonstrate that GEN-DEHP mixtures at doses relevant to human induce adverse testicular phenotypes, concurrent with age-dependent and non-monotonic changes in testicular transcriptomes. The involvement of innate immune cells such as macrophages suggests immediate and delayed inflammatory responses which may contribute to testicular dysfunction. Moreover, these effects are complex and likely involve multiple interactions between immune and non-immune testicular cell types that will entail further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casandra Walker
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Shahrzad Ghazisaeidi
- The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Berenice Collet
- The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Annie Boisvert
- The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Martine Culty
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Matthai J, Mohan N, Viswanathan MS, Shanmugam N, Bharadia L, Bhatnagar S, Srikanth KP. Therapeutic Enteral Formulas in Children. Indian Pediatr 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s13312-020-1787-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Messina M, Rogero MM, Fisberg M, Waitzberg D. Health impact of childhood and adolescent soy consumption. Nutr Rev 2017; 75:500-515. [PMID: 28838083 DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nux016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Soyfoods have been intensely researched, primarily because they provide such abundant amounts of isoflavones. Isoflavones are classified as both plant estrogens and selective estrogen receptor modulators. Evidence suggests that these soybean constituents are protective against a number of chronic diseases, but they are not without controversy. In fact, because soyfoods contain such large amounts of isoflavones, concerns have arisen that these foods may cause untoward effects in some individuals. There is particular interest in understanding the effects of isoflavones in young people. Relatively few studies involving children have been conducted, and many of those that have are small in size. While the data are limited, evidence suggests that soy does not exert adverse hormonal effects in children or affect pubertal development. On the other hand, there is intriguing evidence indicating that when soy is consumed during childhood and/or adolescence, risk of developing breast cancer is markedly reduced. Relatively few children are allergic to soy protein, and most of those who initially are outgrow their soy allergy by 10 years of age. The totality of the available evidence indicates that soyfoods can be healthful additions to the diets of children, but more research is required to allow definitive conclusions to be made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Messina
- Nutrition Matters, Inc., Pittsfield, Massachusets, United States
| | - Marcelo Macedo Rogero
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mauro Fisberg
- Nutrition and Feeding Difficulty Center, Pensi Institute, José Luiz Setubal Foundation, Sabará Children's Hospital, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Dan Waitzberg
- University of Sao Paulo Medical School and Ganep Humana Nutrition, São Paulo, Brazil
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Equol, a Dietary Daidzein Gut Metabolite Attenuates Microglial Activation and Potentiates Neuroprotection In Vitro. Nutrients 2017; 9:nu9030207. [PMID: 28264445 PMCID: PMC5372870 DOI: 10.3390/nu9030207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Estrogen deficiency has been well characterized in inflammatory disorders including neuroinflammation. Daidzein, a dietary alternative phytoestrogen found in soy (Glycine max) as primary isoflavones, possess anti-inflammatory activity, but the effect of its active metabolite Equol (7-hydroxy-3-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-chroman) has not been well established. In this study, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective effect of Equol in vitro. To evaluate the potential effects of Equol, three major types of central nervous system (CNS) cells, including microglia (BV-2), astrocytes (C6), and neurons (N2a), were used. Effects of Equol on the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX-2), Mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling proteins, and apoptosis-related proteins were measured by western blot analysis. Equol inhibited the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced TLR4 activation, MAPK activation, NF-kB-mediated transcription of inflammatory mediators, production of nitric oxide (NO), release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE-2), secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6), in Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated murine microglia cells. Additionally, Equol protects neurons from neuroinflammatory injury mediated by LPS-activated microglia through downregulation of neuronal apoptosis, increased neurite outgrowth in N2a cell and neurotrophins like nerve growth factor (NGF) production through astrocytes further supporting its neuroprotective potential. These findings provide novel insight into the anti-neuroinflammatory effects of Equol on microglial cells, which may have clinical significance in cases of neurodegeneration.
