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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Vandenbosch GAE, Vargas F, Caceres-Monllor DA, Arribas E. Measurement studies of personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 218:114979. [PMID: 36460078 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The last 25 years have seen an increase in the number of radiofrequency sources with the global adoption of smartphones as primary connectivity devices. The objective of this work was to review and evaluate the measured studies of personal exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-RMF) and meet the basic quality criteria eligible for inclusion in this Review, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, following the eligibility criteria of the PECO (Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcome) methodology, and the instrument for critical reading Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Español (CASPe). We systematically reviewed the works published between January 1, 1998, and December 31, 2021, yielding 56 publications. Of the different types of studies in which personal exposure to RF-EMF has been measured with two measurement methodologies can be highlighted: Personal measurements with volunteers and Personal measurements with a trained researcher (touring a specific area, one or several microenvironments, an entire city, walking or in some means of transport). Personal exposimeters were used in 83% of the studies. The lowest mean was measured in Egypt with a value of 0.00100 μW/m2 (1.00 nW/m2) in 2007 and the highest mean was measured in Belgium with a value of 285000 μW/m2 (0.285 W/m2) in 2019. The results of our study confirm that RF-EMF exposure levels are well below the maximum levels established by the ICNIRP guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Isabel Escobar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Guy A E Vandenbosch
- ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | | | - Enrique Arribas
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España S/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain.
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Yamazaki K, Ikeda-Araki A, Miyashita C, Tamura N, Yoshikawa T, Hikage T, Omiya M, Mizuta M, Ikuyo M, Tobita K, Onishi T, Taki M, Watanabe S, Kishi R. Measurement of personal radio frequency exposure in Japan: The Hokkaido Study on the Environment and Children's health. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 216:114429. [PMID: 36174753 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The opportunities for exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) among children are increasing. Children's exposure to RF-EMF in Japan was recorded using a personal exposure meter (ExpoM-RF), and factors associated with the exposure examined. A total of 101 children, aged 10-15 years old, participated in the prospective birth cohort "Hokkaido study". RF-EMF data were recorded in the 700 MHz-5.8 GHz frequency range for 3 days. The recorded data were summarized into six groups of frequency bands: downlink from mobile phone base stations (DL), uplink from mobile phones to a base station (UL), Wireless Local Area Network (LAN), terrestrial digital TV broadcasting (digital TV), 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz Time Division Duplex (TDD), 1.9 GHz TDD, and total (the summation of power density in all measured frequency bands). A questionnaire was used to document the internet environment (at home) and mobile phone usage. Personal RF-EMF exposure in Japanese children was lower than that reported in studies in Europe. The DL signals from mobile phone base stations were the most significant contributors to total exposure, while Wireless LAN and digital TV were only higher at home. The urban residence was consistently associated with increases in the four groups of frequency bands (DL, UL, digital TV, and TDD). TDD level has several associations with mobile phone usage (calls using mobile phones, video viewing, text message service, and online game). The association between inattention/hyperactivity subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and higher Wireless LAN exposure at nighttime was also noted. Further studies with additional data will shed light on factors involved in RF-EMF exposure among Japanese children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Yamazaki
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Atsuko Ikeda-Araki
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan; Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600812, Japan.
| | - Chihiro Miyashita
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Naomi Tamura
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Toshio Yoshikawa
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Takashi Hikage
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600814, Japan.
| | - Manabu Omiya
- Information Initiative Center, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600811, Japan.
| | - Masahiro Mizuta
- Information Initiative Center, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600811, Japan.
| | - Miwa Ikuyo
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Kazuhiro Tobita
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Teruo Onishi
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Masao Taki
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Soichi Watanabe
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Reiko Kishi
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
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Leszczynski D. Review of the scientific evidence on the individual sensitivity to electromagnetic fields (EHS). REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2022; 37:423-450. [PMID: 34229366 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2021-0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Part of the population considers themselves as sensitive to the man-made electromagnetic radiation (EMF) emitted by powerlines, electric wiring, electric home appliance and the wireless communication devices and networks. Sensitivity is characterized by a broad variety of non-specific symptoms that the sensitive people claim to experience when exposed to EMF. While the experienced symptoms are currently considered as a real life impairment, the factor causing these symptoms remains unclear. So far, scientists were unable to find causality link between symptoms experienced by sensitive persons and the exposures to EMF. However, as presented in this review, the executed to-date scientific studies, examining sensitivity to EMF, are of poor quality to find the link between EMF exposures and sensitivity symptoms of some people. It is logical to consider that the sensitivity to EMF exists but the scientific methodology used to find it is of insufficient quality. It is time to drop out psychology driven provocation studies that ask about feelings-based non-specific symptoms experienced by volunteers under EMF exposure. Such research approach produces only subjective and therefore highly unreliable data that is insufficient to prove, or to disprove, causality link between EHS and EMF. There is a need for a new direction in studying sensitivity to EMF. The basis for it is the notion of a commonly known phenomenon of individual sensitivity, where individuals' responses to EMF depend on the genetic and epigenetic properties of the individual. It is proposed here that new studies, combining provocation approach, where volunteers are exposed to EMF, and high-throughput technologies of transcriptomics and proteomics are used to generate objective data, detecting molecular level biochemical responses of human body to EMF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Leszczynski
- Adjunct Professor of Biochemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Physical Differences between Man-Made and Cosmic Microwave Electromagnetic Radiation and Their Exposure Limits, and Radiofrequencies as Generators of Biotoxic Free Radicals. RADIATION 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/radiation2040022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The critical arguments for radiofrequency radiation exposure limits are currently based on the principle that radio frequencies (RF) and electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are non-ionising, and their exposure limits are even 100-fold lower than those emitted from the Sun in the whole RF-EMF spectrum. Nonetheless, this argument has been challenged by numerous experimental and theoretical studies on the diverse biological effects of RF-EMF at much lower power density (W/m2) levels than today’s exposing limits. On the other hand, less attention has been given to counterarguments based on the differences in the physics concepts underlying man-made versus natural electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and on the fact that man’s biology has been adapted to the natural EMR levels reaching Earth’s surface at single EMF wavelengths, which are the natural limits of man’s exposure to EMFs. The article highlights the main points of interaction of natural and man-made radiation with biomatter and reveals the physical theoretical background that explains the effects of man-made microwave radiation on biological matter. Moreover, the article extends its analysis on experimental quantum effects, establishing the “ionising-like” effects of man-made microwave radiation on biological matter.
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Martin S, De Giudici P, Genier JC, Cassagne E, Doré JF, Ducimetière P, Evrard AS, Letertre T, Ségala C. Health disturbances and exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from mobile-phone base stations in French urban areas. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 193:110583. [PMID: 33285159 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The effects of radiofrequency exposure on the health of people living near mobile-phone base stations (MPBSs) have been the subject of several studies since the mid-2000s, with contradictory results. We aimed to investigate the association between measured exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) from MPBSs and the presence of self-reported non-specific and insomnia-like symptoms. A cross-sectional survey conducted between 2015 and 2017 in five large cities in France involved 354 people living in buildings located at a distance of 250 m or less from an MPBS and in the main transmit beam of the antennas. Information on environmental concerns, anxiety, and non-specific and insomnia-like symptoms was collected with a questionnaire administrated by telephone. A complete broadband field-meter measurement [100 kHz - 6 GHz] was then made at five points of each dwelling, followed by a spectral analysis at the point of highest exposure, detailing the contribution of each service, including MPBS. The median exposure from MPBS was 0.27 V/m (0.44 V/m for global field), ranging from 0.03 V/m to 3.58 V/m, MPBSs being the main source of exposure for 64% of the dwellings. In this study population, the measured exposure from MPBSs was not associated with self-reported non-specific or insomnia-like symptoms. However, for insomnia-like symptoms, a significant interaction was found between RF-EMF exposure from MPBSs and environmental concerns. These findings do not support the hypothesis of an effect of RF-EMF from MPBSs on non-specific or insomnia-like symptoms in the overall population. Studies are needed to further investigate the positive association observed between exposure from MPBSs and insomnia-like symptoms among people reporting environmental concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Jean-François Doré
- Inserm UA8 Radiations: Défense, Santé, Environnement, Centre Léon Bérard, Lyon, France
| | | | - Anne-Sophie Evrard
- Univ Lyon, Univ Gustave Eiffel, IFSTTAR, Univ Lyon 1, Umrestte, UMR, T9405, Bron, France
| | - Thierry Letertre
- SONDRA, Centrale Supélec, Université Paris Saclay, Gif sur Yvette, France
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Šuka D, Pejović P, Simić-Pejović M. APPLICATION OF TIME-AVERAGED AND INTEGRAL-BASED MEASURE FOR MEASUREMENT RESULTS VARIABILITY REDUCTION IN GSM/DCS/UMTS SYSTEMS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2019; 187:191-214. [PMID: 31297514 PMCID: PMC7203997 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncz154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Since EMF levels from wireless telecommunication networks are non-stationary and exhibit large temporal variations, the use of continuous measurements during extended periods (preferably 24 h or longer) with a data-logging system is required. Because of the short-term variations of E field, the 6-min measurements and 6-min averaged results to obtain the mean level strength at a given place appear to be dependent on the time of measurements during the day. This paper presents a new (integral-based) measure to evaluate electromagnetic exposure. The new measure is a pure physical descriptor of the amount of exposed energy density (a parameter accumulated from instantaneous power density values in time). To confirm previous observations, continuous measurements with personal exposure metre were recorded 24 h a day for two weeks at every location in urban area, 14 different locations in total. Additionally, to check temporal variations and repeatability of exposure assessment, a week of prolonged measurements was taken 6 months later, making in total three weeks of measurements at 2 locations. Day-to-day repeatability of RF-EMF exposure was analysed through the time-averaged and integral-based measure. The analysis is based on approximately 5.1 million data samples (1.7 million for each band). The ratio between the maximum and minimum instantaneous (maximum and minimum 6-min averaged) E field values during the day could reach up to 25 dB (20 dB). Therefore, great variability in the results may occur. By applying the 24 h time-averaged and integral-based measure on a 24 h data set of measurements, the variability of daily exposure could stay within ±20% of the week mean level obtained either with the time-averaged or integral-based measure. Both, the time-averaged E field and integral-based power density exposures of the general public in all locations were found to be well below the general public exposure limits of the ICNIRP guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darko Šuka
- University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Predrag Pejović
- University of Belgrade, School of Electrical Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia
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7
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Bolte JFB, Clahsen S, Vercruijsse W, Houtveen JH, Schipper CMA, van Kamp I, Bogers R. Ecological momentary assessment study of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields and non-specific physical symptoms with self-declared electrosensitives. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 131:104948. [PMID: 31288182 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.104948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The main objective of the study is to determine if non-specific physical symptoms (NSPS) in people with self-declared sensitivity to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) can be explained (across subjects) by exposure to RF EMF. Furthermore, we pioneered whether analysis at the individual level or at the group level may lead to different conclusions. By our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal study exploring the data at the individual level. A group of 57 participants was equipped with a measurement set for five consecutive days. The measurement set consisted of a body worn exposimeter measuring the radiofrequency electromagnetic field in twelve frequency bands used for communication, a GPS logger, and an electronic diary giving cues at random intervals within a two to three hour interval. At every cue, a questionnaire on the most important health complaint and nine NSPS had to be filled out. We analysed the (time-lagged) associations between RF-EMF exposure in the included frequency bands and the total number of NSPS and self-rated severity of the most important health complaint. The manifestation of NSPS was studied during two different time lags - 0-1 h, and 1-4 h - after exposure and for different exposure metrics of RF EMF. The exposure was characterised by exposure metrics describing the central tendency and the intermittency of the signal, i.e. the time-weighted average exposure, the time above an exposure level or the rate of change metric. At group level, there was no statistically significant and relevant (fixed effect) association between the measured personal exposure to RF EMF and NSPS. At individual level, after correction for multiple testing and confounding, we found significant within-person associations between WiFi (the self-declared most important source) exposure metrics and the total NSPS score and severity of the most important complaint in one participant. However, it cannot be ruled out that this association is explained by residual confounding due to imperfect control for location or activities. Therefore, the outcomes have to be regarded very prudently. The significant associations were found for the short and the long time lag, but not always concurrently, so both provide complementary information. We also conclude that analyses at the individual level can lead to different findings when compared to an analysis at group level.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F B Bolte
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands; Smart Sensor Systems Research Group, Faculty of Technology, Innovation and Society, The Hague University of Applied Sciences (THUAS), Rotterdamseweg 137, 2628 AL Delft, the Netherlands.
