Interference with anoikis-induced cell death of dopamine neurons: implications for augmenting embryonic graft survival in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

Is autism a PIN1 deficiency syndrome? A proposed etiological role for glyphosate

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder, the prevalence of which has increased dramatically in the United States over the past two decades. It is characterized by stereotyped behaviors and impairments in social interaction and communication. In this paper, we present evidence that autism can be viewed as a PIN1 deficiency syndrome. Peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase, NIMA-Interacting 1 (PIN1) is a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase, and it has widespread influences in biological organisms. Broadly speaking, PIN1 deficiency is linked to many neurodegenerative diseases, whereas PIN1 over-expression is linked to cancer. Death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1) strongly inhibits PIN1, and the hormone melatonin inhibits DAPK1. Melatonin deficiency is strongly linked to autism. It has recently been shown that glyphosate exposure to rats inhibits melatonin synthesis as a result of increased glutamate release from glial cells and increased expression of metabotropic glutamate receptors. Glyphosate's inhibition of melatonin leads to a reduction in PIN1 availability in neurons. In this paper, we show that PIN1 deficiency can explain many of the unique morphological features of autism, including increased dendritic spine density, missing or thin corpus callosum, and reduced bone density. We show how PIN1 deficiency disrupts the functioning of powerful high-level signaling molecules, such as nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and p53. Dysregulation of both of these proteins has been linked to autism. Severe depletion of glutathione in the brain resulting from chronic exposure to oxidative stressors and extracellular glutamate leads to oxidation of the cysteine residue in PIN1, inactivating the protein and further contributing to PIN1 deficiency. Impaired autophagy leads to increased sensitivity of neurons to ferroptosis. It is imperative that further research be conducted to experimentally validate whether the mechanisms described here take place in response to chronic glyphosate exposure and whether this ultimately leads to autism.

Bioreactor-produced iPSCs-derived dopaminergic neuron-containing neural microtissues innervate and normalize rotational bias in a dose-dependent manner in a Parkinson rat model

A breadth of preclinical studies now support the rationale of pluripotent stem cell-derived cell replacement therapies to alleviate motor symptoms in Parkinsonian patients. Replacement of the primary dysfunctional cell population in the disease, i.e. the A9 dopaminergic neurons, is the major focus of these therapies. To achieve this, most therapeutical approaches involve grafting single-cell suspensions of DA progenitors. However, most cells die during the transplantation process, as cells face anoïkis. One potential solution to address this challenge is to graft solid preparations, i.e. adopting a 3D format. Cryopreserving such a format remains a major hurdle and is not exempt from causing delays in the time to effect, as observed with cryopreserved single-cell DA progenitors. Here, we used a high-throughput cell-encapsulation technology coupled with bioreactors to provide a 3D culture environment enabling the directed differentiation of hiPSCs into neural microtissues. The proper patterning of these neural microtissues into a midbrain identity was confirmed using orthogonal methods, including qPCR, RNAseq, flow cytometry and immunofluorescent microscopy. The efficacy of the neural microtissues was demonstrated in a dose-dependent manner using a Parkinsonian rat model. The survival of the cells was confirmed by post-mortem histological analysis, characterised by the presence of human dopaminergic neurons projecting into the host striatum. The work reported here is the first bioproduction of a cell therapy for Parkinson's disease in a scalable bioreactor, leading to a full behavioural recovery 16 weeks after transplantation using cryopreserved 3D format.

A Diagnostic Model for Parkinson's Disease Based on Anoikis-Related Genes

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease, and its pathological mechanisms are thought to be closely linked to apoptosis. Anoikis, a specific type of apoptosis, has recently been suggested to play a role in the progression of Parkinson's disease; however, the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. To explore the potential mechanisms involved in PD, we selected genes from the GSE28894 dataset and compared their expression in PD patients and healthy controls to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and selected anoikis-related genes (ANRGs) from the DEGs. Furthermore, the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression approach and multivariate logistic regression highlighted five key genes-GSK3B, PCNA, CDC42, DAPK2, and SRC-as biomarker candidates. Subsequently, we developed a nomogram model incorporating these 5 genes along with age and sex to predict and diagnose PD. To evaluate the model's coherence, clinical applicability, and distinguishability, we utilized receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, the C-index, and calibration curves and validated it in both the GSE20295 dataset and our center's external clinical data. In addition, we confirmed the differential expression of the 5 model genes in human blood samples through qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Our constructed anoikis-related PD diagnostic model exhibits satisfactory predictive accuracy and offers novel insights into both diagnosis and treatment strategies for Parkinson's disease while facilitating its implementation in clinical practice.

Recipient Reaction and Composition of Autologous Sural Nerve Tissue Grafts into the Human Brain

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a severe neurological disease for which there is no effective treatment or cure, and therefore it remains an unmet need in medicine. We present data from four participants who received autologous transplantation of small pieces of sural nerve tissue into either the basal forebrain containing the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM) or the midbrain substantia nigra (SN). The grafts did not exhibit significant cell death or severe host-tissue reaction up to 55 months post-grafting and contained peripheral cells. Dopaminergic neurites showed active growth in the graft area and into the graft in the SN graft, and cholinergic neurites were abundant near the graft in the NBM. These results provide a histological basis for changes in clinical features after autologous peripheral nerve tissue grafting into the NBM or SN in PD.

Biomaterial and tissue-engineering strategies for the treatment of brain neurodegeneration

The incidence of neurodegenerative diseases is increasing due to changing age demographics and the incidence of sports-related traumatic brain injury is tending to increase over time. Currently approved medicines for neurodegenerative diseases only temporarily reduce the symptoms but cannot cure or delay disease progression. Cell transplantation strategies offer an alternative approach to facilitating central nervous system repair, but efficacy is limited by low in vivo survival rates of cells that are injected in suspension. Transplanting cells that are attached to or encapsulated within a suitable biomaterial construct has the advantage of enhancing cell survival in vivo. A variety of biomaterials have been used to make constructs in different types that included nanoparticles, nanotubes, microspheres, microscale fibrous scaffolds, as well as scaffolds made of gels and in the form of micro-columns. Among these, Tween 80-methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles loaded with rhynchophylline had higher transport across a blood-brain barrier model and decreased cell death in an in vitro model of Alzheimer’s disease than rhynchophylline or untreated nanoparticles with rhynchophylline. In an in vitro model of Parkinson’s disease, trans-activating transcriptor bioconjugated with zwitterionic polymer poly(2-methacryoyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) and protein-based nanoparticles loaded with non-Fe hemin had a similar protective ability as free non-Fe hemin. A positive effect on neuron survival in several in vivo models of Parkinson’s disease was associated with the use of biomaterial constructs such as trans-activating transcriptor bioconjugated with zwitterionic polymer poly(2-methacryoyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) and protein-based nanoparticles loaded with non-Fe hemin, carbon nanotubes with olfactory bulb stem cells, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres with attached DI-MIAMI cells, ventral midbrain neurons mixed with short fibers of poly-(L-lactic acid) scaffolds and reacted with xyloglucan with/without glial-derived neurotrophic factor, ventral midbrain neurons mixed with Fmoc-DIKVAV hydrogel with/without glial-derived neurotrophic factor. Further studies with in vivo models of Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease are warranted especially using transplantation of cells in agarose micro-columns with an inner lumen filled with an appropriate extracellular matrix material.