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Ponti G, Rodriguez-Gomez A, Farinetti A, Marraudino M, Filice F, Foglio B, Sciacca G, Panzica GC, Gotti S. Early postnatal genistein administration permanently affects nitrergic and vasopressinergic systems in a sex-specific way. Neuroscience 2017; 346:203-215. [PMID: 28131623 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Genistein (GEN) is a natural xenoestrogen (isoflavonoid) that may interfere with the development of estrogen-sensitive neural circuits. Due to the large and increasing use of soy-based formulas for babies (characterized by a high content of GEN), there are some concerns that this could result in an impairment of some estrogen-sensitive neural circuits and behaviors. In a previous study, we demonstrated that its oral administration to female mice during late pregnancy and early lactation induced a significant decrease of nitric oxide synthase-positive cells in the amygdala of their male offspring. In the present study, we have used a different experimental protocol mimicking, in mice, the direct precocious exposure to GEN. Mice pups of both sexes were fed either with oil, estradiol or GEN from birth to postnatal day 8. Nitric oxide synthase and vasopressin neural systems were analyzed in adult mice. Interestingly, we observed that GEN effect was time specific (when compared to our previous study), sex specific, and not always comparable to the effects of estradiol. This last observation suggests that GEN may act through different intracellular pathways. Present results indicate that the effect of natural xenoestrogens on the development of the brain may be highly variable: a plethora of neuronal circuits may be affected depending on sex, time of exposure, intracellular pathway involved, and target cells. This raises concern on the possible long-term effects of the use of soy-based formulas for babies, which may be currently underestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Ponti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), University of Torino, Torino, Italy; Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy.
| | - A Rodriguez-Gomez
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - A Farinetti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - M Marraudino
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - F Filice
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - B Foglio
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - G Sciacca
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - G C Panzica
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - S Gotti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10 - 10043 Orbassano (TO), Torino, Italy; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Department of Neuroscience, Via Cherasco 15, 10126-University of Torino, Torino, Italy
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Patisaul HB, Mabrey N, Adewale HB, Sullivan AW. Soy but not bisphenol A (BPA) induces hallmarks of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and related metabolic co-morbidities in rats. Reprod Toxicol 2014; 49:209-18. [PMID: 25242113 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Revised: 08/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is the most common female endocrine disorder with a prevalence as high as 8-15% depending on ethnicity and the diagnostic criteria employed. The basic pathophysiology and mode of inheritance remain unclear, but environmental factors such as diet, stress and chemical exposures are thought to be contributory. Developmental exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) have been hypothesized to exacerbate risk, in part because PCOS hallmarks and associated metabolic co-morbidities can be reliably induced in animal models by perinatal androgen exposure. Here we show that lifetime exposure to a soy diet, containing endocrine active phytoestrogens, but not developmental exposure (gestational day 6-lactational day 40) to the endocrine disrupting monomer bisphenol A (BPA), can induce key features of PCOS in the rat; results which support the hypothesis that hormonally active diets may contribute to risk when consumed throughout gestation and post-natal life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather B Patisaul
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA; Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Natalie Mabrey
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Heather B Adewale
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Alana W Sullivan
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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Dunbar B, Patel M, Fahey J, Wira C. Endocrine control of mucosal immunity in the female reproductive tract: impact of environmental disruptors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 354:85-93. [PMID: 22289638 PMCID: PMC4332593 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2011] [Revised: 12/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The complexity of the human female reproductive tract (FRT) with its multiple levels of hormonally controlled immune protection has only begun to be understood. Dissecting the functions and roles of the immune system in the FRT is complicated by the differential hormonal regulation of its distinct anatomical structures that vary throughout the menstrual cycle. Although many fundamental mechanisms of steroid regulation of reproductive tract immune function have been determined, the effects of exogenous synthetic steroids or endocrine disruptors on immune function and disease susceptibility in the FRT have yet to be evaluated in detail. There is increasing evidence that environmental or synthetic molecules can alter normal immune function. This review provides an overview of the innate and adaptive immune systems, the current status of immune function in the FRT and the potential risks of environmental or pharmacological molecules that may perturb this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Dunbar