| | - Sander Clahsen
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Wendy Vercruijsse
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Jan H Houtveen
- Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion Regulation, University Medical Center Groningen, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - C Maarten A Schipper
- Department of Statistics, Informatics and Mathematical Modelling, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Irene van Kamp
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Rik Bogers
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Auvinen A, Feychting M, Ahlbom A, Hillert L, Elliott P, Schüz J, Kromhout H, Toledano MB, Johansen C, Poulsen AH, Vermeulen R, Heinävaara S, Kojo K, Tettamanti G. Headache, tinnitus and hearing loss in the international Cohort Study of Mobile Phone Use and Health (COSMOS) in Sweden and Finland. Int J Epidemiol 2019; 48:1567-1579. [PMID: 31302690 PMCID: PMC6857740 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyz127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mobile phone use and exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) from it have been associated with symptoms in some studies, but the studies have shortcomings and their findings are inconsistent. We conducted a prospective cohort study to assess the association between amount of mobile phone use at baseline and frequency of headache, tinnitus or hearing loss at 4-year follow-up. METHODS The participants had mobile phone subscriptions with major mobile phone network operators in Sweden (n = 21 049) and Finland (n = 3120), gave consent for obtaining their mobile phone call data from operator records at baseline, and filled in both baseline and follow-up questionnaires on symptoms, potential confounders and further characteristics of their mobile phone use. RESULTS The participants with the highest decile of recorded call-time (average call-time >276 min per week) at baseline showed a weak, suggestive increased frequency of weekly headaches at 4-year follow-up (adjusted odds ratio 1.13, 95% confidence interval 0.95-1.34). There was no obvious gradient of weekly headache with increasing call-time (P trend 0.06). The association of headache with call-time was stronger for the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) network than older Global System for Mobile Telecommunications (GSM) technology, despite the latter involving higher exposure to RF-EMF. Tinnitus and hearing loss showed no association with call-time. CONCLUSIONS People using mobile phones most extensively for making or receiving calls at baseline reported weekly headaches slightly more frequently at follow-up than other users, but this finding largely disappeared after adjustment for confounders and was not related to call-time in GSM with higher RF-EMF exposure. Tinnitus and hearing loss were not associated with amount of call-time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anssi Auvinen
- Environmental Surveillance and Emergency Preparedness, STUK – Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland
- Faculty of Social Science/Health Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Maria Feychting
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Ahlbom
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Hillert
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Region Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paul Elliott
- MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, London, UK
- National Institute for Health Research, Imperial College Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
- UKDRI Dementia Research Institute at Imperial College London, London, UK
- National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London and Imperial College London in partnership with Public Health England, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Joachim Schüz
- Section of Environment and Radiation, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France
| | - Hans Kromhout
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Mireille B Toledano
- MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, London, UK
- National Institute for Health Research, Imperial College Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
- UKDRI Dementia Research Institute at Imperial College London, London, UK
- National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London and Imperial College London in partnership with Public Health England, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Christoffer Johansen
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Surgery and Cancer, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Sirpa Heinävaara
- Environmental Surveillance and Emergency Preparedness, STUK – Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katja Kojo
- Environmental Surveillance and Emergency Preparedness, STUK – Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Giorgio Tettamanti
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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9
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Eeftens M, Struchen B, Birks LE, Cardis E, Estarlich M, Fernandez MF, Gajšek P, Gallastegi M, Huss A, Kheifets L, Meder IK, Olsen J, Torrent M, Trček T, Valič B, Vermeulen R, Vrijheid M, van Wel L, Guxens M, Röösli M. Personal exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields in Europe: Is there a generation gap? ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:216-226. [PMID: 30216774 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) from mobile communication technologies is changing rapidly. To characterize sources and associated variability, we studied the differences and correlations in exposure patterns between children aged 8 to 18 and their parents, over the course of the day, by age, by activity pattern, and for different metrics of exposure. METHODS Using portable RF-EMF measurement devices, we collected simultaneous real-time personal measurements of RF-EMF over 24 to 72 h in 294 parent-child pairs from Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Spain. The devices measured the power flux density (mW/m2) in 16 different frequency bands every 4 s, and activity diary Apps kept by the participants were used to collect time-activity information in real-time. We analyzed their exposures by activity, for the different source constituents of exposure: downlink (radiation emitted from mobile phone base stations), uplink (transmission from phone to base station), broadcast, DECT (digital enhanced cordless telecommunications) and Wi-Fi. We looked at the correlations between parents and children overall, during day (06:00-22.00) and night (22:00-06:00) and while spending time at home. RESULTS The mean of time-weighted average personal exposures was 0.16 mW/m2 for children and 0.15 mW/m2 for parents, on average predominantly originating from downlink sources (47% for children and 45% for parents), followed by uplink (18% and 27% respectively) and broadcast (25% and 19%). On average, exposure for downlink and uplink were highest during the day, and for Wi-Fi and DECT during the evening. Exposure during activities where most of the time is spent (home, school and work) was relatively low whereas exposure during travel and outside activities was higher. Exposure to uplink increased with age among young people, while DECT decreased slightly. Exposure to downlink, broadcast, and Wi-Fi showed no obvious trend with age. We found that exposure to total RF-EMF is correlated among children and their parents (Rspearman = 0.45), especially while at home (0.62) and during the night (0.60). Correlations were higher for environmental sources such as downlink (0.57) and broadcast (0.62) than for usage-related exposures such as uplink (0.29). CONCLUSION The generation gap between children and their parents is mostly evident in uplink exposure, due to more and longer uplink and cordless phone calls among parents, and their tendency to spend slightly more time in activities with higher environmental RF-EMF exposure, such as travel. Despite these differences in personal behavior, exposure to RF-EMF is moderately correlated between children and their parents, especially exposures resulting from environmental RF-EMF sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laura Ellen Birks
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marisa Estarlich
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Mariana F Fernandez
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; University of Granada, Center for Biomedical Research (CIBM), & Biosanitary Research Institute of Granada (ibs.GRANADA), Spain
| | - Peter Gajšek
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Mara Gallastegi
- BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, Dr. Begiristain Pasealekua, San Sebastian, Spain; University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Preventative Medicine and Public Health Department, Faculty of Medicine, Leioa, Spain
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Leeka Kheifets
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | | | - Jørn Olsen
- Danish Epidemiology Science Centre, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Tomaž Trček
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Blaž Valič
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Martine Vrijheid
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luuk van Wel
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Mònica Guxens
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Centre-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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10
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Vila J, Turner MC, Gracia-Lavedan E, Figuerola J, Bowman JD, Kincl L, Richardson L, Benke G, Hours M, Krewski D, McLean D, Parent ME, Sadetzki S, Schlaefer K, Schlehofer B, Schüz J, Siemiatycki J, van Tongeren M, Cardis E. Occupational exposure to high-frequency electromagnetic fields and brain tumor risk in the INTEROCC study: An individualized assessment approach. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 119:353-365. [PMID: 29996112 PMCID: PMC8851381 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) as possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2B), although the epidemiological evidence for the association between occupational exposure to RF-EMF and cancer was judged to be inadequate, due in part to limitations in exposure assessment. This study examines the relation between occupational RF and intermediate frequency (IF) EMF exposure and brain tumor (glioma and meningioma) risk in the INTEROCC multinational population-based case-control study (with nearly 4000 cases and over 5000 controls), using a novel exposure assessment approach. METHODS Individual indices of cumulative exposure to RF and IF-EMF (overall and in specific exposure time windows) were assigned to study participants using a source-exposure matrix and detailed interview data on work with or nearby EMF sources. Conditional logistic regression was used to investigate associations with glioma and meningioma risk. RESULTS Overall, around 10% of study participants were exposed to RF while only 1% were exposed to IF-EMF. There was no clear evidence for a positive association between RF or IF-EMF and the brain tumors studied, with most results showing either no association or odds ratios (ORs) below 1.0. The largest adjusted ORs were obtained for cumulative exposure to RF magnetic fields (as A/m-years) in the highest exposed category (≥90th percentile) for the most recent exposure time window (1-4 years before the diagnosis or reference date) for both glioma, OR = 1.62 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.86, 3.01) and meningioma (OR = 1.52, 95% CI: 0.65, 3.55). CONCLUSION Despite the improved exposure assessment approach used in this study, no clear associations were identified. However, the results obtained for recent exposure to RF electric and magnetic fields are suggestive of a potential role in brain tumor promotion/progression and should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Vila
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Michelle C Turner
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Esther Gracia-Lavedan
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Figuerola
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Joseph D Bowman
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), OH, USA
| | - Laurel Kincl
- Oregon State University (OSU), Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Lesley Richardson
- University of Montreal Hospital Research Centre (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada
| | - Geza Benke
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Martine Hours
- Université de Lyon, Université Lyon1 Claude Bernard, IFSTTAR, Unité Mixte de Recherche Épidémiologique et de Surveillance Transports Travail Environnement, Lyon, France
| | - Daniel Krewski
- McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | | | | | - Siegal Sadetzki
- Cancer and Radiation Epidemiology Unit, Gertner Institute, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | | | | | - Joachim Schüz
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Section of Environment and Radiation, Lyon, France
| | - Jack Siemiatycki
- University of Montreal Hospital Research Centre (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada
| | - Martie van Tongeren
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh, UK; Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, Centre for Epidemiology, The University of Manchester, UK
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
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11
