Connexin29 and connexin32 at oligodendrocyte and astrocyte gap junctions and in myelin of the mouse central nervous system

Assembly mechanisms of the neuronal gap junction channel connexin 36 elucidated by Cryo-EM

Electrical synapses are essential components of neural circuits. Neuronal signal transduction across electrical synapses is primarily mediated by gap junction channels composed of Connexin36 (Cx36), the lack of which causes impaired electrical coupling between certain neurons including cortical interneurons and thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) neurons. However, the structural basis underlying Cx36 function and assembly remains elusive. Recently, Lee et al. reported cryo-EM structures of Cx36, thus provided first insights of its gating mechanism. Here, we report a consistent cryo-EM structure of Cx36 determined in parallel, and describe unique interactions underpinning its assembly mechanism in complementary to the competing work. In particular, we found non-canonical electrostatic interactions between protomers from opposing hemichannels and a steric complementary site between adjacent protomers within a hemichannel, which together provide a structural explanation for the assembly specificity in homomeric and heteromeric gap junction channels.

Connexins Control Glial Inflammation in Various Neurological Diseases

Connexins (Cxs) form gap junctions through homotypic/heterotypic oligomerization. Cxs are initially synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum, then assembled as hexamers in the Golgi apparatus before being integrated into the cell membrane as hemichannels. These hemichannels remain closed until they combine to create gap junctions, directly connecting neighboring cells. Changes in the intracellular or extracellular environment are believed to trigger the opening of hemichannels, creating a passage between the inside and outside of the cell. The size of the channel pore depends on the Cx isoform and cellular context-specific effects such as posttranslational modifications. Hemichannels allow various bioactive molecules, under ~1 kDa, to move in and out of the host cell in the direction of the electrochemical gradient. In this review, we explore the fundamental roles of Cxs and their clinical implications in various neurological dysfunctions, including hereditary diseases, ischemic brain disorders, degenerative conditions, demyelinating disorders, and psychiatric illnesses. The influence of Cxs on the pathomechanisms of different neurological disorders varies depending on the circumstances. Hemichannels are hypothesized to contribute to proinflammatory effects by releasing ATP, adenosine, glutamate, and other bioactive molecules, leading to neuroglial inflammation. Modulating Cxs' hemichannels has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach.

Iguratimod Ameliorates the Severity of Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis in Model Mice by Directly Inhibiting IL-6 Production and Th17 Cell Migration via Mitigation of Glial Inflammation

We previously reported a novel secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) model, progressive experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (pEAE), in oligodendroglia-specific Cx47-inducible conditional knockout (Cx47 icKO) mice. Based on our prior study showing the efficacy of iguratimod (IGU), an antirheumatic drug, for acute EAE treatment, we aimed to elucidate the effect of IGU on the SPMS animal model. We induced pEAE by immunizing Cx47 icKO mice with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide 35-55. IGU was orally administered from 17 to 50 days post-immunization. We also prepared a primary mixed glial cell culture and measured cytokine levels in the culture supernatant after stimulation with designated cytokines (IL-1α, C1q, TNF-α) and lipopolysaccharide. A migration assay was performed to evaluate the effect of IGU on the migration ability of T cells toward mixed glial cell cultures. IGU treatment ameliorated the clinical signs of pEAE, decreased the demyelinated area, and attenuated glial inflammation on immunohistochemical analysis. Additionally, IGU decreased the intrathecal IL-6 level and infiltrating Th17 cells. The migration assay revealed reduced Th17 cell migration and IL-6 levels in the culture supernatant after IGU treatment. Collectively, IGU successfully mitigated the clinical signs of pEAE by suppressing Th17 migration through inhibition of IL-6 production by proinflammatory-activated glial cells.