- Center for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Nguyen RHN, Umbach DM, Parad RB, Stroehla B, Rogan WJ, Estroff JA. US assessment of estrogen-responsive organ growth among healthy term infants: piloting methods for assessing estrogenic activity. Pediatr Radiol 2011; 41:633-42. [PMID: 21104239 PMCID: PMC3141824 DOI: 10.1007/s00247-010-1895-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2010] [Revised: 10/01/2010] [Accepted: 10/21/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A mother's circulating estrogen increases over the third trimester, producing physiological effects on her newborn that wane postnatally. Estrogenization might be prolonged in newborns exposed to exogenous estrogens, such as isoflavones in soy formula. OBJECTIVE We evaluated ultrasonography for monitoring growth of multiple estrogen-responsive organs in healthy infants and developed organ-growth trajectories. MATERIALS AND METHODS We studied 38 boys (61 visits) from birth to age 6 months and 41 girls (96 visits) from birth to age 1 year using a partly cross-sectional, partly longitudinal design. We measured uterus and ovaries in girls, testes and prostate in boys, and kidneys, breasts, thymus, and thyroid in all children. We imaged all organs from the body surface in one session of < 1 h. RESULTS Uterine volume decreased from birth (P < 0.0001), whereas ovarian volume increased sharply until age 2 months and then decreased (P < 0.001). Testicular volume increased with age (P < 0.0001), but prostatic volume showed minimal age trend. Breast bud diameter showed no age trend in girls but declined from birth in boys (P = 0.03). CONCLUSION US examination of multiple estrogen-responsive organs in infants in a single session is feasible and yields volume estimates useful for assessing potential endocrine disruptor effects on organ growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruby H. N. Nguyen
- Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA. Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - David M. Umbach
- Biostatistics Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, P. O. Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2233, USA
| | - Richard B. Parad
- Department of Newborn Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Division of Newborn Medicine, Children’s Hospital Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Walter J. Rogan
- Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Judy A. Estroff
- Department of Radiology, Children’s Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Isoflavones and PPAR Signaling: A Critical Target in Cardiovascular, Metastatic, and Metabolic Disease. PPAR Res 2011; 2010:153252. [PMID: 21461045 PMCID: PMC3061262 DOI: 10.1155/2010/153252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Isoflavone intake through foods and dietary supplements has both health advocates and critics. The latter come from a concern about the estrogenic effects of isoflavones in certain species. However, careful removal of isoflavones and other estrogens from the diet of rodents leads to the metabolic syndrome. These results suggest that isoflavones have other mechanisms of action, potentially those involving regulation of fatty acid metabolism via the nuclear receptors PPARα and PPARγ. The goal of this paper was to examine the evidence for isoflavone/PPAR signaling and to identify diseases in which such signaling would have an important impact. It is therefore of note that investigators using a chemical structure approach to discover PPAR ligands identified isoflavones as the best structures in the library of compounds that they tested. Future studies will involve careful identification of the underlying mechanisms whereby isoflavones have their action via PPAR signaling.
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Messina M. A brief historical overview of the past two decades of soy and isoflavone research. J Nutr 2010; 140:1350S-4S. [PMID: 20484551 DOI: 10.3945/jn.109.118315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
During the past 20 years, a remarkable amount of research into the health effects of soy consumption has been conducted, which in large part can be attributed to the presence of isoflavones in the soybean. Isoflavones first came to the attention of the scientific community in the 1940s because of fertility problems observed in sheep grazing on a type of isoflavone-rich clover. In the 1950s, as a result of their estrogenic effects in rodents, isoflavones were studied as possible growth promoters for use by the animal feed industry, although shortly thereafter, it was shown that isoflavones could also function as antiestrogens. Despite this early work, it was not until the 1990s, largely because of research sponsored by the U.S. National Cancer Institute, that the role of soyfoods in disease prevention began to receive widespread attention. Subsequently, isoflavones and soyfoods were being studied for their ability to alleviate hot flashes and inhibit bone loss in postmenopausal women. In 1995, soy protein attracted worldwide attention for its ability to lower cholesterol. At this same time, isoflavones began to be widely discussed as potential alternatives to conventional hormone therapy. In 2002, it was hypothesized that individuals possessing the intestinal bacteria capable of converting the soybean isoflavone daidzein into the isoflavan equol were more likely to benefit from soy intake. More recently, in vitro and animal research has raised questions about the safety of isoflavone exposure for certain subsets of the population, although the human data are largely inconsistent with these concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Messina
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA.