Into the Tissues: Extracellular Matrix and Its Artificial Substitutes: Cell Signalling Mechanisms

The existence of orderly structures, such as tissues and organs is made possible by cell adhesion, i.e., the process by which cells attach to neighbouring cells and a supporting substance in the form of the extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is a three-dimensional structure composed of collagens, elastin, and various proteoglycans and glycoproteins. It is a storehouse for multiple signalling factors. Cells are informed of their correct connection to the matrix via receptors. Tissue disruption often prevents the natural reconstitution of the matrix. The use of appropriate implants is then required. This review is a compilation of crucial information on the structural and functional features of the extracellular matrix and the complex mechanisms of cell-cell connectivity. The possibilities of regenerating damaged tissues using an artificial matrix substitute are described, detailing the host response to the implant. An important issue is the surface properties of such an implant and the possibilities of their modification.

Involvement of Anoikis in Dissociated Optic Nerve Fiber Layer Appearance

Dissociated optic nerve fiber layer (DONFL) appearance is characterized by dimpling of the fundus when observed after vitrectomy with the internal limiting membrane (ILM) peeling in macular diseases. However, the cause of DONFL remains largely unknown. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) findings have indicated that the nerve fiber layer (NFL) and ganglion cells are likely to have been damaged in patients with DONFL appearance. Since DONFL appearance occurs at a certain postoperative period, it is unlikely to be retinal damage directly caused by ILM peeling because apoptosis occurs at a certain period after tissue damage and/or injury. However, it may be due to ILM peeling-induced apoptosis in the retinal tissue. Anoikis is a type of apoptosis that occurs in anchorage-dependent cells upon detachment of those cells from the surrounding extracellular matrix (i.e., the loss of cell anchorage). The anoikis-related proteins βA3/A1 crystallin and E-cadherin are reportedly expressed in retinal ganglion cells. Thus, we theorize that one possible cause of DONFL appearance is ILM peeling-induced anoikis in retinal ganglion cells.

Delta-1 Functionalized Hydrogel Promotes hESC-Cardiomyocyte Graft Proliferation and Maintains Heart Function Post-Injury

Current cell transplantation techniques are hindered by small graft size, requiring high cell doses to achieve therapeutic cardiac remuscularization. Enhancing the proliferation of transplanted human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hESC-CMs) could address this, allowing an otherwise subtherapeutic cell dose to prevent disease progression after myocardial infarction. In this study, we designed a hydrogel that activates Notch signaling through 3D presentation of the Notch ligand Delta-1 to use as an injectate for transplanting hESC-CMs into the infarcted rat myocardium. After 4 weeks, hESC-CM proliferation increased 2-fold and resulted in a 3-fold increase in graft size with the Delta-1 hydrogel compared to controls. To stringently test the effect of Notch-mediated graft expansion on long-term heart function, a normally subtherapeutic dose of hESC-CMs was implanted into the infarcted myocardium and cardiac function was evaluated by echocardiography. Transplantation of the Delta-1 hydrogel + hESC-CMs augmented heart function and was significantly higher at 3 months compared to controls. Graft size and hESC-CM proliferation were also increased at 3 months post-implantation. Collectively, these results demonstrate the therapeutic approach of a Delta-1 functionalized hydrogel to reduce the cell dose required to achieve functional benefit after myocardial infarction by enhancing hESC-CM graft size and proliferation.

Peptide-Based Scaffolds for the Culture and Transplantation of Human Dopaminergic Neurons

Cell replacement therapy is a promising treatment strategy for Parkinson's disease (PD); however, the poor survival rate of transplanted neurons is a critical barrier to functional recovery. In this study, we used self-assembling peptide nanofiber scaffolds (SAPNS) based on the peptide RADA16-I to support the in vitro maturation and in vivo post-transplantation survival of encapsulated human dopaminergic (DA) neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. Neurons encapsulated within the SAPNS expressed mature neuronal and midbrain DA markers and demonstrated in vitro functional activity similar to neurons cultured in two dimensions. A microfluidic droplet generation method was used to encapsulate cells within monodisperse SAPNS microspheres, which were subsequently used to transplant adherent, functional networks of DA neurons into the striatum of a 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned PD mouse model. SAPNS microspheres significantly increased the in vivo survival of encapsulated neurons compared with neurons transplanted in suspension, and they enabled significant recovery in motor function compared with control lesioned mice using approximately an order of magnitude fewer neurons than have been previously needed to demonstrate behavioral recovery. These results indicate that such biomaterial scaffolds can be used as neuronal transplantation vehicles to successfully improve the outcome of cell replacement therapies for PD. Impact Statement Transplantation of dopaminergic (DA) neurons holds potential as a treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD), but low survival rates of transplanted neurons is a barrier to successfully improving motor function. In this study, we used hydrogel scaffolds to transplant DA neurons into PD model mice. The hydrogel scaffolds enhanced survival of the transplanted neurons compared with neurons that were transplanted in a conventional manner, and they also improved recovery of motor function by using significantly fewer neurons than have typically been transplanted to see functional benefits. This cell transplantation technology has the capability to improve the outcome of neuron transplantation therapies.