Mechanisms of Diseases Associated with Mutation in GJC2/Connexin 47

Connexins are members of a family of integral membrane proteins that provide a pathway for both electrical and metabolic coupling between cells. Astroglia express connexin 30 (Cx30)-GJB6 and Cx43-GJA1, while oligodendroglia express Cx29/Cx31.3-GJC3, Cx32-GJB1, and Cx47-GJC2. Connexins organize into hexameric hemichannels (homomeric if all subunits are identical or heteromeric if one or more differs). Hemichannels from one cell then form cell-cell channels with a hemichannel from an apposed cell. (These are termed homotypic if the hemichannels are identical and heterotypic if the hemichannels differ). Oligodendrocytes couple to each other through Cx32/Cx32 or Cx47/Cx47 homotypic channels and they couple to astrocytes via Cx32/Cx30 or Cx47/Cx43 heterotypic channels. Astrocytes couple via Cx30/Cx30 and Cx43/Cx43 homotypic channels. Though Cx32 and Cx47 may be expressed in the same cells, all available data suggest that Cx32 and Cx47 cannot interact heteromerically. Animal models wherein one or in some cases two different CNS glial connexins have been deleted have helped to clarify the role of these molecules in CNS function. Mutations in a number of different CNS glial connexin genes cause human disease. Mutations in GJC2 lead to three distinct phenotypes, Pelizaeus Merzbacher like disease, hereditary spastic paraparesis (SPG44) and subclinical leukodystrophy.

Palmitoylethanolamide and White Matter Lesions: Evidence for Therapeutic Implications

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), the naturally occurring amide of ethanolamine and palmitic acid, is an endogenous lipid compound endowed with a plethora of pharmacological functions, including analgesic, neuroprotective, immune-modulating, and anti-inflammatory effects. Although the properties of PEA were first characterized nearly 65 years ago, the identity of the receptor mediating these actions has long remained elusive, causing a period of research stasis. In the last two decades, a renewal of interest in PEA occurred, and a series of interesting studies have demonstrated the pharmacological properties of PEA and clarified its mechanisms of action. Recent findings showed the ability of formulations containing PEA in promoting oligodendrocyte differentiation, which represents the first step for the proper formation of myelin. This evidence opens new and promising research opportunities. White matter defects have been detected in a vast and heterogeneous group of diseases, including age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we summarize the history and pharmacology of PEA and discuss its therapeutic potential in restoring white matter defects.

Conservation and divergence of myelin proteome and oligodendrocyte transcriptome profiles between humans and mice

Human myelin disorders are commonly studied in mouse models. Since both clades evolutionarily diverged approximately 85 million years ago, it is critical to know to what extent the myelin protein composition has remained similar. Here, we use quantitative proteomics to analyze myelin purified from human white matter and find that the relative abundance of the structural myelin proteins PLP, MBP, CNP, and SEPTIN8 correlates well with that in C57Bl/6N mice. Conversely, multiple other proteins were identified exclusively or predominantly in human or mouse myelin. This is exemplified by peripheral myelin protein 2 (PMP2), which was specific to human central nervous system myelin, while tetraspanin-2 (TSPAN2) and connexin-29 (CX29/GJC3) were confined to mouse myelin. Assessing published scRNA-seq-datasets, human and mouse oligodendrocytes display well-correlating transcriptome profiles but divergent expression of distinct genes, including Pmp2, Tspan2, and Gjc3. A searchable web interface is accessible via www.mpinat.mpg.de/myelin. Species-dependent diversity of oligodendroglial mRNA expression and myelin protein composition can be informative when translating from mouse models to humans.

Investigating oligodendrocyte connexins: Heteromeric interactions between Cx32 and mutant or wild-type forms of Cx47 do not contribute to or modulate gap junction function