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Bitto A, Polito F, Atteritano M, Altavilla D, Mazzaferro S, Marini H, Adamo EB, D'Anna R, Granese R, Corrado F, Russo S, Minutoli L, Squadrito F. Genistein aglycone does not affect thyroid function: results from a three-year, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95:3067-72. [PMID: 20357174 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2009-2779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE Genistein aglycone positively affects postmenopausal symptoms. However, questions about its long-term safety on the thyroid gland still remain. DESIGN The parent study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving 389 osteopenic, postmenopausal women for 24 months. A subcohort (138 patients) continued therapy for an additional year. SETTING Patients received ambulatory care. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTIONS Participants received 54 mg of genistein aglycone daily (n = 71) or placebo (n = 67), plus calcium and vitamin D(3) at therapeutic doses. Circulating thyroid hormones (TSH, free T(3), free T(4)) and autoantibodies (thyroid peroxidase, thyroglobulin, and thyroid microsomal antigen) were assessed in 40 genistein and 37 placebo subjects who completed 3 yr. Thyroid hormone receptor (THRalpha and THRbeta) and retinoid receptor (RARalpha, RARgamma, and RXRalpha) expression from peripheral blood monocytes was also evaluated at baseline, 12, 24, and 36 months in all 3-yr completers. RESULTS Genistein administration over 3 yr did not affect serum thyroid hormones or autoantibodies. In addition, there were no differences in THRalpha, THRbeta, RARalpha, RARgamma, or RXRalpha mRNA expression between groups. CONCLUSION These data suggest that genistein aglycone intake does not significantly increase the risk of clinical or subclinical hypothyroidism at the dose of 54 mg/d.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Bitto
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology, Section of Pharmacology, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy
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Cimafranca MA, Davila J, Ekman GC, Andrews RN, Neese SL, Peretz J, Woodling KA, Helferich WG, Sarkar J, Flaws JA, Schantz SL, Doerge DR, Cooke PS. Acute and chronic effects of oral genistein administration in neonatal mice. Biol Reprod 2010; 83:114-21. [PMID: 20357267 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.109.080549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Soy-based infant formulas are widely used in the United States and some other countries. These formulas contain high levels of the estrogenic isoflavone genistein, leading to concern that neonatal genistein exposure could cause acute and/or long-term adverse effects on reproductive and other organs. However, previous work to assess genistein effects in rodent models has not typically replicated the route of delivery and/or serum genistein concentrations reported for soy formula-fed human infants. Our objective was to develop a mouse model that more closely mimics the oral genistein exposure and total serum genistein concentrations observed in soy formula-fed infants. Mouse pups were dosed orally with genistein in a soy formula-corn oil emulsion from Postnatal Day (PND) 1 to PND 5, then effects on reproductive and non-reproductive organs were assessed after dosing and during subsequent development. Neonatal treatment resulted in changes both at the completion of dosing (PND 5) and in adult animals. At PND 5, neonatal genistein treatment caused increased relative uterine weight and down-regulation of progesterone receptor in uterine epithelia. Estrogenic effects of genistein were also seen in the neonatal ovary and thymus, which had an increase in the incidence of multioocyte follicles (MOFs) and a decrease in thymic weight relative to body weight, respectively. The increased incidence of MOFs persisted into adulthood for neonatally treated genistein females, and estrous cycle abnormalities were seen at 6 mo of age despite normal fertility in these mice. The immediate and long-term effects in this neonatal animal model raise concerns that high serum concentrations of genistein are estrogenic and could potentially impact the development of human infants fed soy formula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Cimafranca
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, 2001 S. Lincoln Ave., Urbana, IL 61802, USA