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Birks LE, Struchen B, Eeftens M, van Wel L, Huss A, Gajšek P, Kheifets L, Gallastegi M, Dalmau-Bueno A, Estarlich M, Fernandez MF, Meder IK, Ferrero A, Jiménez-Zabala A, Torrent M, Vrijkotte TGM, Cardis E, Olsen J, Valič B, Vermeulen R, Vrijheid M, Röösli M, Guxens M. Spatial and temporal variability of personal environmental exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields in children in Europe. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 117:204-214. [PMID: 29754001 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2017] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) has rapidly increased and little is known about exposure levels in children. This study describes personal RF-EMF environmental exposure levels from handheld devices and fixed site transmitters in European children, the determinants of this, and the day-to-day and year-to-year repeatability of these exposure levels. METHODS Personal environmental RF-EMF exposure (μW/m2, power flux density) was measured in 529 children (ages 8-18 years) in Denmark, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Spain using personal portable exposure meters for a period of up to three days between 2014 and 2016, and repeated in a subsample of 28 children one year later. The meters captured 16 frequency bands every 4 s and incorporated a GPS. Activity diaries and questionnaires were used to collect children's location, use of handheld devices, and presence of indoor RF-EMF sources. Six general frequency bands were defined: total, digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT), television and radio antennas (broadcast), mobile phones (uplink), mobile phone base stations (downlink), and Wireless Fidelity (WiFi). We used adjusted mixed effects models with region random effects to estimate associations of handheld device use habits and indoor RF-EMF sources with personal RF-EMF exposure. Day-to-day and year-to-year repeatability of personal RF-EMF exposure were calculated through intraclass correlations (ICC). RESULTS Median total personal RF-EMF exposure was 75.5 μW/m2. Downlink was the largest contributor to total exposure (median: 27.2 μW/m2) followed by broadcast (9.9 μW/m2). Exposure from uplink (4.7 μW/m2) was lower. WiFi and DECT contributed very little to exposure levels. Exposure was higher during day (94.2 μW/m2) than night (23.0 μW/m2), and slightly higher during weekends than weekdays, although varying across regions. Median exposures were highest while children were outside (157.0 μW/m2) or traveling (171.3 μW/m2), and much lower at home (33.0 μW/m2) or in school (35.1 μW/m2). Children living in urban environments had higher exposure than children in rural environments. Older children and users of mobile phones had higher uplink exposure but not total exposure, compared to younger children and those that did not use mobile phones. Day-to-day repeatability was moderate to high for most of the general frequency bands (ICCs between 0.43 and 0.85), as well as for total, broadcast, and downlink for the year-to-year repeatability (ICCs between 0.49 and 0.80) in a small subsample. CONCLUSION The largest contributors to total personal environmental RF-EMF exposure were downlink and broadcast, and these exposures showed high repeatability. Urbanicity was the most important determinant of total exposure and mobile phone use was the most important determinant of uplink exposure. It is important to continue evaluating RF-EMF exposure in children as device use habits, exposure levels, and main contributing sources may change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ellen Birks
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Departement of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel 4051, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Departement of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel 4051, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Luuk van Wel
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Gajšek
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Leeka Kheifets
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Mara Gallastegi
- BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, Dr. Begiristain Pasealekua, San Sebastian, Spain; University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Preventative Medicine and Public Health Department, Faculty of Medicine, Leioa, Spain
| | - Albert Dalmau-Bueno
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marisa Estarlich
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Mariana F Fernandez
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; University of Granada, Department of Radiology and Physical Medicine, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Amparo Ferrero
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020 València, Spain
| | - Ana Jiménez-Zabala
- BIODONOSTIA Health Research Institute, Dr. Begiristain Pasealekua, San Sebastian, Spain; Public Health Division of Gipuzkoa, Basque Government, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Maties Torrent
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; ib-salut, Area de Salut de Menorca, Menorca, Spain
| | - Tanja G M Vrijkotte
- Department of Public Health - Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jørn Olsen
- Danish Epidemiology Science Centre, Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Blaž Valič
- Institute of Non-ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands; School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Martine Vrijheid
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Martin Röösli
- Departement of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel 4051, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mònica Guxens
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Centre-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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12
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Choi J, Hwang JH, Lim H, Joo H, Yang HS, Lee YH, Eeftens M, Struchen B, Röösli M, Lee AK, Choi HD, Kwon JH, Ha M. Assessment of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure from personal measurements considering the body shadowing effect in Korean children and parents. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 627:1544-1551. [PMID: 30857115 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We aimed to assess the personal radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure levels of children and adults through their activities, with consideration to the body shadowing effect. We recruited 50 child-adult pairs, living in Seoul, Cheonan, and Ulsan, South Korea. RF-EMF measurements were performed between September and December 2016, using a portable exposure meter tailored to capture 14 Korean radiofrequency (RF) bands ranging from 87.5 to 5875MHz. The participants carried the device for 48h and kept a time-activity diary using a smartphone application in flight mode. To enhance accuracy of the exposure assessment, the body shadowing effect was compensated during the statistical analysis with the measured RF-EMF exposure. The compensation was conducted using the hybrid model that represents the decrease of the exposure level due to the body shadowing effect. A generalized linear mixed model was used to compare the RF-EMF exposure levels by subjects and activities. The arithmetic (geometric) means of the total power density were 174.9 (36.6) μW/m2 for all participants, 226.9 (44.6) for fathers, 245.4 (44.8) for mothers, and 116.2 (30.1) for children. By compensating for the body shadowing effect, the total RF-EMF exposure increased marginally, approximately 1.4 times. Each frequency band contribution to total RF-EMF exposure consisted of 76.7%, 2.4%, 9.9%, 5.0%, 3.3%, and 2.6% for downlink, uplink, WiFi, FM Radio, TV, and WiBro bands, respectively. Among the three regions, total RF-EMF exposure was highest in Seoul, and among the activities, it was highest in the metro, followed by foot/bicycle, bus/car, and outside. The contribution of base-station exposure to total RF-EMF exposure was the highest both in parents and children. Total and base-station RF-EMF exposure levels in Korea were higher than those reported in European countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghyuk Choi
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hwan Hwang
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyungrul Lim
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjoo Joo
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Sun Yang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Han Lee
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ae-Kyoung Lee
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Do Choi
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Hwa Kwon
- Broadcasting and Media Research Laboratory, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Mina Ha
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea.
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13
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López-Furelos A, Salas-Sánchez AA, Ares-Pena FJ, Leiro-Vidal JM, López-Martín E. Exposure to radiation from single or combined radio frequencies provokes macrophage dysfunction in the RAW 264.7 cell line. Int J Radiat Biol 2018; 94:607-618. [PMID: 29659305 DOI: 10.1080/09553002.2018.1465610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to determine whether exposure to radiation from single or multiple radio-frequency (RF) signals at 900 and 2450 MHz would induce effects in the RAW 264.7 cell line. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cell cultures were exposed to single or combined RF for 4, 24, 48, or 72 h in a GTEM electromagnetic test chamber. At the end of the radiation exposure time, viability and cell growth were analyzed by flow cytometry, nitric oxide (NO) production was measured by colorimetry, the expression of HSP70 and TNF-α was ascertained by qPCR, and the phagocytic activity was observed by microscopy. RESULTS NO production increased after 48 h exposure at 2450 MHz, compared with controls. The group subjected to the combined interaction of two RFs showed an increase of HSP70 after 48 h exposure and a significant increase of NO and TNF-α after 72 h. The phagocytic activity of macrophages decreased in all groups as exposure time increased. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicated a decrease in phagocytic activity and an increase in inflammatory, cytoprotective, and cytotoxic responses in macrophages after continuous and combined exposure of multiple RF signals. Multiple RF interact in everyday life, the immune response in humans is unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto López-Furelos
- a Department of Morphological Sciences , University of Santiago de Compostela , Santiago de Compostela , Spain
| | - Aarón A Salas-Sánchez
- b Department of Applied Physics , University of Santiago de Compostela , Santiago de Compostela , Spain
| | - Francisco J Ares-Pena
- b Department of Applied Physics , University of Santiago de Compostela , Santiago de Compostela , Spain
| | - José M Leiro-Vidal
- c Institute of Alimentary Analysis , University of Santiago de Compostela , Santiago de Compostela , Spain
| | - Elena López-Martín
- a Department of Morphological Sciences , University of Santiago de Compostela , Santiago de Compostela , Spain
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14
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Sagar S, Dongus S, Schoeni A, Roser K, Eeftens M, Struchen B, Foerster M, Meier N, Adem S, Röösli M. Radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in everyday microenvironments in Europe: A systematic literature review. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2018; 28:147-160. [PMID: 28766560 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2017.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The impact of the introduction and advancement in communication technology in recent years on exposure level of the population is largely unknown. The main aim of this study is to systematically review literature on the distribution of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in the everyday environment in Europe and summarize key characteristics of various types of RF-EMF studies conducted in the European countries. We systematically searched the ISI Web of Science for relevant literature published between 1 January 2000 and 30 April 2015, which assessed RF-EMF exposure levels by any of the methods: spot measurements, personal measurement with trained researchers and personal measurement with volunteers. Twenty-one published studies met our eligibility criteria of which 10 were spot measurements studies, 5 were personal measurement studies with trained researchers (microenvironmental), 5 were personal measurement studies with volunteers and 1 was a mixed methods study combining data collected by volunteers and trained researchers. RF-EMF data included in the studies were collected between 2005 and 2013. The mean total RF-EMF exposure for spot measurements in European "Homes" and "Outdoor" microenvironments was 0.29 and 0.54 V/m, respectively. In the personal measurements studies with trained researchers, the mean total RF-EMF exposure was 0.24 V/m in "Home" and 0.76 V/m in "Outdoor". In the personal measurement studies with volunteers, the population weighted mean total RF-EMF exposure was 0.16 V/m in "Homes" and 0.20 V/m in "Outdoor". Among all European microenvironments in "Transportation", the highest mean total RF-EMF 1.96 V/m was found in trains of Belgium during 2007 where more than 95% of exposure was contributed by uplink. Typical RF-EMF exposure levels are substantially below regulatory limits. We found considerable differences between studies according to the type of measurements procedures, which precludes cross-country comparison or evaluating temporal trends. A comparable RF-EMF monitoring concept is needed to accurately identify typical RF-EMF exposure levels in the everyday environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Sagar
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Dongus
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Anna Schoeni
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Roser
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Milena Foerster
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Noëmi Meier
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University Children's Hospital Basel, Spitalstrasse 33, Basel 4056, Switzerland
| | - Seid Adem
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel 4051, Switzerland
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15