Critical Functionality Effects from Storage Temperature on Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cell Suspensions

Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived retinal pigment epithelium (hiPSC-RPE) cells suspension have the potential for regenerative treatment. However, practical regenerative applications with hiPSC-RPE cells require the development of simple and cost-effective non-freezing preservation methods. We investigated the effect of non-freezing temperatures on suspended hiPSC-RPE cells in various conditions and analysed mechanisms of cell death, anoikis, Rho GTPases, hypoxia, microtubule destruction, and cell metabolism. Cells stored at 37 °C had the lowest viability due to hypoxia from high cell metabolism and cell deposits, and cells preserved at 4 °C were damaged via microtubule fragility. Cell suspensions at 16 °C were optimal with drastically reduced apoptosis and negligible necrosis. Moreover, surviving cells proliferated and secreted key proteins normally, compared to cells without preservation. hiPSC-RPE cell suspensions were optimally preserved at 16 °C. Temperatures above or below the optimal temperature decreased cell viability significantly yet differentially by mechanisms of cell death, cellular metabolism, microtubule destruction, and oxygen tension, all relevant to cell conditions. Surviving cells are expected to function as grafts where high cell death is often reported. This study provides new insight into various non-freezing temperature effects on hiPSC-RPE cells that are highly relevant to clinical applications and may improve cooperation between laboratories and hospitals.

Primary tissue for cellular brain repair in Parkinson's disease: Promise, problems and the potential of biomaterials

The dopamine precursor, levodopa, remains the "gold standard" treatment for Parkinson's disease, and, although it provides superlative efficacy in the early stages of the disease, its long-term use is limited by the development of severe motor side effects and a significant abating of therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, there remains a major unmet clinical need for the development of effective neuroprotective, neurorestorative or neuroreparatory therapies for this condition. The relatively selective loss of dopaminergic neurons from the nigrostriatal pathway makes Parkinson's disease an ideal candidate for reparative cell therapies, wherein the dopaminergic neurons that are lost in the condition are replaced through direct cell transplantation into the brain. To date, this approach has been developed, validated and clinically assessed using dopamine neuron-rich foetal ventral mesencephalon grafts which have been shown to survive and reinnervate the denervated brain after transplantation, and to restore motor function. However, despite long-term symptomatic relief in some patients, significant limitations, including poor graft survival and the impact this has on the number of foetal donors required, have prevented this therapy being more widely adopted as a restorative approach for Parkinson's disease. Injectable biomaterial scaffolds have the potential to improve the delivery, engraftment and survival of these grafts in the brain through provision of a supportive microenvironment for cell adhesion, growth and immune shielding. This article will briefly review the development of primary cell therapies for brain repair in Parkinson's disease and will consider the emerging literature which highlights the potential of using injectable biomaterial hydrogels in this context.

Cografting astrocytes improves cell therapeutic outcomes in a Parkinson's disease model

Transplantation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) is a potential therapy for treating neurodegenerative disorders, but this approach has faced many challenges and limited success, primarily because of inhospitable host brain environments that interfere with enriched neuron engraftment and function. Astrocytes play neurotrophic roles in the developing and adult brain, making them potential candidates for helping with modification of hostile brain environments. In this study, we examined whether astrocytic function could be utilized to overcome the current limitations of cell-based therapies in a murine model of Parkinson's disease (PD) that is characterized by dopamine (DA) neuron degeneration in the midbrain. We show here that cografting astrocytes, especially those derived from the midbrain, remarkably enhanced NPC-based cell therapeutic outcomes along with robust DA neuron engraftment in PD rats for at least 6 months after transplantation. We further show that engineering of donor astrocytes with Nurr1 and Foxa2, transcription factors that were recently reported to polarize harmful immunogenic glia into the neuroprotective form, further promoted the neurotrophic actions of grafted astrocytes in the cell therapeutic approach. Collectively, these findings suggest that cografting astrocytes could be a potential strategy for successful cell therapeutic outcomes in neurodegenerative disorders.

A Droplet Microfluidics Based Platform for Mining Metagenomic Libraries for Natural Compounds

Historically, microbes from the environment have been a reliable source for novel bio-active compounds. Cloning and expression of metagenomic DNA in heterologous strains of bacteria has broadened the range of potential compounds accessible. However, such metagenomic libraries have been under-exploited for applications in mammalian cells because of a lack of integrated methods. We present an innovative platform to systematically mine natural resources for pro-apoptotic compounds that relies on the combination of bacterial delivery and droplet microfluidics. Using the violacein operon from C. violaceum as a model, we demonstrate that E. coli modified to be invasive can serve as an efficient delivery vehicle of natural compounds. This approach permits the seamless screening of metagenomic libraries with mammalian cell assays and alleviates the need for laborious extraction of natural compounds. In addition, we leverage the unique properties of droplet microfluidics to amplify bacterial clones and perform clonal screening at high-throughput in place of one-compound-per-well assays in multi-well format. We also use droplet microfluidics to establish a cell aggregate strategy that overcomes the issue of background apoptosis. Altogether, this work forms the foundation of a versatile platform to efficiently mine the metagenome for compounds with therapeutic potential.

Behavioral and Histological Characterization of Intrahippocampal Grafts of Human Bone Marrow-Derived Multipotent Progenitor Cells in Neonatal Rats with Hypoxic-Ischemic Injury

Children born with hypoxic-ischemic (HI) brain injury account for a significant number of live births wherein no clinical treatment is available. Limited clinical trials of stem cell therapy have been initiated in a number of neurological disorders, but the preclinical evidence of a cell-based therapy for neonatal HI injury remains in its infancy. One major postulated mechanism underlying therapeutic benefits of stem cell therapy involves stimulation of endogenous neurogenesis via transplantation of exogenous stem cells. To this end, transplantation has targeted neurogenic sites, such as the hippocampus, for brain protection and repair. The hippocampus has been shown to secrete growth factors, especially during the postnatal period, suggesting that this brain region presents as highly conducive microenvironment for cell survival. Based on its neurogenic and neurotrophic factor-secreting features, the hippocampus stands as an appealing target for stem cell therapy. Here, we investigated the efficacy of intrahippocampal transplantation of multipotent progenitor cells (MPCs), which are pluripotent progenitor cells with the ability to differentiate into a neuronal lineage. Seven-day-old Sprague-Dawley rats were initially subjected to unilateral HI injury, which involved permanent ligation of the right common carotid artery and subsequent exposure to hypoxic environment. At day 7 after HI injury, animals received stereotaxic hippocampal injections of vehicle or cryopreserved MPCs (thawed just prior to transplantation) derived either from Sprague-Dawley rats (syngeneic) or Fisher rats (allogeneic). All animals were treated with daily immunosuppression throughout the survival period. Behavioral tests were conducted on posttransplantation days 7 and 14 using the elevated body swing test and the rotarod to reveal general and coordinated motor functions. MPC transplanted animals exhibited reduced motor asymmetry and longer time spent on the rotarod than those that received the vehicle infusion. Both syngeneic and allogeneic MPC transplanted injured animals did not significantly differ in their behavioral improvements at both test periods. Immunohistochemical evaluations of graft survival after behavioral testing at day 14 posttransplantation revealed that syngeneic and allogeneic transplanted MPCs survived in the hippocampal region. These results demonstrate for the first time that transplantation of MPCs ameliorated motor deficits associated with HI injury. In view of comparable behavioral recovery produced by syngeneic and allogeneic MPC grafts, allogeneic transplantation poses as a feasible and efficacious cell replacement strategy with direct clinical application. An equally major finding is the observation lending support to the hippocampus as an excellent target brain region for stem cell therapy in treating HI injury.