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Jefferson WN, Doerge D, Padilla-Banks E, Woodling KA, Kissling GE, Newbold R. Oral exposure to genistin, the glycosylated form of genistein, during neonatal life adversely affects the female reproductive system. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2009; 117:1883-1889. [PMID: 20049207 PMCID: PMC2799462 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0900923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2009] [Accepted: 07/27/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Developmental exposure to environmental estrogens is associated with adverse consequences later in life. Exposure to genistin (GIN), the glycosylated form of the phytoestrogen genistein (GEN) found in soy products, is of concern because approximately 20% of U.S. infants are fed soy formula. High circulating levels of GEN have been measured in the serum of these infants, indicating that GIN is readily absorbed, hydrolyzed, and circulated. OBJECTIVES We investigated whether orally administered GIN is estrogenic in neonatal mice and whether it causes adverse effects on the developing female reproductive tract. METHODS Female CD-1 mice were treated on postnatal days 1-5 with oral GIN (6.25, 12.5, 25, or 37.5 mg/kg/day; GEN-equivalent doses), oral GEN (25, 37.5, or 75 mg/kg/day), or subcutaneous GEN (12.5, 20, or 25 mg/kg/day). Estrogenic activity was measured on day 5 by determining uterine wet weight gain and induction of the estrogen-responsive gene lactoferrin. Vaginal opening, estrous cyclicity, fertility, and morphologic alterations in the ovary/reproductive tract were examined. RESULTS Oral GIN elicited an estrogenic response in the neonatal uterus, whereas the response to oral GEN was much weaker. Oral GIN altered ovarian differentiation (i.e., multioocyte follicles), delayed vaginal opening, caused abnormal estrous cycles, decreased fertility, and delayed parturition. CONCLUSIONS Our results support the idea that the dose of the physiologically active compound reaching the target tissue, rather than the administered dose or route, is most important in modeling chemical exposures. This is particularly true with young animals in which phase II metabolism capacity is underdeveloped relative to adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy N Jefferson
- Laboratory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA.
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Donovan SM, Andres A, Mathai RA, Kuhlenschmidt TB, Kuhlenschmidt MS. Soy formula and isoflavones and the developing intestine. Nutr Rev 2009; 67 Suppl 2:S192-200. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00240.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Badger TM, Gilchrist JM, Pivik RT, Andres A, Shankar K, Chen JR, Ronis MJ. The health implications of soy infant formula. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 89:1668S-1672S. [PMID: 19357221 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Soy formula (SF) has been fed to millions of infants worldwide. It has been shown to promote growth and development as well as milk-based formula (MF). Controversy has developed over the adequacy and safety of SF. Most concerns are based on in vivo and in vitro data that raise the possibility of estrogenic effects of isoflavones contained in SF. There are few studies of children who were fed SF, and thus insufficient data are available to judge if SF feeding results in clinically significant developmental effects and if there are any long-term health consequences (adverse or beneficial). However, the Arkansas Children's Nutrition Center is conducting a prospective longitudinal study comparing growth, development, and health of breastfed children with formula-fed (SF and MF) children from birth through age 6 y. After 5 y of study, children in all 3 groups (n > 300) are growing and developing within normal limits, and there are no indications of adverse effects in the soy-fed children. Neonatal pig studies comparing SF, MF, and breast milk (BM) have shown diet-specific gene expression profiles in various target tissues. Therefore, although SF differed significantly from BM, MF also differed from BM, and SF differed from MF. Nonetheless, these animals grew and developed normally, and SF piglets had several health benefits (eg, increased bone quality) and no observable adverse effects. Thus, to date, our results suggest that SF supports normal growth and may have advantages in promoting bone development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Badger
- Arkansas Children's Nutrition Center and the Departments of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Science, Little Rock, AR, USA.
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18
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Concerns for the use of soy-based formulas in infant nutrition. Paediatr Child Health 2009; 14:109-118. [PMID: 19436562 PMCID: PMC2661347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
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19
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Leung A, Otley A. Concerns for the use of soy-based formulas in infant nutrition. Paediatr Child Health 2009. [DOI: 10.1093/pch/14.2.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
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Abstract
Soy protein-based formulas have been available for almost 100 years. Since the first use of soy formula as a milk substitute for an infant unable to tolerate a cow milk protein-based formula, the formulation has changed to the current soy protein isolate. Despite very limited indications for its use, soy protein-based formulas in the United States may account for nearly 25% of the formula market. This report reviews the limited indications and contraindications of soy formulas. It will also review the potential harmful effects of soy protein-based formulas and the phytoestrogens contained in these formulas.
