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Goff R, Smith M, Islam S, Sisley S, Ferguson J, Kuzdzal S, Badal S, Kumar AB, Sreenivasan U, Schug KA. Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1288:342161. [PMID: 38220293 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.342161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
A method for clinical potency determination of psilocybin and psilocin in hallucinogenic mushroom species Psilocybe cubensis was developed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Five strains of dried, intact mushrooms were obtained and analyzed: Blue Meanie, Creeper, B-Plus, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis. An extraction protocol was developed; this included an evaluation of sample milling technique, extraction solvents, and recovery/stability. Reversed phase chromatography on fused-core particle phases was developed for the determination of the two analytes using internal standard calibration with deuterated isotopologues of each analyte. The separation takes less than 5 min. Matrix effects were investigated by comparing signal response of calibration samples in neat solution and several mushroom matrices; no significant matrix effects were observed. The limit of detection for psilocybin was 1.5 ng/mL (1.5 pg on-column; 300 ng/g mushroom) and for psilocin was 0.15 ng/mL (0.15 pg on-column; 30 ng/g mushroom) using a Shimadzu LCMS-8050 triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Assessment of the accuracy and precision of the method indicated percent error and RSD were <6 % at all concentration levels. Three whole, intact mushrooms from each strain were analyzed individually to obtain average content differences both between strains and between mushrooms of the same strain. From most to least potent, the study found that the average total psilocybin and psilocin concentrations for the Creeper, Blue Meanie, B+, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis strains were 1.36, 1.221, 1.134, 1.103, and 0.879 % (w/w), respectively. A subset of these mushrooms was also tested in a separate non-affiliated laboratory, and the results were comparable between the two laboratories. Results from the secondary laboratory showed improved precision when multiple mushrooms were homogenized together, prior to extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Goff
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, 700 Planetarium Pl., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Morgan Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, 700 Planetarium Pl., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Sabrina Islam
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, 700 Planetarium Pl., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Sue Sisley
- Scottsdale Research Institute, 12815 N. Cave Creek Rd., Phoenix, AZ, 85022, USA
| | - Jonathan Ferguson
- Shimadzu Scientific Instruments, 7102 Riverwood Dr., Columbia, MD, 21046, USA
| | - Scott Kuzdzal
- Shimadzu Scientific Instruments, 7102 Riverwood Dr., Columbia, MD, 21046, USA
| | - Sunil Badal
- Millipore-Sigma, 811 Paloma Dr. Ste A, Round Rock, TX, 78759, USA
| | - Arun Babu Kumar
- Millipore-Sigma, 811 Paloma Dr. Ste A, Round Rock, TX, 78759, USA
| | - Uma Sreenivasan
- Millipore-Sigma, 811 Paloma Dr. Ste A, Round Rock, TX, 78759, USA
| | - Kevin A Schug
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, 700 Planetarium Pl., Arlington, TX, 76019, USA.
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Bradshaw AJ, Ramírez-Cruz V, Awan AR, Furci G, Guzmán-Dávalos L, Dentinger BTM. Phylogenomics of the psychoactive mushroom genus Psilocybe and evolution of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2311245121. [PMID: 38194448 PMCID: PMC10801892 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2311245121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Psychoactive mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe have immense cultural value and have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica. Despite the recent surge of interest in these mushrooms due to the psychotherapeutic potential of their natural alkaloid psilocybin, their phylogeny and taxonomy remain substantially incomplete. Moreover, the recent elucidation of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster is known for only five of ~165 species of Psilocybe, four of which belong to only one of two major clades. We set out to improve the phylogeny of Psilocybe using shotgun sequencing of fungarium specimens, from which we obtained 71 metagenomes including from 23 types, and conducting phylogenomic analysis of 2,983 single-copy gene families to generate a fully supported phylogeny. Molecular clock analysis suggests the stem lineage of Psilocybe arose ~67 mya and diversified ~56 mya. We also show that psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe, with 4 to 5 possible horizontal transfers to other mushrooms between 40 and 9 mya. Moreover, predicted orthologs of the psilocybin biosynthetic genes revealed two distinct gene orders within the biosynthetic gene cluster that corresponds to a deep split within the genus, possibly a signature of two independent acquisitions of the cluster within Psilocybe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J. Bradshaw
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT84112
- Natural History Museum of Utah, Collections and Research, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT84108
| | - Virginia Ramírez-Cruz
- Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías (CONAHCYT), Departamento de Botánica y Zoología, Universidad de Guadalajara, Zapopan45147, Mexico
| | - Ali R. Awan
- Genomics Innovation Unit, Guy’s and St.Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, St Thomas’ Hospital, LondonSE1 7EH, United Kingdom
| | | | - Laura Guzmán-Dávalos
- Departamento de Botánica y Zoología, Universidad de Guadalajara, Zapopan45147, Mexico
| | - Bryn T. M. Dentinger
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT84112
- Natural History Museum of Utah, Collections and Research, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT84108
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Miller DR, Jacobs JT, Rockefeller A, Singer H, Bollinger IM, Conway J, Slot JC, Cliffel DE. Cultivation, chemistry, and genome of Psilocybe zapotecorum. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.01.564784. [PMID: 37961470 PMCID: PMC10635036 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.01.564784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Psilocybe zapotecorum is a strongly blue-bruising psilocybin mushroom used by indigenous groups in southeastern Mexico and beyond. While this species has a rich history of ceremonial use, research into its chemistry and genetics have been limited. Herein, we detail mushroom morphology and report on cultivation parameters, chemical profile, and the full genome sequence of P. zapotecorum . First, growth and cloning methods are detailed that are simple, and reproducible. In combination with high resolution microscopic analysis, the strain was barcoded, confirming species-level identification. Full genome sequencing reveals the architecture of the psilocybin gene cluster in P. zapotecorum, and can serve as a reference genome for Psilocybe Clade I. Characterization of the tryptamine profile revealed a psilocybin concentration of 17.9±1.7 mg/g, with a range of 10.6-25.7 mg/g (n=7), and similar tryptamines (psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, norpsilocin, aeruginascin, 4-HO-tryptamine, and tryptamine) in lesser concentrations for a combined tryptamine concentration of 22.5±3.2 mg/g. These results show P. zapotecorum to be a potent - and variable - Psilocybe mushroom. Chemical profiling, genetic analysis, and cultivation assist in demystifying these mushrooms. As clinical studies with psilocybin gain traction, understanding the diversity of psilocybin mushrooms will assure that psilocybin therapy does not become synonymous with psilocybin mushrooms.