Reassessment of Caspase Inhibition to Augment Grafted Dopamine Neuron Survival

One experimental therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) is the transplantation of embryonic ventral mesencephalic tissue. Unfortunately, up to 95% of grafted neurons die, many via apoptosis. Activated caspases play a key role in execution of the apoptotic pathway; therefore, exposure to caspase inhibitors may provide an effective intervention strategy for protection against apoptotic cell death. In the present study we examined the efficacy of two different caspase inhibitors, caspase-1 inhibitor Ac-YVAD-CMK and caspase-3 inhibitor Ac-DEVD-CMK, to augment mesencephalic tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (TH-ir) neuron survival in culture and following implantation into the denervated striatum of rats. We report that treatment with Ac-YVAD-CMK provided partial but nonsignificant protection for TH-ir neurons against serum withdrawal in mesencephalic cultures plated at low density, while neither caspase inhibitor promoted TH-ir neuron survival in higher density cultures, simulating graft density. We demonstrate that plating procedures (full well vs. microislands) and cell density directly affect the degree of insult experienced by TH-ir neurons following serum withdrawal. This varying degree of insult directly impacts whether caspase inhibition will augment TH-ir neuron survival. Our grafting experiments demonstrate that Ac-YVAD-CMK does not augment grafted TH-ir neuron survival when added to mesencephalic cell suspensions prior to grafting or to mesencephalic reaggregates for 3 days in vitro prior to transplantation. These experiments provide further evidence of the failure of these caspase inhibitors to augment TH-ir neuron survival. Furthermore, we suggest that cell culture paradigms used to model grafting paradigms must more closely approximate the cell densities of mesencephalic grafts to effectively screen potential augmentative treatments.

Self-Assembling Peptide Nanofiber Scaffolds for 3-D Reprogramming and Transplantation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neurons

While cell transplantation presents a potential strategy to treat the functional deficits of neurodegenerative diseases or central nervous system injuries, the poor survival rate of grafted cells in vivo is a major barrier to effective therapeutic treatment. In this study, we investigated the role of a peptide-based nanofibrous scaffold composed of the self-assembling peptide RADA16-I to support the reprogramming and maturation of human neurons in vitro and to transplant these neurons in vivo. The induced human neurons were generated via the single transcriptional factor transduction of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), which are a promising cell source for regenerative therapies. These neurons encapsulated within RADA16-I scaffolds displayed robust neurite outgrowth and demonstrated high levels of functional activity in vitro compared to that of 2-D controls, as determined by live cell calcium imaging. When evaluated in vivo as a transplantation vehicle for adherent, functional networks of neurons, monodisperse RADA16-I microspheres significantly increased survival (over 100-fold greater) compared to the conventional transplantation of unsupported neurons in suspension. The scaffold-encapsulated neurons integrated well in vivo within the injection site, extending neurites several hundred microns long into the host brain tissue. Overall, these results suggest that this biomaterial platform can be used to successfully improve the outcome of cell transplantation and neuro-regenerative therapies.

Effect of Cell Adhesion Molecules on the Neurite Outgrowth of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Dopaminergic Neurons

Intrastriatal transplantation of dopaminergic neurons has been shown to be a potentially very effective therapeutic approach for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). With the detection of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), an unlimited source of autologous dopaminergic (DA) neurons became available. Although the iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons exhibited most of the fundamental dopaminergic characteristics, detailed analysis and comparison with primary DA neurons have shown some aberrations in the expression of genes involved in neuronal development and neurite outgrowth. The limited outgrowth of the iPSC-derived DA neurons may hamper their potential application in cell transplantation therapy for PD. In the present study, we examined whether the forced expression of L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) and polysialylated neuronal cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM), via gene transduction, can promote the neurite formation and outgrowth of iPSC-derived DA neurons. In cultures on astrocyte layers, both adhesion factors significantly increased neurite formation of the adhesion factor overexpressing iPSC-derived DA neurons in comparison to control iPSC-derived DA neurons. The same tendency was observed when the DA neurons were plated on postnatal organotypic striatal slices; however, this effect did not reach statistical significance. Next, we examined the neurite outgrowth of the L1CAM- or PSA-NCAM-overexpressing iPSC-derived DA neurons after implantation in the striatum of unilaterally 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned rats, the animal model for PD. Like the outgrowth on the organotypic striatal slices, no significant L1CAM- and PSA-NCAM-enforced neurite outgrowth of the implanted DA neurons was observed. Apparently, induced expression of L1CAM or PSA-NCAM in the iPSC-derived DA neurons cannot completely restore the neurite outgrowth potential that was reduced in these DA neurons as a consequence of epigenetic aberrations resulting from the iPSC reprogramming process.

Generation and transplantation of reprogrammed human neurons in the brain using 3D microtopographic scaffolds

Cell replacement therapy with human pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons has the potential to ameliorate neurodegenerative dysfunction and central nervous system injuries, but reprogrammed neurons are dissociated and spatially disorganized during transplantation, rendering poor cell survival, functionality and engraftment in vivo. Here, we present the design of three-dimensional (3D) microtopographic scaffolds, using tunable electrospun microfibrous polymeric substrates that promote in situ stem cell neuronal reprogramming, neural network establishment and support neuronal engraftment into the brain. Scaffold-supported, reprogrammed neuronal networks were successfully grafted into organotypic hippocampal brain slices, showing an ∼3.5-fold improvement in neurite outgrowth and increased action potential firing relative to injected isolated cells. Transplantation of scaffold-supported neuronal networks into mouse brain striatum improved survival ∼38-fold at the injection site relative to injected isolated cells, and allowed delivery of multiple neuronal subtypes. Thus, 3D microscale biomaterials represent a promising platform for the transplantation of therapeutic human neurons with broad neuro-regenerative relevance.

Human pluripotent stem cell derived neurons have the potential for cell replacement therapy for brain injury and disease but problems on transplantation need to be overcome. Here, the authors use a microtopographic scaffold to graft neurons into both hippocampal organoids and the mouse brain striatum.