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Tomar RS, Shiao R. Early life and adult exposure to isoflavones and breast cancer risk. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART C, ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS & ECOTOXICOLOGY REVIEWS 2008; 26:113-73. [PMID: 18569328 DOI: 10.1080/10590500802074256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Soy and red-clover isoflavones are commonly consumed within the diet or as a dietary supplement due to a range of presumed beneficial health benefits. These isoflavones are thought to protect against heart diseases as well as breast and other types of cancer. Isoflavones are structurally similar to estrogens and may act as estrogen agonists or antagonists by binding to estrogen receptors. Because of an increased use of isoflavones in processed foods and dietary supplements as well as the greater consumption of soy products, dietary intakes of isoflavones are increasing in children and adolescents in North America. Estrogens are a known component of numerous hormone related cancers including breast cancer. It is with these facts in mind that we review the existing epidemiological and experimental animal studies for a resolution to a proposed correlation between increased isoflavone consumption and breast cancer. There is conflicting evidence from epidemiological, intervention and experimental animal studies regarding the chemopreventing effects of soy isoflavones in breast cancer. Isoflavones are weak estrogens and their effect depends upon the dose, time of exposure and species involved. It would, therefore, not be safe to indisputably accept soy or red-clover as a source of isoflavone resource to prevent breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajpal S Tomar
- Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, California 94612, USA.
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Bernbaum JC, Umbach DM, Ragan NB, Ballard JL, Archer JI, Schmidt-Davis H, Rogan WJ. Pilot studies of estrogen-related physical findings in infants. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:416-20. [PMID: 18335112 PMCID: PMC2265048 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.10409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2007] [Accepted: 12/11/2007] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soy formula containing estrogenic isoflavones is widely used in the United States. Infants consuming soy formula exclusively have high isoflavone exposures. We wanted to study whether soy formula prolonged the physiologic estrogenization of newborns, but available quantitative descriptions of the natural history of breast and genital development are inadequate for study design. OBJECTIVE We piloted techniques for assessing infants' responses to the withdrawal from maternal estrogen and gathered data on breast and genital development in infants at different ages. METHODS We studied 37 boys and 35 girls, from term pregnancies with normal birth weights, who were < 48 hr to 6 months of age, and residents of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during 2004-2005. One-third of the children of each sex and age interval were exclusively fed breast milk, soy formula, or cow-milk formula. Our cross-sectional study measured breast adipose tissue, breast buds, and testicular volume; observed breast and genital development; and collected vaginal wall cells and information on vaginal discharge. We assessed reliability of the measures. RESULTS Breast tissue was maximal at birth and disappeared in older children, consistent with waning maternal estrogen. Genital development did not change by age. Breast-milk secretion and withdrawal bleeding were unusual. Vaginal wall cells showed maximal estrogen effect at birth and then reverted; girls on soy appeared to show reestrogenization at 6 months. CONCLUSIONS Examination of infants for plausible effects of estrogens is valid and repeatable. Measurement of breast tissue and characterization of vaginal wall cells could be used to evaluate exposures with estrogen-like effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy C. Bernbaum
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - N. Beth Ragan
- Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jeanne L. Ballard
- Department of Neonatology, Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Janet I. Archer
- Survey & Epidemiology Services Division, Social & Scientific Systems, Inc. (formerly Coda, Inc.), Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Walter J. Rogan
- Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
- Address correspondence to W.J. Rogan, NIEHS, Post Office Box 12233, Mail Drop A3-05, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 USA. Telephone: (919) 541–4578. Fax: (919) 541–2511. E-mail:
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Rozman KK, Bhatia J, Calafat AM, Chambers C, Culty M, Etzel RA, Flaws JA, Hansen DK, Hoyer PB, Jeffery EH, Kesner JS, Marty S, Thomas JA, Umbach D. NTP-CERHR expert panel report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of genistein. BIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH. PART B, DEVELOPMENTAL AND REPRODUCTIVE TOXICOLOGY 2006; 77:485-638. [PMID: 17186522 PMCID: PMC2020434 DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.20087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karl K Rozman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
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Rozman KK, Bhatia J, Calafat AM, Chambers C, Culty M, Etzel RA, Flaws JA, Hansen DK, Hoyer PB, Jeffery EH, Kesner JS, Marty S, Thomas JA, Umbach D. NTP-CERHR expert panel report on the reproductive and developmental toxicity of soy formula. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 77:280-397. [PMID: 16998908 PMCID: PMC2266894 DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.20086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karl K Rozman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
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