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López-Furelos A, Leiro-Vidal JM, Salas-Sánchez AÁ, Ares-Pena FJ, López-Martín ME. Evidence of cellular stress and caspase-3 resulting from a combined two-frequency signal in the cerebrum and cerebellum of sprague-dawley rats. Oncotarget 2018; 7:64674-64689. [PMID: 27589837 PMCID: PMC5323107 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple simultaneous exposures to electromagnetic signals induced adjustments in mammal nervous systems. In this study, we investigated the non-thermal SAR (Specific Absorption Rate) in the cerebral or cerebellar hemispheres of rats exposed in vivo to combined electromagnetic field (EMF) signals at 900 and 2450 MHz. Forty rats divided into four groups of 10 were individually exposed or not exposed to radiation in a GTEM chamber for one or two hours. After radiation, we used the Chemiluminescent Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ChELISA) technique to measure cellular stress levels, indicated by the presence of heat shock proteins (HSP) 90 and 70, as well as caspase-3-dependent pre-apoptotic activity in left and right cerebral and cerebellar hemispheres of Sprague Dawley rats. Twenty-four hours after exposure to combined or single radiation, significant differences were evident in HSP 90 and 70 but not in caspase 3 levels between the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex at high SAR levels. In the cerebellar hemispheres, groups exposed to a single radiofrequency (RF) and high SAR showed significant differences in HSP 90, 70 and caspase-3 levels compared to control animals. The absorbed energy and/or biological effects of combined signals were not additive, suggesting that multiple signals act on nervous tissue by a different mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto López-Furelos
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - José Manuel Leiro-Vidal
- Institute of Alimentary Analysis, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Aarón Ángel Salas-Sánchez
- Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Francisco José Ares-Pena
- Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - María Elena López-Martín
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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16
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Menon UK. Upwardly mobile: Lowered hearing? J Postgrad Med 2017; 63:213-214. [PMID: 29022561 PMCID: PMC5664863 DOI: 10.4103/jpgm.jpgm_257_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- U K Menon
- ENT Department, Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Kochi, Kerala, India
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17
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Sage C, Burgio E. Electromagnetic Fields, Pulsed Radiofrequency Radiation, and Epigenetics: How Wireless Technologies May Affect Childhood Development. Child Dev 2017; 89:129-136. [PMID: 28504324 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Mobile phones and other wireless devices that produce electromagnetic fields (EMF) and pulsed radiofrequency radiation (RFR) are widely documented to cause potentially harmful health impacts that can be detrimental to young people. New epigenetic studies are profiled in this review to account for some neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioral changes due to exposure to wireless technologies. Symptoms of retarded memory, learning, cognition, attention, and behavioral problems have been reported in numerous studies and are similarly manifested in autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, as a result of EMF and RFR exposures where both epigenetic drivers and genetic (DNA) damage are likely contributors. Technology benefits can be realized by adopting wired devices for education to avoid health risk and promote academic achievement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ernesto Burgio
- International Society of Doctors for Environment (ISDE) Scientific Office
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Roser K, Schoeni A, Struchen B, Zahner M, Eeftens M, Fröhlich J, Röösli M. Personal radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure measurements in Swiss adolescents. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2017; 99:303-314. [PMID: 28038972 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Revised: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adolescents belong to the heaviest users of wireless communication devices, but little is known about their personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). OBJECTIVES The aim of this paper is to describe personal RF-EMF exposure of Swiss adolescents and evaluate exposure relevant factors. Furthermore, personal measurements were used to estimate average contributions of various sources to the total absorbed RF-EMF dose of the brain and the whole body. METHODS Personal exposure was measured using a portable RF-EMF measurement device (ExpoM-RF) measuring 13 frequency bands ranging from 470 to 3600MHz. The participants carried the device for three consecutive days and kept a time-activity diary. In total, 90 adolescents aged 13 to 17years participated in the study conducted between May 2013 and April 2014. In addition, personal measurement values were combined with dose calculations for the use of wireless communication devices to quantify the contribution of various RF-EMF sources to the daily RF-EMF dose of adolescents. RESULTS Main contributors to the total personal RF-EMF measurements of 63.2μW/m2 (0.15V/m) were exposures from mobile phones (67.2%) and from mobile phone base stations (19.8%). WLAN at school and at home had little impact on the personal measurements (WLAN accounted for 3.5% of total personal measurements). According to the dose calculations, exposure from environmental sources (broadcast transmitters, mobile phone base stations, cordless phone base stations, WLAN access points, and mobile phones in the surroundings) contributed on average 6.0% to the brain dose and 9.0% to the whole-body dose. CONCLUSIONS RF-EMF exposure of adolescents is dominated by their own mobile phone use. Environmental sources such as mobile phone base stations play a minor role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Roser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Schoeni
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Struchen
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marco Zahner
- Institute for Electromagnetic Fields, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland; Fields at Work GmbH, Sonneggstrasse 60, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marloes Eeftens
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jürg Fröhlich
- Institute for Electromagnetic Fields, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland; Fields at Work GmbH, Sonneggstrasse 60, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland.
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Hardell L, Koppel T, Carlberg M, Ahonen M, Hedendahl L. Radiofrequency radiation at Stockholm Central Railway Station in Sweden and some medical aspects on public exposure to RF fields. Int J Oncol 2016; 49:1315-1324. [PMID: 27633090 PMCID: PMC5021254 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2016.3657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Stockholm Central Railway Station in Sweden was investigated for public radiofrequency (RF) radiation exposure. The exposimeter EME Spy 200 was used to collect the RF exposure data across the railway station. The exposimeter covers 20 different radiofrequency bands from 88 to 5,850 MHz. In total 1,669 data points were recorded. The median value for total exposure was 921 µW/m2 (or 0.092 µW/cm2; 1 µW/m2=0.0001 µW/cm2) with some outliers over 95,544 µW/m2 (6 V/m, upper detection limit). The mean total RF radiation level varied between 2,817 to 4,891 µW/m2 for each walking round. High mean measurements were obtained for GSM + UMTS 900 downlink varying between 1,165 and 2,075 µW/m2. High levels were also obtained for UMTS 2100 downlink; 442 to 1,632 µW/m2. Also LTE 800 downlink, GSM 1800 downlink, and LTE 2600 downlink were in the higher range of measurements. Hot spots were identified, for example close to a wall mounted base station yielding over 95,544 µW/m2 and thus exceeding the exposimeter's detection limit. Almost all of the total measured levels were above the precautionary target level of 3-6 µW/m2 as proposed by the BioInitiative Working Group in 2012. That target level was one-tenth of the scientific benchmark providing a safety margin either for children, or chronic exposure conditions. We compare the levels of RF radiation exposures identified in the present study to published scientific results reporting adverse biological effects and health harm at levels equivalent to, or below those measured in this Stockholm Central Railway Station project. It should be noted that these RF radiation levels give transient exposure, since people are generally passing through the areas tested, except for subsets of people who are there for hours each day of work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Hardell
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Tarmo Koppel
- Department of Labour Environment and Safety Tallinn University of Technology, SCO351 Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia, Sweden
| | - Michael Carlberg
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Mikko Ahonen
- Institute of Environmental Health and Safety, 11615 Tallinn, Estonia, Sweden
| | - Lena Hedendahl
- Independent Environment and Health Research Luleå, SE-972 53 Luleå, Sweden
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Bolte JFB. Lessons learnt on biases and uncertainties in personal exposure measurement surveys of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields with exposimeters. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 94:724-735. [PMID: 27356850 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Personal exposure measurements of radio frequency electromagnetic fields are important for epidemiological studies and developing prediction models. Minimizing biases and uncertainties and handling spatial and temporal variability are important aspects of these measurements. This paper reviews the lessons learnt from testing the different types of exposimeters and from personal exposure measurement surveys performed between 2005 and 2015. Applying them will improve the comparability and ranking of exposure levels for different microenvironments, activities or (groups of) people, such that epidemiological studies are better capable of finding potential weak correlations with health effects. Over 20 papers have been published on how to prevent biases and minimize uncertainties due to: mechanical errors; design of hardware and software filters; anisotropy; and influence of the body. A number of biases can be corrected for by determining multiplicative correction factors. In addition a good protocol on how to wear the exposimeter, a sufficiently small sampling interval and sufficiently long measurement duration will minimize biases. Corrections to biases are possible for: non-detects through detection limit, erroneous manufacturer calibration and temporal drift. Corrections not deemed necessary, because no significant biases have been observed, are: linearity in response and resolution. Corrections difficult to perform after measurements are for: modulation/duty cycle sensitivity; out of band response aka cross talk; temperature and humidity sensitivity. Corrections not possible to perform after measurements are for: multiple signals detection in one band; flatness of response within a frequency band; anisotropy to waves of different elevation angle. An analysis of 20 microenvironmental surveys showed that early studies using exposimeters with logarithmic detectors, overestimated exposure to signals with bursts, such as in uplink signals from mobile phones and WiFi appliances. Further, the possible corrections for biases have not been fully applied. The main findings are that if the biases are not corrected for, the actual exposure will on average be underestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F B Bolte
- Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; Faculty of Technology, Innovation and Society, The Hague University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands.
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21
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Gonzalez-Rubio J, Najera A, Arribas E. Comprehensive personal RF-EMF exposure map and its potential use in epidemiological studies. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2016; 149:105-112. [PMID: 27196609 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, numerous epidemiological studies, which deal with the potential effects of mobile phone antennas on health, have almost exclusively focused on their distance to mobile phone base stations. Although it is known that this is not the best approach to the problem, this situation occurs due to the numerous difficulties when determining the personal exposure to the radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). However, due to the rise of personal exposimeters, the evolution of spatial statistics, the development of geographical information systems and the use of powerful software, new alternatives are available to deal with these epidemiological studies and thus overcome the aforementioned difficulties. Using these tools, this paper presents a lattice map of personal RF-EMF exposure from exterior mobile phone base stations, covering the entire 110 administrative regions in the city of Albacete (Spain). For this purpose, we used a personal exposimeter, Satimo EME Spy 140 model, performing measurements every 4s The exposimeter was located inside the plastic basket of a bicycle, whose versatility permitted the access to all the zones of the city. Once the exposure map was prepared, its relation with the known antenna locations was studied. The 64 mobile telephone antennas of the city were also georeferenced; the randomness of both variables (exposure and antennas) were studied by means of the Moran's I test. Results showed that the distribution of the antennas follows a grouped pattern (p<0.001), while the distribution of the average exposure values have a random distribution (p=0.618). In addition, we showed two Spearman correlation studies: the first between the average exposure values and the number of mobile telephone antennas per administrative region, and the second, also considering the antennas of the neighbouring regions. No substantial correlation was detected in either of the two cases. This study also reveals the weaknesses of the epidemiological studies, which only take into account the distance to the antennas, which would provide a new approach to the problem. By precisely knowing the resident population of each administrative region of the city, this proves to be highly useful to rely on a prepared aggregate data map based on the mean exposure values to RF-EMF in these sections. The displayed map would permit the execution of more accurate epidemiological studies, since it would be possible to compare the exposure measurements with the incidence data of a disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alberto Najera
- Medical Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
| | - Enrique Arribas
- Applied Physics, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain.