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Plazas E, Faraone N. Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020461. [PMID: 36830997 PMCID: PMC9953455 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress represent a substantial long-term challenge for the global health systems because of their rising prevalence, uncertain neuropathology, and lack of effective pharmacological treatments. The approved existing studies constitute a piece of strong evidence whereby psychiatric drugs have shown to have unpleasant side effects and reduction of sustained tolerability, impacting patients' quality of life. Thus, the implementation of innovative strategies and alternative sources of bioactive molecules for the search for neuropsychiatric agents are required to guarantee the success of more effective drug candidates. Psychotherapeutic use of indole alkaloids derived from magic mushrooms has shown great interest and potential as an alternative to the synthetic drugs currently used on the market. The focus on indole alkaloids is linked to their rich history, their use as pharmaceuticals, and their broad range of biological properties, collectively underscoring the indole heterocycle as significant in drug discovery. In this review, we aim to report the physicochemical and pharmacological characteristics of indole alkaloids, particularly those derived from magic mushrooms, highlighting the promising application of such active ingredients as safe and effective therapeutic agents for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Lenz C, Dörner S, Trottmann F, Hertweck C, Sherwood A, Hoffmeister D. Assessment of Bioactivity-Modulating Pseudo-Ring Formation in Psilocin and Related Tryptamines. Chembiochem 2022; 23:e202200183. [PMID: 35483009 PMCID: PMC9401598 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202200183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybin (1) is the major alkaloid found in psychedelic mushrooms and acts as a prodrug to psilocin (2, 4‐hydroxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine), a potent psychedelic that exerts remarkable alteration of human consciousness. In contrast, the positional isomer bufotenin (7, 5‐hydroxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine) differs significantly in its reported pharmacology. A series of experiments was designed to explore chemical differences between 2 and 7 and specifically to test the hypothesis that the C‐4 hydroxy group of 2 significantly influences the observed physical and chemical properties through pseudo‐ring formation via an intramolecular hydrogen bond (IMHB). NMR spectroscopy, accompanied by quantum chemical calculations, was employed to compare hydrogen bond behavior in 4‐ and 5‐hydroxylated tryptamines. The results provide evidence for a pseudo‐ring in 2 and that sidechain/hydroxyl interactions in 4‐hydroxytryptamines influence their oxidation kinetics. We conclude that the propensity to form IMHBs leads to a higher number of uncharged species that easily cross the blood‐brain barrier, compared to 7 and other 5‐hydroxytryptamines, which cannot form IMHBs. Our work helps understand a fundamental aspect of the pharmacology of 2 and should support efforts to introduce it (via the prodrug 1) as an urgently needed therapeutic against major depressive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudius Lenz
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, GERMANY
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena: Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, 07745, Jena, GERMANY
| | - Felix Trottmann
- Leibniz-Institut für Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knöll-Institut: Leibniz-Institut fur Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knoll-Institut, Biomolecular Chemistry, 07745, Jena, GERMANY
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Leibniz-Institut für Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knöll-Institut: Leibniz-Institut fur Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knoll-Institut, Biomolecular Chemistry, GERMANY
| | - Alexander Sherwood
- Usona Institute, Chemistry, 2800 Woods Hollow Road, 53711, Madison, UNITED STATES
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Leibniz-Institut fur Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knoll-Institut, Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Kn�ll-Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, GERMANY
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Lenz C, Dörner S, Sherwood A, Hoffmeister D. Structure Elucidation and Spectroscopic Analysis of Chromophores Produced by Oxidative Psilocin Dimerization. Chemistry 2021; 27:12166-12171. [PMID: 34062028 PMCID: PMC8457229 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202101382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Psilocin (1) is the dephosphorylated and psychotropic metabolite of the mushroom natural product psilocybin. Oxidation of the phenolic hydroxy group at the C-4 position of 1 results in formation of oligomeric indoloquinoid chromophores responsible for the iconic blueing of bruised psilocybin-producing mushrooms. Based on previous NMR experiments, the hypothesis included that the 5,5'-coupled quinone dimer of 1 was the primary product responsible for the blue color. To test this hypothesis, ring-methylated 1 derivatives were synthesized to provide stable analogs of 1 dimers that could be completely characterized. The chemically oxidized derivatives were spectroscopically analyzed and compared to computationally derived absorbance spectra. Experimental evidence did not support the original hypothesis. Rather, the blue color was shown to stem from the quinoid 7,7'-coupled dimer of 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudius Lenz
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | | | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
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