Tackling Cell Transplantation Anoikis: An Injectable, Shape Memory Cryogel Microcarrier Platform Material for Stem Cell and Neuronal Cell Growth

Highly macroporous semisynthetic cryogel microcarriers can be synthesized for culturing stem cells and neuronal type cells. Growth factors loaded to heparin-containing microcarriers show near zero-order release kinetics and cell-loaded microcarriers can be injected through a fine gauge cannula without negative effect on the cells. These carriers can be applied for cell transplantation applications.

3-MA Inhibits Autophagy and Favors Long-Term Integration of Grafted Gad67–GFP GABAergic Precursors in the Developing Neocortex by Preventing Apoptosis

In human neonates, immature GABAergic interneurons are markedly affected by an excitotoxic insult. While in adults the interest of cell transplantation has been demonstrated in several neurological disorders, few data are available regarding the immature brain. The low survival rate constitutes a strong limitation in the capacity of transplanted neurons to integrate the host tissue. Because i) autophagy is an adaptive process to energetic/nutrient deprivation essential for cell survival and ii) literature describes cross-talks between autophagy and apoptosis, we hypothesized that regulation of autophagy would represent an original strategy to favor long-term survival of GABAergic precursors grafted in the immature neocortex. Morphological, neurochemical, and functional data showed that in control conditions, few grafted Gad67-GFP precursors survived. The first hours following transplantation were a critical period with intense apoptosis. Experiments performed on E15.5 ganglionic eminences revealed that Gad67-GFP precursors were highly sensitive to autophagy. Rapamycin and 3-MA impacted on LC3 cleavage, LC3II translocation, and autophagosome formation. Quantification of Bax, mitochondrial integrity, caspase-3 cleavage, and caspase-3 immunolocalization and activity showed that 3-MA induced a significant decrease of Gad67-GFP precursor apoptosis. In vivo, 3-MA induced, within the first 24 h, a diffuse LC3 pattern of grafted Gad67-GFP precursors, an increase of precursors with neurites, a reduction of the density of caspase-3 immunoreactive cells. A twofold increase in the survival rate occurred 15 days after the graft. Surviving neurons were localized in the cortical layers II–IV, which were still immature when the transplantation was done. Altogether, these data indicate that inhibition of autophagy represents an original strategy to allow GABAergic interneurons to overpass the first critical hours following transplantation and to increase their long-term survival in mice neonates.

Accelerating proliferation of neural stem/progenitor cells in collagen sponges immobilized with engineered basic fibroblast growth factor for nervous system tissue engineering

Neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) play a therapeutic role in nervous system diseases and contribute to functional recovery. However, their efficacy is limited as the majority of cells die post-transplantation. In this study, collagen sponges were utilized as carriers for NS/PCs. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), a mitogen for NS/PCs, was incorporated into the collagen sponges to stimulate NS/PC proliferation. However, the effect of native bFGF is limited because it diffuses into the culture medium and is lost following medium exchange. To overcome this problem, a collagen-binding polypeptide domain, which has high affinity to collagen, was fused with bFGF to sustain the exposure of NS/PCs within the collagen sponges to bFGF. The results indicated that the number of NS/PCs was significantly higher in collagen sponges incorporating engineered bFGF than in those with native bFGF or the PBS control after 7 days in culture. Here, we designed a natural biological neural scaffold consisting of collagen sponges, engineered bFGF, and NS/PCs. In addition to the effect of proliferated NS/PCs, the engineered bFGF retained in the natural biological neural scaffolds could have a direct effect on nervous system reconstruction. The two aspects of the natural biological neural scaffolds may produce synergistic effects, and so they represent a promising candidate for nervous system repair.

Interleukin-10 chimeric protein to protect transplanted neural progenitor cells from immune responses

Novel system for protecting transplanted cells from inflammatory responses.

Neural progenitor cell survival in mouse brain can be improved by co-transplantation of helper cells expressing bFGF under doxycycline control

Cell-based therapy of neurological disorders is hampered by poor survival of grafted neural progenitor cells (NPCs). We hypothesized that it is possible to enhance the survival of human NPCs (ReNcells) by co-transplantation of helper cells expressing basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) under control of doxycycline (Dox). 293 cells or C17.2 cells were transduced with a lentiviral vector encoding the fluorescent reporter mCherry and bFGF under tetracycline-regulated transgene expression (Tet-ON). The bFGF secretion level in the engineered helper cells was positively correlated with the dose of Dox (Pearson correlation test; r=0.95 and 0.99 for 293 and C17.2 cells, respectively). Using bioluminescence imaging (BLI) as readout for firefly luciferase-transduced NPC survival, the addition of both 293-bFGF and C17.2-bFGF helper cells was found to significantly improve cell survival up to 6-fold in vitro, while wild-type (WT, non-transduced) helper cells had no effect. Following co-transplantation of 293-bFGF or C17.2-bFGF cells in the striatum of Rag2(-/-) immunodeficient mice, in vivo human NPC survival could be significantly improved as compared to no helper cells or co-transplantation of WT cells for the first two days after co-transplantation. This enhancement of survival in C17.2-bFGF group was not achieved without Dox administration, indicating that the neuroprotective effect was specific for bFGF. The present results warrant further studies on the use of engineered helper cells, including those expressing other growth factors injected as mixed cell populations.

In vitro generation of three-dimensional substrate-adherent embryonic stem cell-derived neural aggregates for application in animal models of neurological disorders

In vitro-differentiated embryonic stem (ES) cells comprise a useful source for cell replacement therapy, but the efficiency and safety of a translational approach are highly dependent on optimized protocols for directed differentiation of ES cells into the desired cell types in vitro. Furthermore, the transplantation of three-dimensional ES cell-derived structures instead of a single-cell suspension may improve graft survival and function by providing a beneficial microenvironment for implanted cells. To this end, we have developed a new method to efficiently differentiate mouse ES cells into neural aggregates that consist predominantly (>90%) of postmitotic neurons, neural progenitor cells, and radial glia-like cells. When transplanted into the excitotoxically lesioned striatum of adult mice, these substrate-adherent embryonic stem cell-derived neural aggregates (SENAs) showed significant advantages over transplanted single-cell suspensions of ES cell-derived neural cells, including improved survival of GABAergic neurons, increased cell migration, and significantly decreased risk of teratoma formation. Furthermore, SENAs mediated functional improvement after transplantation into animal models of Parkinson's disease and spinal cord injury. This unit describes in detail how SENAs are efficiently derived from mouse ES cells in vitro and how SENAs are isolated for transplantation. Furthermore, methods are presented for successful implantation of SENAs into animal models of Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and spinal cord injury to study the effects of stem cell-derived neural aggregates in a disease context in vivo.