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Klaps A, Ponocny I, Winker R, Kundi M, Auersperg F, Barth A. Mobile phone base stations and well-being--A meta-analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 544:24-30. [PMID: 26657246 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
It is unclear whether electromagnetic fields emitted by mobile phone base stations affect well-being in adults. The existing studies on this topic are highly inconsistent. In the current paper we attempt to clarify this question by carrying out a meta-analysis which is based on the results of 17 studies. Double-blind studies found no effects on human well-being. By contrast, field or unblinded studies clearly showed that there were indeed effects. This provides evidence that at least some effects are based on a nocebo effect. Whether there is an influence of electromagnetic fields emitted by mobile phone base stations thus depends on a person's knowledge about the presence of the presumed cause. Taken together, the results of the meta-analysis show that the effects of mobile phone base stations seem to be rather unlikely. However, nocebo effects occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Klaps
- Department of Psychology, Sigmund Freud University Vienna, Austria
| | - Ivo Ponocny
- Department of Applied Statistics and Economics, MODUL University Vienna, Austria
| | - Robert Winker
- Health and Prevention Center of the Insurance Institution for Vienna Employees, Austria
| | - Michael Kundi
- Department of Public Health, Medical University Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Alfred Barth
- Department of Psychology, Sigmund Freud University Linz, Austria.
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Bhatt CR, Redmayne M, Abramson MJ, Benke G. Instruments to assess and measure personal and environmental radiofrequency-electromagnetic field exposures. AUSTRALASIAN PHYSICAL & ENGINEERING SCIENCES IN MEDICINE 2015; 39:29-42. [PMID: 26684750 DOI: 10.1007/s13246-015-0412-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Radiofrequency-electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure of human populations is increasing due to the widespread use of mobile phones and other telecommunication and broadcasting technologies. There are ongoing concerns about potential short- and long-term public health consequences from RF-EMF exposures. To elucidate the RF-EMF exposure-effect relationships, an objective evaluation of the exposures with robust assessment tools is necessary. This review discusses and compares currently available RF-EMF exposure assessment instruments, which can be used in human epidemiological studies. Quantitative assessment instruments are either mobile phone-based (apps/software-modified and hardware-modified) or exposimeters. Each of these tool has its usefulness and limitations. Our review suggests that assessment of RF-EMF exposures can be improved by using these tools compared to the proxy measures of exposure (e.g. questionnaires and billing records). This in turn, could be used to help increase knowledge about RF-EMF exposure induced health effects in human populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhavi Raj Bhatt
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia.
| | - Mary Redmayne
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia
| | - Michael J Abramson
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia
| | - Geza Benke
- Centre for Population Health Research on Electromagnetic Energy (PRESEE), School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, The Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Victoria, Melbourne, 3004, Australia
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Zheng F, Gao P, He M, Li M, Tan J, Chen D, Zhou Z, Yu Z, Zhang L. Association between mobile phone use and self-reported well-being in children: a questionnaire-based cross-sectional study in Chongqing, China. BMJ Open 2015; 5:e007302. [PMID: 25967996 PMCID: PMC4431134 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-007302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In the past decade, the mobile phone (MP) has become extremely popular among children and the average age at which children own their first MP has decreased. The potential health effects of children's exposure to MP have been the subject of widespread public concern. The aim of our study is to investigate the associations between MP use and well-being in children. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING The questionnaires were completed in class with items regarding demographics, MP usage, self-reported well-being (symptoms were taken from the questionnaire of the HBSC survey) and possible confounding factors between October 2011 and May 2012 in Chongqing, China. Data were analysed using χ(2) tests and logistic regression models. PARTICIPANTS Among the 793 children invited to participate, 781 returned the questionnaires. RESULTS In total, 746 (94.1%) valid questionnaires were received. Fatigue was significantly associated with the years of MP usage (OR 1.85; 95% CI 1.07 to 3.22) and the daily duration of MP calls (OR 2.98; 95% CI 1.46 to 6.12). Headache was significantly associated with the daily duration of MP calls (OR 2.85; 95% CI 1.23 to 6.57). However, after adjusting for confounders only, the association between fatigue and MP usage remained statistically significant. There was no significant association between MP use and other physical symptoms in children. CONCLUSIONS The present study indicated that there was a consistent significant association between MP use and fatigue in children. Further in-depth research is needed to explore the potential health effects of MP use in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feizhou Zheng
- Department of Occupational Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Protection for Electromagnetic Radiation, Ministry of Education, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Gao
- Department of Occupational Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Protection for Electromagnetic Radiation, Ministry of Education, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Mindi He
- Department of Occupational Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Protection for Electromagnetic Radiation, Ministry of Education, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Min Li
- Department of Occupational Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Protection for Electromagnetic Radiation, Ministry of Education, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin Tan
- Shanhu Primary School, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Daiwei Chen
- Primary School Attached to the Training College, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhou Zhou
- Department of Occupational Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Protection for Electromagnetic Radiation, Ministry of Education, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengping Yu
- Department of Occupational Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Protection for Electromagnetic Radiation, Ministry of Education, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Occupational Health, Key Laboratory of Medical Protection for Electromagnetic Radiation, Ministry of Education, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
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25
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Baliatsas C, Bolte J, Yzermans J, Kelfkens G, Hooiveld M, Lebret E, van Kamp I. Actual and perceived exposure to electromagnetic fields and non-specific physical symptoms: an epidemiological study based on self-reported data and electronic medical records. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2015; 218:331-44. [PMID: 25704188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is continuing scientific debate and increasing public concern regarding the possible effects of electromagnetic fields (EMF) on general population's health. To date, no epidemiological study has investigated the possible association between actual and perceived EMF exposure and non-specific physical symptoms (NSPS) and sleep quality, using both self-reported and general practice (GP)-registered data. METHODS A health survey of adult (≥ 18) participants (n=5933) in the Netherlands was combined with the electronic medical records (EMRs) of NSPS as registered by general practitioners. Characterization of actual exposure was based on several proxies, such as prediction models of radiofrequency (RF)-EMF exposure, geo-coded distance to high-voltage overhead power lines and self-reported use/distance of/to indoor electrical appliances. Perceived exposure and the role of psychological variables were also examined. RESULTS Perceived exposure had a poor correlation with the actual exposure estimates. No significant association was found between modeled RF-EMF exposure and the investigated outcomes. Associations with NSPS were observed for use of an electric blanket and close distance to an electric charger during sleep. Perceived exposure, perceived control and avoidance behavior were associated with the examined outcomes. The association between perceived exposure was stronger for self-reported than for GP-registered NSPS. There was some indication, but no consistent pattern for an interaction between idiopathic environmental intolerance (IEI-EMF) and the association between actual exposure and NSPS. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, there is no convincing evidence for an association between everyday life RF-EMF exposure and NSPS and sleep quality in the population. Better exposure characterization, in particular with respect to sources of extremely low frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MF) is needed to draw more solid conclusions. We argue that perceived exposure is an independent determinant of NSPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Baliatsas
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - John Bolte
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Joris Yzermans
- Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (NIVEL), Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gert Kelfkens
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Mariette Hooiveld
- Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (NIVEL), Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Erik Lebret
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Irene van Kamp
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Beekhuizen J, Kromhout H, Bürgi A, Huss A, Vermeulen R. What input data are needed to accurately model electromagnetic fields from mobile phone base stations? JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2015; 25:53-57. [PMID: 24472756 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2014.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The increase in mobile communication technology has led to concern about potential health effects of radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) from mobile phone base stations. Different RF-EMF prediction models have been applied to assess population exposure to RF-EMF. Our study examines what input data are needed to accurately model RF-EMF, as detailed data are not always available for epidemiological studies. We used NISMap, a 3D radio wave propagation model, to test models with various levels of detail in building and antenna input data. The model outcomes were compared with outdoor measurements taken in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Results showed good agreement between modelled and measured RF-EMF when 3D building data and basic antenna information (location, height, frequency and direction) were used: Spearman correlations were >0.6. Model performance was not sensitive to changes in building damping parameters. Antenna-specific information about down-tilt, type and output power did not significantly improve model performance compared with using average down-tilt and power values, or assuming one standard antenna type. We conclude that 3D radio wave propagation modelling is a feasible approach to predict outdoor RF-EMF levels for ranking exposure levels in epidemiological studies, when 3D building data and information on the antenna height, frequency, location and direction are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Beekhuizen
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Kromhout
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Alfred Bürgi
- ARIAS umwelt.forschung.beratung, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anke Huss
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Gajšek P, Ravazzani P, Wiart J, Grellier J, Samaras T, Thuróczy G. Electromagnetic field exposure assessment in Europe radiofrequency fields (10 MHz-6 GHz). JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2015; 25:37-44. [PMID: 23942394 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2013.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Average levels of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) of the general public in Europe are difficult to summarize, as exposure levels have been reported differently in those studies in which they have been measured, and a large proportion of reported measurements were very low, sometimes falling below detection limits of the equipment used. The goal of this paper is to present an overview of the scientific literature on RF EMF exposure in Europe and to characterize exposure within the European population. A comparative analysis of the results of spot or long-term RF EMF measurements in the EU indicated that mean electric field strengths were between 0.08 V/m and 1.8 V/m. The overwhelming majority of measured mean electric field strengths were <1 V/m. It is estimated that <1% were above 6 V/m and <0.1% were above 20 V/m. No exposure levels exceeding European Council recommendations were identified in these surveys. Most population exposures from signals of radio and television broadcast towers were observed to be weak because these transmitters are usually far away from exposed individuals and are spatially sparsely distributed. On the other hand, the contribution made to RF exposure from wireless telecommunications technology is continuously increasing and its contribution was above 60% of the total exposure. According to the European exposure assessment studies identified, three population exposure categories (intermittent variable partial body exposure, intermittent variable low-level whole-body (WB) exposure and continuous low-level WB exposure) were recognized by the authors as informative for possible future risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Gajšek
- Institute of Non-Ionizing Radiation (INIS), Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Paolo Ravazzani
- CNR Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ingegneria Biomedica, Milano, Italy
| | | | - James Grellier
- 1] Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), PRBB, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Theodoros Samaras
- Department of Physics, Aristotle, University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - György Thuróczy
- National Research Institute for Radiobiology and Radiohygiene, Budapest, Hungary
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Occupational electromagnetic field exposures associated with sleep quality: a cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110825. [PMID: 25340654 PMCID: PMC4207748 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to electromagnetic field (EMF) emitted by mobile phone and other machineries concerns half the world's population and raises the problem of their impact on human health. The present study aims to explore the effects of electromagnetic field exposures on sleep quality and sleep duration among workers from electric power plant. METHODS A cross-sectional study was conducted in an electric power plant of Zhejiang Province, China. A total of 854 participants were included in the final analysis. The detailed information of participants was obtained by trained investigators using a structured questionnaire, which including socio-demographic characteristics, lifestyle variables, sleep variables and electromagnetic exposures. Physical examination and venous blood collection were also carried out for every study subject. RESULTS After grouping daily occupational electromagnetic exposure into three categories, subjects with long daily exposure time had a significantly higher risk of poor sleep quality in comparison to those with short daily exposure time. The adjusted odds ratios were 1.68 (95%CI: 1.18, 2.39) and 1.57 (95%CI: 1.10, 2.24) across tertiles. Additionally, among the subjects with long-term occupational exposure, the longer daily occupational exposure time apparently increased the risk of poor sleep quality (OR (95%CI): 2.12 (1.23∼3.66) in the second tertile; 1.83 (1.07∼3.15) in the third tertile). There was no significant association of long-term occupational exposure duration, monthly electric fee or years of mobile-phone use with sleep quality or sleep duration. CONCLUSIONS The findings showed that daily occupational EMF exposure was positively associated with poor sleep quality. It implies EMF exposure may damage human sleep quality rather than sleep duration.