Oligodendrocytes express two gap junction forming connexins, connexin 32 (Cx32) and Cx47; therefore, formation of heteromeric channels containing both Cx47 and Cx32 monomers might occur. Mutations in Cx47 cause both Pelizaeus-Merzbacher-like disease Type 1 (PMLD1) and hereditary spastic paraparesis Type 44 (SPG44) and heteromer formation between these mutants and Cx32 may contribute to the pathogenesis of these disorders. Here, we utilized electrophysiological and antibody-based techniques to examine this possibility. When cells expressing both Cx32 and Cx47 were paired with cells expressing either Cx32 or Cx47, properties were indistinguishable from those produced by cells expressing homotypic Cx32 or Cx47 channels. Similarly, pairing cells expressing both Cx32 and Cx47 with cells expressing Cx30 or Cx43 produced channels indistinguishable from heterotypic Cx32/Cx30 or Cx47/Cx43 channels, respectively. The same assessments were performed on cells expressing Cx32 and four mutant forms of Cx47 (p.I33M associated with SPG44 or p.P87S, p.Y269D or p.M283T associated with PMLD1). None of these mutants showed a functional effect on Cx32. Immunostained cells co-expressing Cx32WT (wild type) and Cx47WT showed a Pearson correlation coefficient close to zero, suggesting that any overlap was due to chance. p.Y269D showed a statistically significant negative correlation with Cx32, suggesting that Cx32 and this mutant overlap less than expected by chance. Co-immunoprecipitation of Cx32 with Cx47WT and mutants show only very low levels of co-immunoprecipitated protein. Overall, our data suggest that interactions between PMLD1 or SPG44 mutants and Cx32 gap junctions do not contribute to the pathogenesis of these disorders.

Astroglial cells as neuroendocrine targets in forebrain development: Implications for sex differences in psychiatric disease

Astroglial cells are the most abundant cell type in the mammalian brain. They are implicated in almost every aspect of brain physiology, including maintaining homeostasis, building and maintaining the blood brain barrier, and the development and maturation of neuronal networks. Critically, astroglia also express receptors for gonadal sex hormones, respond rapidly to gonadal hormones, and are able to synthesize hormones. Thus, they are positioned to guide and mediate sexual differentiation of the brain, particularly neuronal networks in typical and pathological conditions. In this review, we describe astroglial involvement in the organization and development of the brain, and consider known sex differences in astroglial responses to understand how astroglial cell-mediated organization may play a role in forebrain sexual dimorphisms in human populations. Finally, we consider how sexually dimorphic astroglial responses and functions in development may lead to sex differences in vulnerability for neuropsychiatric disorders.

Altered Expression of Glial Gap Junction Proteins Cx43, Cx30, and Cx47 in the 5XFAD Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Glial gap junction proteins, called connexins (Cxs), form gap junctions in the central nervous system (CNS) to allow the bidirectional cytosolic exchange of molecules between adjacent cells. Their involvement in inheritable diseases and the use of experimental animal models that closely mimic such diseases revealed the critical role of glial GJs in myelination and homeostasis. Cxs are also implicated in acquired demyelinating disorders, such as Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Animal and human studies have revealed a role of the astrocytic Cx43 in the progression of AD but the role of Cx47, which is the main partner of Cx43 in the astrocyte-oligodendrocyte GJs is still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the astrocytic connexins, Cx43 and Cx30 in relation to oligodendrocytic Cx47 in the cortex and thalamus of the 5XFAD mouse model of AD. The model was characterized by increased Aβ deposition, gliosis, neuronal loss, and memory impairment. Compared to wild-type mice, Cx43 and Cx30 showed increased immunoreactivity in older 5XFAD mice, reflecting astrogliosis, while Cx47 immunoreactivity was reduced. Moreover, Cx47 GJ plaques showed reduced colocalization with Cx43 plaques. Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) and mature oligodendrocyte populations were also depleted, and myelin deficits were observed. Our findings indicate reduced astrocyte-oligodendrocyte gap junction connectivity and possibly a shift in Cx43 expression toward astrocyte-astrocyte gap junctions and/or hemichannels, that could impair oligodendrocyte homeostasis and myelination. However, other factors, such as Aβ toxicity, could directly affect oligodendrocyte survival in AD. Our study provides evidence that Cxs might have implications in the progression of AD, although the role of oligodendrocyte Cxs in AD requires further investigation.