Improvement of neural stem cell survival in collagen hydrogels by incorporating laminin-derived cell adhesive polypeptides

Cell transplantation is a potential methodology for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. However, the therapeutic effect is limited by poor viability of transplanted cells. To overcome this problem, we hypothesized that a dual step approach, whereby providing an adhesive substrate for transplanted cells and, at the same time, by preventing the infiltration of activated microglia into the site of transplantation promotes the cell survival. To establish above conditions, attempts were made to prepare 3-D matrices using collagen hydrogels that incorporated integrin-binding polypeptides derived from laminin-1. Tandem combinations of laminin globular domains as well as a single globular domain 3 were prepared using recombinant DNA technology as a fusion with hexahistidine and bound to metal chelated surfaces to screen for the adhesion and proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs). In addition, a small peptide derived from laminin γ1 chain was prepared and heterodimerized with the globular domain-containing chimeric proteins to evaluate for the enhancement of integrin-mediated cell adhesion. As a result, a heterodimer consisting of the globular domain 3 of the laminin α1 chain and the peptide from the laminin γ1 chain was selected as the best candidate among the polypeptides studied here for the incorporation into a collagen hydrogel. It was shown that the survival of NSCs was indeed promoted in the collagen hydrogel incorporating the heterodimer compared to the pure collagen hydrogel.

Cell therapy for spinal cord repair: optimization of biologic scaffolds for survival and neural differentiation of human bone marrow stromal cells

BACKGROUND AIMS

The suppression of cell apoptosis using a biodegradable scaffold to replace the missing or altered extracellular matrix (ECM) could increase the survival of transplanted cells and thus increase the effectiveness of cell therapy.

METHODS

We studied the best conditions for the proliferation and differentiation of human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSC) when cultured on different biologic scaffolds derived from fibrin and blood plasma, and analyzed the best concentrations of fibrinogen, thrombin and calcium chloride for favoring cell survival. The induction of neural differentiation of hBMSC was done by adding to these scaffolds different growth factors, such as nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived-neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and retinoic acid (RA), at concentrations of 100 ng/mL (NGF and BDNF) and 1 micro/mL (RA), over 7 days.

RESULTS

Although both types of scaffold allowed survival and neural differentiation of hBMSC, the results showed a clear superiority of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) scaffolds, mainly after BDNF administration, allowing most of the hBMSC to survive and differentiate into a neural phenotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Given that clinical trials for spinal cord injury using hBMSC are starting, these findings may have important clinical applications.

Biomimetic microenvironment modulates neural stem cell survival, migration, and differentiation

Biomaterial matrices presenting extracellular matrix (ECM) components in a controlled three-dimensional configuration provide a unique system to study neural stem cell (NSC)-ECM interactions. We cultured primary murine neurospheres in a methylcellulose (MC) scaffold functionalized with laminin-1 (MC-x-LN1) and monitored NSC survival, apoptosis, migration, differentiation, and matrix production. Overall, MC-x-LN1 enhanced both NSC survival and maturation compared with MC controls. Significantly lower levels of apoptotic activity were observed in MC-x-LN1 than in MC controls, as measured by bcl-2/bax gene expression and tetramethylrhodamine-dUTP nick end labeling. A higher percentage of NSCs extended neurites in a β₁-integrin-mediated fashion in MC-x-LN1 than in MC controls. Further, the differentiation profiles of NSCs in MC-x-LN1 exhibited higher levels of neuronal and oligodendrocyte precursor markers than in MC controls. LN1 production and co-localization with α₆β₁ integrins was markedly increased within MC-x-LN1, whereas the production of fibronectin was more pronounced in MC controls. These findings demonstrate that NSC microenvironments modulate cellular activity throughout the neurosphere, contributing to our understanding of ECM-mediated NSC behavior and provide new avenues for developing rationally designed couriers for neurotransplantation.

Tenascin-C promotes melanoma progression by maintaining the ABCB5-positive side population

Tenascin-C (TNC) is highly expressed in melanoma; however, little is known about its functions. Recent studies indicate that TNC has a role within the stem cell niche. We hypothesized that TNC creates a specific environment for melanoma cells to show a stem cell-like phenotype, promoting tumor growth and evading conventional therapies. TNC expression was strongly upregulated in melanoma cells grown as 3D spheres (enriched for stem-like cells) when compared to adherent cells. Downmodulation of TNC by shRNA lentiviruses significantly decreased the growth of melanoma spheres. The incidence of pulmonary metastases after intravenous injection of TNC knockdown cells was significantly lower in NOD/SCID IL2Rγ(null) mice compared with control cells. Melanoma spheres contain an increased number of side population (SP) cells, which show stem cell characteristics, and have the potential for drug resistance due to their high efflux capacity. Knockdown of TNC dramatically decreased the SP fraction in melanoma spheres and lowered their resistance to doxorubicin treatment, likely because of the downregulation of multiple ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, including ABCB5. These data suggest that TNC is critical in melanoma progression as it mediates protective signals in the therapy-resistant population of melanoma.

Thrombospondin 1 binding to calreticulin-LRP1 signals resistance to anoikis

Anoikis, apoptotic cell death due to loss of cell adhesion, is critical for regulation of tissue homeostasis in tissue remodeling. Fibrogenesis is associated with reduced fibroblast apoptosis. The matricellular protein thrombospondin 1 (TSP1) regulates cell adhesion and motility during tissue remodeling and in fibrogenesis. The N-terminal domain of TSP1 binds to the calreticulin-LRP1 receptor co-complex to signal down-regulation of cell adhesion and increased cell motility through focal adhesion disassembly. TSP1 signaling through calreticulin-LRP1 activates cell survival signals such as PI3-kinase. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that TSP1 supports cell survival under adhesion-independent conditions to facilitate tissue remodeling. Here, we show that platelet TSP1, its N-terminal domain (NoC1) as a recombinant protein, or a peptide comprising the calreticulin-LRP1 binding site [amino acids 17-35 (hep I)] in the N-terminal domain promotes fibroblast survival under anchorage-independent conditions. TSP1 activates Akt and decreases apoptotic signaling through caspase 3 and PARP1 in suspended fibroblasts. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt activity blocks TSP1-mediated anchorage-independent survival. Fibroblasts lacking LRP1 or expressing calreticulin lacking the TSP1 binding site do not respond to TSP1 with anchorage-independent survival. These data define a novel role for TSP1 signaling through the calreticulin/LRP1 co-complex in tissue remodeling and fibrotic responses through stimulation of anoikis resistance.-Pallero, M. A., Elzie, C. A., Chen, J., Mosher, D. F., Murphy-Ullrich, J. E. Thrombospondin 1 binding to calreticulin-LRP1 signals resistance to anoikis.