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Dürrenberger G, Fröhlich J, Röösli M, Mattsson MO. EMF monitoring-concepts, activities, gaps and options. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2014; 11:9460-79. [PMID: 25216256 PMCID: PMC4199029 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph110909460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) is a cause of concern for many people. The topic will likely remain for the foreseeable future on the scientific and political agenda, since emissions continue to change in characteristics and levels due to new infrastructure deployments, smart environments and novel wireless devices. Until now, systematic and coordinated efforts to monitor EMF exposure are rare. Furthermore, virtually nothing is known about personal exposure levels. This lack of knowledge is detrimental for any evidence-based risk, exposure and health policy, management and communication. The main objective of the paper is to review the current state of EMF exposure monitoring activities in Europe, to comment on the scientific challenges and deficiencies, and to describe appropriate strategies and tools for EMF exposure assessment and monitoring to be used to support epidemiological health research and to help policy makers, administrators, industry and consumer representatives to base their decisions and communication activities on facts and data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Dürrenberger
- Swiss Research Foundation for Electricity and Mobile Communication, c/o Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Jürg Fröhlich
- Institute for Electromagnetic Fields, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zürich), Gloriastrasse 35, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Socinstrasse 59, Postfach, 4002 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Mats-Olof Mattsson
- Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
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Gómez-Perretta C, Navarro EA, Segura J, Portolés M. Subjective symptoms related to GSM radiation from mobile phone base stations: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2013; 3:e003836. [PMID: 24381254 PMCID: PMC3885815 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We performed a re-analysis of the data from Navarro et al (2003) in which health symptoms related to microwave exposure from mobile phone base stations (BSs) were explored, including data obtained in a retrospective inquiry about fear of exposure from BSs. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING La Ñora (Murcia), Spain. PARTICIPANTS Participants with known illness in 2003 were subsequently disregarded: 88 participants instead of 101 (in 2003) were analysed. Since weather circumstances can influence exposure, we restricted data to measurements made under similar weather conditions. OUTCOMES AND METHODS A statistical method indifferent to the assumption of normality was employed: namely, binary logistic regression for modelling a binary response (eg, suffering fatigue (1) or not (0)), and so exposure was introduced as a predictor variable. This analysis was carried out on a regular basis and bootstrapping (95% percentile method) was used to provide more accurate CIs. RESULTS The symptoms most related to exposure were lack of appetite (OR=1.58, 95% CI 1.23 to 2.03); lack of concentration (OR=1.54, 95% CI 1.25 to 1.89); irritability (OR=1.51, 95% CI 1.23 to 1.85); and trouble sleeping (OR=1.49, 95% CI 1.20 to 1.84). Changes in -2 log likelihood showed similar results. Concerns about the BSs were strongly related with trouble sleeping (OR =3.12, 95% CI 1.10 to 8.86). The exposure variable remained statistically significant in the multivariate analysis. The bootstrapped values were similar to asymptotic CIs. CONCLUSIONS This study confirms our preliminary results. We observed that the incidence of most of the symptoms was related to exposure levels-independently of the demographic variables and some possible risk factors. Concerns about adverse effects from exposure, despite being strongly related with sleep disturbances, do not influence the direct association between exposure and sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Enrique A Navarro
- Department of Applied Physics, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jaume Segura
- Department of Computer Sciences, ETSE-Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
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Huiberts A, Hjørnevik M, Mykletun A, Skogen JC. Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) in the media - a qualitative content analysis of Norwegian newspapers. JRSM SHORT REPORTS 2013; 4:2042533313487332. [PMID: 24319582 PMCID: PMC3831852 DOI: 10.1177/2042533313487332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Objectives Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) is a condition characterized by experiencing symptoms after perceived exposure to weak electromagnetic fields (EMFs). There is substantial debate concerning the aetiology of EHS, but experimental data indicate no association between EHS and actual presence of EMFs. Newspapers play a key role in shaping peoples’ understanding of health-related issues. The aim of this study was to describe the content of newspaper articles concerning aetiology and treatment of EHS. Design Qualitative content analysis of newspaper articles. Setting Norwegian newspaper articles were identified using a comprehensive electronic media archive. Participants Norwegian newspaper articles published between 1 February 2006 and 11 August 2010. Main outcome measures Statements coded according to source of information, whether it was pro or con scientific evidence on EHS aetiology, and type of intervention presented as treatment option for EHS. Results Of the statements concerning EHS aetiology (n = 196), 35% (n = 69) were categorized as pro evidence, 65% (n = 127) as con evidence. Of the statements about EHS interventions assessed, 78% (n = 99) were categorized as ‘radiance reduction’, 4% (n = 5) as ‘complementary medicine’, and 18% (n = 23) as ‘other’. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and psychotropic drugs were never presented as possible treatment options for EHS. Conclusions The newspaper media discourse of EHS aetiology and recommended treatment interventions is much in conflict with the current evidence in the field. The majority of statements concerning aetiology convey that EHS is related to the presence of weak EMFs, and radiance reduction as the most frequently conveyed measure to reduce EHS-related symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashild Huiberts
- Research Centre for Health Promotion and Development, Faculty of Psychology, University of Bergen, 5015 Bergen, Norway
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Abstract
This is the first measurement campaign that takes place in Greece in order to assess the exposure levels in different microenvironments (offices, bedrooms, living rooms, schools). Due to the exponential growth in the use of wireless network devices, the aim of this work was to perform indoor measurements with the use of personal dosimeters. The measurement period was 3 d in each of the 40 different locations that were selected, both in the urban and suburban area of Thessaloniki, the second largest city of Greece. The measurements took place from 23 July 2010 to 19 January 2012. After processing the obtained data with the robust regression on order statistics (ROS) method, various statistical exposure quantities were calculated. Compared to similar measurement campaigns across Europe, a larger proportion of measurement data above the detection limit for specific frequency bands (at most 56% for the DCS Rx frequency band) was found. Furthermore, mean exposure levels in the mobile downlink frequency bands were higher than those in other studies (GSM Rx: 0.259 V m, DCS Rx: 0.131 V m, UMTS Rx: 0.12 V m), yet many times below the ICNIRP guidelines. On the other hand, maximum exposures were found to be of the same magnitude (GSM Rx: 0.38 V m, DCS Rx: 0.3 V m, UMTS Rx: 0.28 V m). These measurement results indicate that signals from mobile base stations are dominant in workplaces and schools, whereas wireless phones and computer networks play the leading role in home environments. While the former reach their maximum values during daytime, the latter have an observable increase in the evening after work hours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Markakis
- Radiocommunications Laboratory, Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
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Aerts S, Deschrijver D, Joseph W, Verloock L, Goeminne F, Martens L, Dhaene T. Exposure assessment of mobile phone base station radiation in an outdoor environment using sequential surrogate modeling. Bioelectromagnetics 2013; 34:300-11. [PMID: 23315952 DOI: 10.1002/bem.21764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Human exposure to background radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) has been increasing with the introduction of new technologies. There is a definite need for the quantification of RF-EMF exposure but a robust exposure assessment is not yet possible, mainly due to the lack of a fast and efficient measurement procedure. In this article, a new procedure is proposed for accurately mapping the exposure to base station radiation in an outdoor environment based on surrogate modeling and sequential design, an entirely new approach in the domain of dosimetry for human RF exposure. We tested our procedure in an urban area of about 0.04 km(2) for Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) technology at 900 MHz (GSM900) using a personal exposimeter. Fifty measurement locations were sufficient to obtain a coarse street exposure map, locating regions of high and low exposure; 70 measurement locations were sufficient to characterize the electric field distribution in the area and build an accurate predictive interpolation model. Hence, accurate GSM900 downlink outdoor exposure maps (for use in, e.g., governmental risk communication and epidemiological studies) are developed by combining the proven efficiency of sequential design with the speed of exposimeter measurements and their ease of handling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium.
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Sudan M, Kheifets L, Arah O, Olsen J, Zeltzer L. Prenatal and Postnatal Cell Phone Exposures and Headaches in Children. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 6:46-52. [PMID: 23750182 DOI: 10.2174/1874309901206010046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Children today are exposed to cell phones early in life, and may be at the greatest risk if exposure is harmful to health. We investigated associations between cell phone exposures and headaches in children. STUDY DESIGN The Danish National Birth Cohort enrolled pregnant women between 1996 and 2002. When their children reached age seven years, mothers completed a questionnaire regarding the child's health, behaviors, and exposures. We used multivariable adjusted models to relate prenatal only, postnatal only, or both prenatal and postnatal cell phone exposure to whether the child had migraines and headache-related symptoms. RESULTS Our analyses included data from 52,680 children. Children with cell phone exposure had higher odds of migraines and headache-related symptoms than children with no exposure. The odds ratio for migraines was 1.30 (95% confidence interval: 1.01-1.68) and for headache-related symptoms was 1.32 (95% confidence interval: 1.23-1.40) for children with both prenatal and postnatal exposure. CONCLUSIONS In this study, cell phone exposures were associated with headaches in children, but the associations may not be causal given the potential for uncontrolled confounding and misclassification in observational studies such as this. However, given the widespread use of cell phones, if a causal effect exists it would have great public health impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhuri Sudan
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Elwood JM. Microwaves in the cold war: the Moscow embassy study and its interpretation. Review of a retrospective cohort study. Environ Health 2012; 11:85. [PMID: 23151144 PMCID: PMC3509929 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-11-85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND From 1953 to 1976, beams of microwaves of 2.5 to 4.0 GHz were aimed at the US embassy building in Moscow. An extensive study investigated the health of embassy staff and their families, comparing Moscow embassy staff with staff in other Eastern European US embassies. The resulting large report has never been published in peer reviewed literature. METHODS The original report and other published comments or extracts from the report were reviewed. RESULTS The extensive study reports on mortality and morbidity, recorded on medical records and by regular examinations, and on self-reported symptoms. Exposure levels were low, but similar or greater than present-day exposures to radiofrequencies sources such as cell phone base stations. The conclusions were that no adverse health effects of the radiation were shown. The study validity depends on the assumption that staff at the other embassies were not exposed to similar radiofrequencies. This has been questioned, and other interpretations of the data have been presented. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions of the original report are supported. Contrary conclusions given in some other reports are due to misinterpretation of the results.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Mark Elwood
- Epidemiology & Biostatistics, School of Population Health, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, Mail Centre 1142, New Zealand.