Connexins-Based Hemichannels/Channels and Their Relationship with Inflammation, Seizures and Epilepsy

Connexins (Cxs) are a family of 21 protein isoforms, eleven of which are expressed in the central nervous system, and they are found in neurons and glia. Cxs form hemichannels (connexons) and channels (gap junctions/electric synapses) that permit functional and metabolic coupling between neurons and astrocytes. Altered Cx expression and function is involved in inflammation and neurological diseases. Cxs-based hemichannels and channels have a relevance to seizures and epilepsy in two ways: First, this pathological condition increases the opening probability of hemichannels in glial cells to enable gliotransmitter release, sustaining the inflammatory process and exacerbating seizure generation and epileptogenesis, and second, the opening of channels favors excitability and synchronization through coupled neurons. These biological events highlight the global pathological mechanism of epilepsy, and the therapeutic potential of Cxs-based hemichannels and channels. Therefore, this review describes the role of Cxs in neuroinflammation and epilepsy and examines how the blocking of channels and hemichannels may be therapeutic targets of anti-convulsive and anti-epileptic treatments.

Connexin and Pannexin-Based Channels in Oligodendrocytes: Implications in Brain Health and Disease

Oligodendrocytes are the myelin forming cells in the central nervous system (CNS). In addition to this main physiological function, these cells play key roles by providing energy substrates to neurons as well as information required to sustain proper synaptic transmission and plasticity at the CNS. The latter requires a fine coordinated intercellular communication with neurons and other glial cell types, including astrocytes. In mammals, tissue synchronization is mainly mediated by connexins and pannexins, two protein families that underpin the communication among neighboring cells through the formation of different plasma membrane channels. At one end, gap junction channels (GJCs; which are exclusively formed by connexins in vertebrates) connect the cytoplasm of contacting cells allowing electrical and metabolic coupling. At the other end, hemichannels and pannexons (which are formed by connexins and pannexins, respectively) communicate the intra- and extracellular compartments, serving as diffusion pathways of ions and small molecules. Here, we briefly review the current knowledge about the expression and function of hemichannels, pannexons and GJCs in oligodendrocytes, as well as the evidence regarding the possible role of these channels in metabolic and synaptic functions at the CNS. In particular, we focus on oligodendrocyte-astrocyte coupling during axon metabolic support and its implications in brain health and disease.

Connexin 43/47 channels are important for astrocyte/ oligodendrocyte cross-talk in myelination and demyelination

The gap junctions (GJs), which form intercellular communicating channels between two apposing cells or form hemichannel with extracellular environment, perform crucial functions to maintain small molecule homeostasis. The central nervous system (CNS) GJs are important for maintenance of myelin sheath and neuronal activity. Connexin (Cx) proteins are building blocks of GJs. Recent cell-biological investigations show that amongst the CNS specific Cxs, the most abundant Cx protein, Cx43 and its oligodendrocytic coupling partner Cx47 primarily important for maintenance of CNS myelin. Recent investigations elucidate that the expression of Cx43 and Cx47 is very important to maintain K+ buffering and nutrient homeostasis in oligodendrocytes, CNS myelin and oligodendrocyte function. The investigations on Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patient samples and EAE hypothesized that the functional loss of Cx43/Cx47 could be associated with spread of chronic MS lesions. Exploring the mechanism of initial GJ alteration and its effect on demyelination in this model of MS might play a primary role to understand the basis of altered CNS homeostasis, observed during MS. In this review, we mainly discuss the role of CNS GJs, specifically the Cx43/Cx47 axis in the perspective of demyelination.