3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (ecstasy) promotes the survival of fetal dopamine neurons in culture

The current study examined whether modest concentrations of MDMA could increase the survival and/or neurite outgrowth of fetal midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons in vitro since increased DA neurite outgrowth has been previously observed in vivo from prenatal exposure. MDMA concentrations in fetal brain were quantified to determine relevant in vivo concentrations to employ in vitro. A dose response study in vitro demonstrated that MDMA, at concentrations observed in vivo, resulted in increased, DA-specific, neuron survival. Higher doses resulted in non-specific neurotoxicity. MDMA application immediately after culture establishment resulted in greater survival than delayed application, however both were superior to control. MDMA significantly increased the expression of the slc6a3 gene (dopamine transporter; DAT) in culture. Co-application of the DAT reuptake inhibitor methylphenidate (MPH) with MDMA attenuated this effect. Progressive reductions in MPH concentrations restored the MDMA-induced survival effect. This suggests that MDMA's action at DAT mediates the survival effect. Neurite density per neuron was unaffected by MDMA in vitro suggesting that MDMA promotes DA neuron survival but not neurite outgrowth in culture. Finally, animals prenatally exposed to MDMA and examined on postnatal day 35 showed an increase in tyrosine hydroxylase-positive (TH+) neurons in the substantia nigra but not in the ventral tegmental area. These data suggest that during development, MDMA can increase the survival of DA neurons through its action at its transporter. Understanding how MDMA increases DA neuron survival may provide insight into normal DA neuron loss during development.

How to improve the survival of the fetal ventral mesencephalic cell transplanted in Parkinson's disease?

It has been extensively confirmed that fetal ventral mesencephalic cell (VMC) transplantation can ameliorate the symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD). But there are still several problems to be resolved before the extensive clinical application of this technology. The major limitations are the poor survival of grafted dopamine (DA) neurons and restricted dopaminergic reinnervation of host striatum. Some attempts have been made to solve these problems including use of some trophic factor and co-transplantation with neural/paraneural origins. The purpose of this review is to overview advances of the means improving the survival of grafts and their current limitations.

Increased cell suspension concentration augments the survival rate of grafted tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive neurons

The poor survival rate (5-20%) of grafted embryonic dopamine (DA) neurons is one of the primary factors preventing cell replacement from becoming a viable treatment for Parkinson's disease. Previous studies have demonstrated that graft volume impacts grafted DA neuron survival, indicating that transplant parameters influence survival rates. However, the effects of mesencephalic cell concentration on grafted DA neuron survival have not been investigated. The current study compares the survival rates of DA neurons in grafts of varying concentrations. Mesencephalic cell suspensions derived from E14 Fisher 344 rat pups were concentrated to 25,000, 50,000, 100,000 and 200,000 cells/microl and transplanted into two 0.5 microl sites in the 6-OHDA-denervated rat striatum. Animals were sacrificed 10 days and 6 weeks post-transplantation for histochemical analysis of striatal grafts. The absolute number of DA neurons per graft increased proportionally to the total number of cells transplanted. However, our results show that the 200,000 cells/microl group exhibited significantly higher survival rates (5.48+/-0.83%) compared to the 25,000 cells/microl (2.81+/-0.39%) and 50,000 cells/microl (3.36+/-0.51%) groups (p=0.02 and 0.03, respectively). Soma size of grafted DA neurons in the 200,000 cells/microl group was significantly larger than that of the 25,000 cells/microl (p<0.0001) and 50,000 cells/microl groups (p=0.004). In conclusion, increasing the concentration of mesencephalic cells prior to transplantation, augments the survival and functionality of grafted DA neurons. These data have the potential to identify optimal transplantation parameters that can be applied to procedures utilizing stem cells, neural progenitors, and primary mesencephalic cells.

Role of heparin binding growth factors in nigrostriatal dopamine system development and Parkinson's disease

The developmental biology of the dopamine (DA) system may hold important clues to its reconstruction. We hypothesized that factors highly expressed during nigrostriatal development and re-expressed after injury and disease may play a role in protection and reconstruction of the nigrostriatal system. Examination of gene expression in the developing striatum suggested an important role for the heparin binding growth factor family at time points relevant to establishment of dopaminergic innervation. Midkine, pleiotrophin (PTN), and their receptors syndecan-3 and receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase beta/zeta, were highly expressed in the striatum during development. Furthermore, PTN was up-regulated in the degenerating substantia nigra of Parkinson's patients. The addition of PTN to ventral mesencephalic cultures augmented DA neuron survival and neurite outgrowth. Thus, PTN was identified as a factor that plays a role in the nigrostriatal system during development and in response to disease, and may therefore be useful for neuroprotection or reconstruction of the DA system.

Effects of ex vivo transduction of mesencephalic reaggregates with bcl-2 on grafted dopamine neuron survival

Survival rates of dopamine (DA) neurons grafted to the denervated striatum are extremely poor (5-20%). Gene transfer of survival promoting factors, such as the anti-apoptotic protein bcl-2, to mesencephalic DA neurons prior to transplantation (ex vivo transduction) offers a novel approach to increase graft survival. However, specific criteria to assess the efficacy of various vectors must be adhered to in order to reasonably predict successful gene transfer with appropriate timing and levels of protein expression. Cell culture results utilizing three different herpes simplex virus (HSV) vectors to deliver the reporter beta-galactosidase gene (lacZ) indicate that transduction of mesencephalic cells with a helper virus-free HSV amplicon (HF HSV-TH9lac) that harbors the 9-kb tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) promoter to drive lacZ gene expression elicits the transduction of the highest percentage (approximately 50%) of TH-immunoreactive (THir) neurons without significant cytotoxic effects. This transduction efficiency and limited cytotoxicity was superior to that observed following transduction with helper virus-containing HSV (HC HSVlac) and helper virus-free HSV amplicons (HF HSVlac) expressing lacZ under the transcriptional control of the HSV immediate-early 4/5 gene promoter. Subsequently, we assessed the ability of HSV-TH9lac and the bcl-2 expressing HSV-TH9bcl-2 amplicon to transduce mesencephalic reaggregates. Although an increase in bcl-2 and beta-galactosidase protein was induced by transduction, amplicon-mediated overexpression of bcl-2 did not lead to an increase in grafted THir neuron number. Even with highly efficient viral vector-mediated transduction, our results demonstrate that ex vivo gene transfer of bcl-2 to mesencephalic reaggregates is ineffective in increasing grafted DA neuron survival.