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36
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Manassas A, Boursianis A, Samaras T, Sahalos JN. Continuous electromagnetic radiation monitoring in the environment: analysis of the results in Greece. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2012; 151:437-442. [PMID: 22434927 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncs028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Non-ionising radiation-monitoring networks were initiated as a result of the public concerns about the potential health effects from telecommunication emissions. In the present study, the data acquired from such networks in Greece are used to assess the changes in the outdoor electromagnetic environment with respect to location and time. The study shows that there is a statistically significant difference between the urban (median electric field: 1.1 V m(-1)) and the rural (median electric field: 0.3 V m(-1)) installations of monitoring units and also shows that there is a median diurnal variation (daily maximum to minimum) of 20.2 and 33.8 % for the broadcasting and mobile telecommunication emissions, respectively. Moreover, there is a difference in the electric field between daytime and night, but not between morning and afternoon. The results are in line with previously published data from spot measurements, monitoring networks and personal exposimeter studies performed in several European countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athanasios Manassas
- Radiocommunications Laboratory, Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Joseph W, Frei P, Röösli M, Vermeeren G, Bolte J, Thuróczy G, Gajšek P, Trček T, Mohler E, Juhász P, Finta V, Martens L. Between-country comparison of whole-body SAR from personal exposure data in Urban areas. Bioelectromagnetics 2012; 33:682-94. [DOI: 10.1002/bem.21737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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38
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Mohler E, Frei P, Fröhlich J, Braun-Fahrländer C, Röösli M. Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields and sleep quality: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e37455. [PMID: 22624036 PMCID: PMC3356284 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background There is persistent public concern about sleep disturbances due to radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure. The aim of this prospective cohort study was to investigate whether sleep quality is affected by mobile phone use or by other RF-EMF sources in the everyday environment. Methods We conducted a prospective cohort study with 955 study participants aged between 30 and 60 years. Sleep quality and daytime sleepiness was assessed by means of standardized questionnaires in May 2008 (baseline) and May 2009 (follow-up). We also asked about mobile and cordless phone use and asked study participants for consent to obtain their mobile phone connection data from the mobile phone operators. Exposure to environmental RF-EMF was computed for each study participant using a previously developed and validated prediction model. In a nested sample of 119 study participants, RF-EMF exposure was measured in the bedroom and data on sleep behavior was collected by means of actigraphy during two weeks. Data were analyzed using multivariable regression models adjusted for relevant confounders. Results In the longitudinal analyses neither operator-recorded nor self-reported mobile phone use was associated with sleep disturbances or daytime sleepiness. Also, exposure to environmental RF-EMF did not affect self-reported sleep quality. The results from the longitudinal analyses were confirmed in the nested sleep study with objectively recorded exposure and measured sleep behavior data. Conclusions We did not find evidence for adverse effects on sleep quality from RF-EMF exposure in our everyday environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Mohler
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Patrizia Frei
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jürg Fröhlich
- Laboratory for Electromagnetic Fields and Microwave Electronics, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Baliatsas C, Van Kamp I, Bolte J, Schipper M, Yzermans J, Lebret E. Non-specific physical symptoms and electromagnetic field exposure in the general population: can we get more specific? A systematic review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2012; 41:15-28. [PMID: 22245541 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2011.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2011] [Revised: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 12/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE A systematic review of observational studies was performed to address the strength of evidence for an association between actual and perceived exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) and non-specific physical symptoms (NSPS) in the general population. To gain more insight into the magnitude of a possible association, meta-analyses were conducted. METHODS Literature databases Medline, Embase, SciSearch, PsychInfo, Psyndex and Biosis and additional bibliographic sources such as reference sections of key publications were searched for the detection of studies published between January 2000 and April 2011. RESULTS Twenty-two studies met our inclusion criteria. Qualitative assessment of the epidemiological evidence showed either no association between symptoms and higher EMF exposure or contradictory results. To strengthen our conclusions, random effects meta-analyses were performed, which produced the following results for the association with actual EMF; for symptom severity: Headache odds ratio (OR)=1.65; 95% confidence interval (CI)=0.88-3.08, concentration problems OR=1.28; 95% CI=0.56-2.94, fatigue-related problems OR=1.15; 95% CI=0.59-2.27, dizziness-related problems OR=1.38; 95% CI=0.92-2.07. For symptom frequency: headache OR=1.01; 95% CI=0.66-1.53, fatigue OR=1.12; 95% CI=0.60-2.07 and sleep problems OR=1.18; 95% CI=0.80-1.74. Associations between perceived exposure and NSPS were more consistently observed but a meta-analysis was not performed due to considerable heterogeneity between the studies. CONCLUSIONS This systematic review and meta-analysis finds no evidence for a direct association between frequency and severity of NSPS and higher levels of EMF exposure. An association with perceived exposure seems to exist, but evidence is still limited because of differences in conceptualization and assessment methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Baliatsas
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Breckenkamp J, Blettner M, Schüz J, Bornkessel C, Schmiedel S, Schlehofer B, Berg-Beckhoff G. Residential characteristics and radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposures from bedroom measurements in Germany. RADIATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOPHYSICS 2012; 51:85-92. [PMID: 21964673 DOI: 10.1007/s00411-011-0389-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 09/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to assess total exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) in bedrooms and the contribution of different radioservices (FM radio, analogue TV and DVB-T, TETRA, GSM900 downlink, GSM1800 downlink, UMTS downlink, DECT, and wireless LAN and blue tooth) to the total exposure. Additional aims were to describe the proportion of measuring values above the detection limit of the dosimeters and to characterize the differences in exposure patterns associated with self-reported residential characteristics. Exposure to RF sources in bedrooms was measured using Antennessa(®) EME Spy 120 dosimeters in 1,348 households in Germany; 280 measures were available for each frequency band per household. Mean electrical field strengths and power flux densities were calculated. Power flux densities allow the calculation of proportions of different radioservices on total exposure. Exposure was often below the detection limit (electrical field strength: 0.05 V/m) of the dosimeter. Total exposure varied, depending on residential characteristics (urban vs. rural areas and floor of a building the measurement took place). Major sources of exposure were cordless phones (DECT standard) and wireless LAN/blue tooth contributing about 82% of total exposure (20.5 μW/m(2)). Exposure to RF-EMF is ubiquitous, but exposure levels are-if at all measurable-very low and far below the ICNIRP's exposure reference levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Breckenkamp
- Department of Epidemiology and International Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Bielefeld University, POB 10 01 31, 33501, Bielefeld, Germany.
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Frei P, Mohler E, Braun-Fahrländer C, Fröhlich J, Neubauer G, Röösli M. Cohort study on the effects of everyday life radio frequency electromagnetic field exposure on non-specific symptoms and tinnitus. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2012; 38:29-36. [PMID: 21982030 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Revised: 07/17/2011] [Accepted: 08/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is public concern regarding potential health effects of radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) exposure, as produced by mobile phones or broadcast transmitters. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between RF-EMF exposure and non-specific symptoms and tinnitus in a prospective cohort study. METHODS In 2008, 1375 randomly selected participants from Basel, Switzerland, were enrolled in a questionnaire survey with follow-up after one year (participation rate 82%). A score for somatic complaints (von Zerssen list) and headache (HIT-6) was assessed. Far-field environmental RF-EMF exposure was predicted using a validated prediction model. Regarding near-field exposure, self-reported mobile and cordless phone use as well as mobile phone operator data were collected. In multivariate regression models, we investigated whether exposure at baseline (cohort analysis) or changes in exposure between baseline and follow-up (change analysis) were related to changes in health scores. RESULTS For participants in the top decile of environmental far-field RF-EMF exposure at baseline, in comparison to participants exposed below the median value, the change in the von Zerssen- and HIT-6-scores between baseline and follow-up was -0.12 (95%-CI: -1.79 to 1.56) and -0.37 (95%-CI: -1.80 to 1.07) units, respectively. Exposure to near-field sources and a change in exposure between baseline and follow-up were not related to non-specific symptoms. Similarly, no association between RF-EMF exposure and tinnitus was observed. CONCLUSIONS In this first cohort study using objective and well-validated RF-EMF exposure measures, we did not observe an association between RF-EMF exposure and non-specific symptoms or tinnitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Frei
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.
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Röösli M, Hug K. Wireless communication fields and non-specific symptoms of ill health: a literature review. Wien Med Wochenschr 2011; 161:240-50. [PMID: 21638215 DOI: 10.1007/s10354-011-0883-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This is an update of a previous systematic review on the association between radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure and health-related quality of life that included studies published before August 2007 [1]. Since then, nine randomized trials addressed short-term exposures from close-to-body RF-EMF sources such as mobile phones, and two observational studies investigated the effects of mobile phone use on health-related quality of life. Six randomized trials addressed short-term far-field exposure arising, for instance, from mobile phone base stations, and eight studies evaluated the effects of environmental far-field RF-EMF exposure. In most of the randomized trials, no exposure-response association was observed. The sporadically reported associations did not show a consistent pattern regarding the type of symptoms or the direction of the effects (increase/decrease). Similarly, most of the recent observational studies did not show associations between RF-EMF exposure and non-specific symptoms. However, the exposure gradients were small and possible exposure misclassification is a limitation of these studies. Longitudinal studies as well as studies in children and adolescents are scarce. In summary, recent research did not indicate health-related quality of life to be affected by RF-EMF exposure in our everyday environment. Furthermore, none of the studies showed that individuals with self-reported electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) were more susceptible to RF-EMF than the rest of the population. Nevertheless, the rapid technological development and anticipated increase in exposure levels warrant the conduct of further longitudinal studies. Due to the widespread use of wireless communication technologies potential adverse health effects would have major public health consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.