Exogenous erythropoietin provides neuroprotection of grafted dopamine neurons in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease marked by severe loss of dopamine (DA) neurons in the nigrostriatal system, which results in depletion of striatal DA. Transplantation of embryonic ventral mesencephalic (VM) DA neurons into the striatum is a currently explored experimental treatment aimed at replacing lost DA in the nigrostriatal system, but is plagued with poor survival (5-20%) of implanted neurons. Here, we tested the ability of erythropoietin (Epo) to provide neuroprotection for embryonic day 14 (E14) VM DA neurons. Epo was tested in vitro for the ability to augment tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (TH-ir) neuron survival under normal cell culture conditions. In vitro, Epo did not increase the number of TH-ir neurons when administered at the time of plating the E14 VM cells in culture. We also tested the efficacy of Epo to enhance E14 VM transplants in vivo. Rats unilaterally lesioned with 6-hydroxydopamine received transplants that were incubated in Epo. Treatment with Epo produced significant increases in TH-ir neuron number, soma size, and staining intensity. Animals receiving Epo-treated grafts exhibited significantly accelerated functional improvements and significantly greater overall improvements from rotational asymmetry compared to control grafted rats. These data indicate that the survival of embryonic mesencephalic TH-ir neurons is increased when Epo is administered with grafted cells in a rodent model of PD. As direct neurotrophic effects of Epo were not observed in vitro, the mechanism of Epo neuroprotection remains to be elucidated.

Blueberry extract enhances survival of intraocular hippocampal transplants

Transplantation of neural tissue has been explored as a potential therapy to replace dead or dying cells in the brain, such as after brain injury or neurodegenerative disease. However, survival of transplanted tissue is poor, especially when the transplant recipient is of advanced age. Recent studies have demonstrated improvement of neuronal deficits in aged animals given a diet supplemented with blueberry extract. The present study focuses on the survival of fetal hippocampal transplants to young (4 months) or middle-aged (16 months) animals with or without dietary supplementation with blueberry extract. Results indicate that fetal hippocampus transplanted to middle-aged host animals exhibits poor survival characterized by reduced growth and compromised tissue organization. However, when middle-aged animals were maintained on a diet supplemented with 2% blueberry extract, hippocampal graft growth was significantly improved and cellular organization of grafts was comparable to that seen in tissue grafted to young host animals. Thus, the data suggest that factor(s) in blueberries may have significant effects on development and organization of this important brain region.

Dopaminergic differentiation of human embryonic stem cells

In this manuscript we report that human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) differentiated into dopaminergic neurons when cocultured with PA6 cells. After 3 weeks of differentiation, approximately 87% of hES colonies contained tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cells, and a high percentage of the cells in most of the colonies expressed TH. Differentiation was inhibited by exposure to BMP4 or serum. TH-positive cells derived from hESCs were postmitotic, as determined by bromodeoxyurindine colabeling. Differentiated cells expressed other markers of dopaminergic neurons, including the dopamine transporter, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase, and the transcription factors associated with neuronal and dopaminergic differentiation, Sox1, Nurr1, Ptx3, and Lmx1b. Neurons that had been differentiated on PA6 cells were negative for dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, a marker of noradrenergic neurons. PA6-induced neurons were able to release dopamine and 3,4-dihydroxphe-hylacetic acid (DOPAC) but not noradrenalin when depolarized by high K(+). When transplanted into 6-hydroxydopamine-treated animals, hES-derived dopaminergic cells integrated into the rat striatum. Five weeks after transplantation, surviving TH-positive cells were present but in very small numbers compared with the high frequency of TH-positive cells seen in PA6 coculture. Larger numbers of cells positive for smooth muscle actin, but no undifferentiated ES cells, were present after transplantation. Therefore, hESCs can be used to generate human dopaminergic cells that exhibit biochemical and functional properties consistent with the expected properties of mature dopaminergic neurons.

Stem cells may reshape the prospect of Parkinson's disease therapy

The concept of cell replacement to compensate for cell loss and restore functionality has entered several disease entities including neurodegenerative disorders. Recent clinical studies have shown that transplantation of fetal dopaminergic (DA) cells into the brain of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients can reduce disease-associated motor deficits. However, the use of fetal tissue is associated with practical and ethical problems including low efficiency, variability in the clinical outcome and controversy regarding the use of fetuses as donor. An alternative cell resource could be embryonic stem (ES) cells, which can be cultivated in unlimited amounts and which have the potential to differentiate into mature DA cells. Several differentiation protocols have been developed, and some progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms underlying DA specification in ES cell development, but the "holy grail" in this paradigm, which is the production of sufficient amounts of the "right" therapeutic DA cell, has not yet been accomplished. To achieve this goal, several criteria on the transplanted DA cells need to be fulfilled, mainly addressing cell survival, accurate integration in the brain circuitry, normal function, no tumor formation, and no immunogenicity. Here, we summarize the current state of ES cell-derived DA neurogenesis and discuss the aspects involved in generating an optimal cell source for cell replacement in PD.

Integrin α4β1 function is required for cell survival in developing retina

In the retina, integrins in the beta1 family have been shown to be important in many phases of neuronal development, particularly neuroblast migration and axon outgrowth. However, the functions of specific integrin heterodimers are not well defined. In this study, we investigated the functions of beta1 integrins in developing chicken retina by expression of a dominant-negative beta1A construct using a replication-competent retrovirus. Inhibition of integrins using this approach resulted in alteration of cell morphology and increased apoptosis, but did not preclude migration and axon elongation. In an attempt to identify which specific beta1 heterodimer was important, expression and function of the alpha4beta1 heterodimer were also investigated. At early developmental stages, alpha4 protein and mRNA were detected in undifferentiated neuroblasts throughout the retina. At later stages, expression was confined to retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and amacrine cells. A small molecule antagonist of alpha4 integrins was shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth on recombinant soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), a known ligand of alpha4beta1. Introduction of alpha4 antagonist in vivo gave rise to increased apoptosis and led to a thinning of the retina and reduced numbers of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). We conclude that the integrin alpha4beta1 is important for survival of developing retinal neurons, including RGCs.