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Kowall B, Breckenkamp J, Blettner M, Schlehofer B, Schüz J, Berg-Beckhoff G. Determinants and stability over time of perception of health risks related to mobile phone base stations. Int J Public Health 2011; 57:735-43. [DOI: 10.1007/s00038-011-0310-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Baliatsas C, van Kamp I, Kelfkens G, Schipper M, Bolte J, Yzermans J, Lebret E. Non-specific physical symptoms in relation to actual and perceived proximity to mobile phone base stations and powerlines. BMC Public Health 2011; 11:421. [PMID: 21631930 PMCID: PMC3118249 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Evidence about a possible causal relationship between non-specific physical symptoms (NSPS) and exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) emitted by sources such as mobile phone base stations (BS) and powerlines is insufficient. So far little epidemiological research has been published on the contribution of psychological components to the occurrence of EMF-related NSPS. The prior objective of the current study is to explore the relative importance of actual and perceived proximity to base stations and psychological components as determinants of NSPS, adjusting for demographic, residency and area characteristics. Methods Analysis was performed on data obtained in a cross-sectional study on environment and health in 2006 in the Netherlands. In the current study, 3611 adult respondents (response rate: 37%) in twenty-two Dutch residential areas completed a questionnaire. Self-reported instruments included a symptom checklist and assessment of environmental and psychological characteristics. The computation of the distance between household addresses and location of base stations and powerlines was based on geo-coding. Multilevel regression models were used to test the hypotheses regarding the determinants related to the occurrence of NSPS. Results After adjustment for demographic and residential characteristics, analyses yielded a number of statistically significant associations: Increased report of NSPS was predominantly predicted by higher levels of self-reported environmental sensitivity; perceived proximity to base stations and powerlines, lower perceived control and increased avoidance (coping) behavior were also associated with NSPS. A trend towards a moderator effect of perceived environmental sensitivity on the relation between perceived proximity to BS and NSPS was verified (p = 0.055). There was no significant association between symptom occurrence and actual distance to BS or powerlines. Conclusions Perceived proximity to BS, psychological components and socio-demographic characteristics are associated with the report of symptomatology. Actual distance to the EMF source did not show up as determinant of NSPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Baliatsas
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Neubauer G, Cecil S, Giczi W, Petric B, Preiner P, Fröhlich J, Röösli M. The association between exposure determined by radiofrequency personal exposimeters and human exposure: a simulation study. Bioelectromagnetics 2011; 31:535-45. [PMID: 20564178 DOI: 10.1002/bem.20587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The selection of an adequate exposure assessment approach is imperative for the quality of epidemiological studies. The use of personal exposimeters turned out to be a reasonable approach to determine exposure profiles, however, certain limitations regarding the absolute values delivered by the devices have to be considered. Apart from the limited dynamic range, it has to be taken into account that these devices give only an approximation of the exposure due to the influence of the body of the person carrying the exposimeter, the receiver characteristics of the exposimeter, as well as the dependence of the measured value on frequency band, channel, slot configuration, and communication traffic. In this study, the relationship between the field strength measured close to the human body at the location of the exposimeter and the exposure, that is, the field strength at the location of the human body without the human body present, is investigated by numerical means using the Visible Human model as an anatomical phantom. Two different scenarios were chosen: (1) For FM, GSM, and UMTS an urban outdoor scenario was examined that included a transmitting antenna mounted on the roof of one of four buildings at a street crossing, (2) For WLAN an indoor scenario was investigated. For GSM the average degree of underestimation by the exposimeter (relation of the average field levels at the location of the exposimeter to the field level averaged over the volume of the human body without the body present) was 0.76, and for UMTS 0.87; for FM no underestimation was found, the ratio was 1. In the case of WLAN the degree of underestimation was more pronounced, the ratio was 0.64. This study clearly suggests that a careful evaluation of correction factors for different scenarios is needed prior to the definition of the study protocol. It has to be noted that the reference scenario used in this study does not allow for final conclusions on general correction factors.
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Heinrich S, Thomas S, Heumann C, von Kries R, Radon K. The impact of exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields on chronic well-being in young people--a cross-sectional study based on personal dosimetry. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2011; 37:26-30. [PMID: 20619895 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2010.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2010] [Revised: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
A possible influence of radio frequency electromagnetic field (RF EMF) exposure on health outcomes was investigated in various studies. The main problem of previous studies was exposure assessment. The aim of our study was the investigation of a possible association between RF EMF and chronic well-being in young persons using personal dosimetry. 3022 children and adolescents were randomly selected from the population registries of four Bavarian cities in Germany (participation 52%). Personal interview data on chronic symptoms, socio-demographic characteristics and potential confounders were collected. A 24-h radio frequency exposure profile was generated using a personal dosimeter. Exposure levels over waking hours were expressed as mean percentage of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) reference level. Half of the children and nearly every adolescent owned a mobile phone which was used only for short durations per day. Measured exposure was far below the current ICNIRP reference levels. The most reported chronic symptom in children and adolescents was fatigue. No statistically significant association between measured exposure and chronic symptoms was observed. Our results do not indicate an association between measured exposure to RF EMF and chronic well-being in children and adolescents. Prospective studies investigating potential long-term effects of RF EMF are necessary to confirm our results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Heinrich
- Unit for Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology & Net Teaching, Institute and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Hospital of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany.
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Heinrich S, Thomas S, Heumann C, von Kries R, Radon K. Association between exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields assessed by dosimetry and acute symptoms in children and adolescents: a population based cross-sectional study. Environ Health 2010; 9:75. [PMID: 21108839 PMCID: PMC3006375 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-9-75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2010] [Accepted: 11/25/2010] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increase in numbers of mobile phone users was accompanied by some concern that exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) might adversely affect acute health especially in children and adolescents. The authors investigated this potential association using personal dosimeters. METHODS A 24-hour exposure profile of 1484 children and 1508 adolescents was generated in a population-based cross-sectional study in Germany between 2006 and 2008 (participation 52%). Personal interview data on socio-demographic characteristics, self-reported exposure and potential confounders were collected. Acute symptoms were assessed twice during the study day using a symptom diary. RESULTS Only few of the large number of investigated associations were found to be statistically significant. At noon, adolescents with a measured exposure in the highest quartile during morning hours reported a statistically significant higher intensity of headache (Odd Ratio: 1.50; 95% confidence interval: 1.03, 2.19). At bedtime, adolescents with a measured exposure in the highest quartile during afternoon hours reported a statistically significant higher intensity of irritation in the evening (4th quartile 1.79; 1.23, 2.61), while children reported a statistically significant higher intensity of concentration problems (4th quartile 1.55; 1.02, 2.33). CONCLUSIONS We observed few statistically significant results which are not consistent over the two time points. Furthermore, when the 10% of the participants with the highest exposure are taken into consideration the significant results of the main analysis could not be confirmed. Based on the pattern of these results, we assume that the few observed significant associations are not causal but rather occurred by chance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Heinrich
- Unit for Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology & Net Teaching, Institute and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational-, Social- and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital of Munich (LMU), Ziemssenstr, 1; 80336 Munich, Germany.
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Röösli M, Frei P, Mohler E, Hug K. Systematic review on the health effects of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields from mobile phone base stations. Bull World Health Organ 2010; 88:887-896F. [PMID: 21124713 DOI: 10.2471/blt.09.071852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2009] [Revised: 05/06/2010] [Accepted: 05/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE to review and evaluate the recent literature on the health effects of exposure to mobile phone base station (MPBS) radiation. METHODS we performed a systematic review of randomized human trials conducted in laboratory settings and of epidemiological studies that investigated the health effects of MPBS radiation in the everyday environment. FINDINGS we included in the analysis 17 articles that met our basic quality criteria: 5 randomized human laboratory trials and 12 epidemiological studies. The majority of the papers (14) examined self-reported non-specific symptoms of ill-health. Most of the randomized trials did not detect any association between MPBS radiation and the development of acute symptoms during or shortly after exposure. The sporadically observed associations did not show a consistent pattern with regard to symptoms or types of exposure. We also found that the more sophisticated the exposure assessment, the less likely it was that an effect would be reported. Studies on health effects other than non-specific symptoms and studies on MPBS exposure in children were scarce. CONCLUSION the evidence for a missing relationship between MPBS exposure up to 10 volts per metre and acute symptom development can be considered strong because it is based on randomized, blinded human laboratory trials. At present, there is insufficient data to draw firm conclusions about health effects from long-term low-level exposure typically occurring in the everyday environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute and University of Basel, Socinstrasse 59, Basel, CH-4002, Switzerland.
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Joseph W, Frei P, Roösli M, Thuróczy G, Gajsek P, Trcek T, Bolte J, Vermeeren G, Mohler E, Juhász P, Finta V, Martens L. Comparison of personal radio frequency electromagnetic field exposure in different urban areas across Europe. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2010; 110:658-63. [PMID: 20638656 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2010.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 06/28/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Only limited data are available on personal radio frequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in everyday life. Several European countries performed measurement studies in this area of research. However, a comparison between countries regarding typical exposure levels is lacking. OBJECTIVES To compare for the first time mean exposure levels and contributions of different sources in specific environments between different European countries. METHODS In five countries (Belgium, Switzerland, Slovenia, Hungary, and the Netherlands), measurement studies were performed using the same personal exposure meters. The pooled data were analyzed using the robust regression on order statistics (ROS) method in order to allow for data below the detection limit. Mean exposure levels were compared between different microenvironments such as homes, public transports, or outdoor. RESULTS Exposure levels were of the same order of magnitude in all countries and well below the international exposure limits. In all countries except for the Netherlands, the highest total exposure was measured in transport vehicles (trains, car, and busses), mainly due to radiation from mobile phone handsets (up to 97%). Exposure levels were in general lower in private houses or flats than in offices and outdoors. At home, contributions from various sources were quite different between countries. CONCLUSIONS Highest total personal RF-EMF exposure was measured inside transport vehicles and was well below international exposure limits. This is mainly due to mobile phone handsets. Mobile telecommunication can be considered to be the main contribution to total RF-EMF exposure in all microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IBBT Gaston Crommenlaan 8, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium.
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Frei P, Mohler E, Bürgi A, Fröhlich J, Neubauer G, Braun-Fahrländer C, Röösli M. Classification of personal exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) for epidemiological research: Evaluation of different exposure assessment methods. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2010; 36:714-20. [PMID: 20538340 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2010.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Revised: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 05/13/2010] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The use of personal exposure meters (exposimeters) has been recommended for measuring personal exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) from environmental far-field sources in everyday life. However, it is unclear to what extent exposimeter readings are affected by measurements taken when personal mobile and cordless phones are used. In addition, the use of exposimeters in large epidemiological studies is limited due to high costs and large effort for study participants. In the current analysis we aimed to investigate the impact of personal phone use on exposimeter readings and to evaluate different exposure assessment methods potentially useful in epidemiological studies. We collected personal exposimeter measurements during one week and diary data from 166 study participants. Moreover, we collected spot measurements in the participants' bedrooms and data on self-estimated exposure, assessed residential exposure to fixed site transmitters by calculating the geo-coded distance and mean RF-EMF from a geospatial propagation model, and developed an exposure prediction model based on the propagation model and exposure relevant behavior. The mean personal exposure was 0.13 mW/m(2), when measurements during personal phone calls were excluded and 0.15 mW/m(2), when such measurements were included. The Spearman correlation with personal exposure (without personal phone calls) was 0.42 (95%-CI: 0.29 to 0.55) for the spot measurements, -0.03 (95%-CI: -0.18 to 0.12) for the geo-coded distance, 0.28 (95%-CI: 0.14 to 0.42) for the geospatial propagation model, 0.50 (95%-CI: 0.37 to 0.61) for the full exposure prediction model and 0.06 (95%-CI: -0.10 to 0.21) for self-estimated exposure. In conclusion, personal exposure measured with exposimeters correlated best with the full exposure prediction model and spot measurements. Self-estimated exposure and geo-coded distance turned out to be poor surrogates for personal exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Frei
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Switzerland
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