Connexin 43/47 channels are important for astrocyte/ oligodendrocyte cross-talk in myelination and demyelination

The gap junctions (GJs), which form intercellular communicating channels between two apposing cells or form hemichannel with extracellular environment, perform crucial functions to maintain small molecule homeostasis. The central nervous system (CNS) GJs are important for maintenance of myelin sheath and neuronal activity. Connexin (Cx) proteins are building blocks of GJs. Recent cell-biological investigations show that amongst the CNS specific Cxs, the most abundant Cx protein, Cx43 and its oligodendrocytic coupling partner Cx47 primarily important for maintenance of CNS myelin. Recent investigations elucidate that the expression of Cx43 and Cx47 is very important to maintain K? buffering and nutrient homeostasis in oligodendrocytes, CNS myelin and oligodendrocyte function. The investigations on Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patient samples and EAE hypothesized that the functional loss of Cx43/Cx47 could be associated with spread of chronic MS lesions. Exploring the mechanism of initial GJ alteration and its effect on demyelination in this model of MS might play a primary role to understand the basis of altered CNS homeostasis, observed during MS. In this review, we mainly discuss the role of CNS GJs, specifically the Cx43/Cx47 axis in the perspective of demyelination.

Regulatory role of oligodendrocyte gap junctions in inflammatory demyelination

Gap junctions (GJs) coupling oligodendrocytes to astrocytes and to other oligodendrocytes are formed mainly by connexin47 (Cx47) and a smaller portion by connexin32 (Cx32). Mutations in both connexins cause inherited demyelinating disorders, but their expression is also disrupted in multiple sclerosis (MS). To clarify whether the loss of either Cx47 or Cx32 could modify the outcome of inflammation and myelin loss, we induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in fully backcrossed Cx32 knockout (KO) and Cx47KO mice and compared their outcome with wild type (WT, C57BI/6 N) mice. Cx47KO EAE mice developed the most severe phenotype assessed by clinical scores and behavioral testing, followed by Cx32KO and WT mice. Cx47KO more than Cx32KO EAE mice developed more microglial activation, myelin, and axonal loss than did WT mice. Oligodendrocyte apoptosis and precursor proliferation was also higher in Cx47KO than in Cx32KO or WT EAE mice. Similarly, blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption and inflammatory infiltrates of macrophages, T- and B-cells were more severe in Cx47KO than either Cx32KO or WT EAE groups. Finally, expression profiling revealed that several proinflammatory cytokines were higher at the peak of inflammation in the Cx47KO mice and persisted at later stages of EAE in contrast to reduction of their levels in WT EAE mice. Thus, loss of oligodendrocyte GJs aggravates BSCB disruption and inflammatory myelin loss, likely due to dysregulation of proinflammatory cytokines. This mechanism may play an important role in MS brain with reduced connexin expression, as well as in patients with inherited mutations in oligodendrocyte connexins and secondary inflammation.

Connexins in the Central Nervous System: Physiological Traits and Neuroprotective Targets

Cell-to-cell interaction and cell-to-extracellular environment communication are emerging as new therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative disorders. Dynamic expression of connexins leads to distinctive hemichannels and gap junctions, characterized by cell-specific conduction, exchange of stimuli or metabolites, and particular channel functions. Herein, we briefly reviewed classical physiological traits and functions of connexins, hemichannels, and gap junctions, in order to discuss the controversial role of these proteins and their mediated interactions during neuroprotection, with a particular focus on Cx43-based channels. We pointed out the contribution of connexins in neural cells populations during neurodegenerative processes to explore potential neuroprotective therapeutic applications.

Severe Convulsions and Dysmyelination in Both Jimpy and Cx32/47 -/- Mice may Associate Astrocytic L-Channel Function with Myelination and Oligodendrocytic Connexins with Internodal Kv Channels

The Jimpy mouse illustrates the importance of interactions between astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. It has a mutation in Plp coding for proteolipid protein and DM20. Its behavior is normal at birth but from the age of ~2 weeks it shows severe convulsions associated with oligodendrocyte/myelination deficits and early death. A normally occurring increase in oxygen consumption by highly elevated K+ concentrations is absent in Jimpy brain slices and cultured astrocytes, reflecting that Plp at early embryonic stages affects common precursors as also shown by the ability of conditioned medium from normal astrocytes to counteract histological abnormalities. This metabolic response is now known to reflect opening of L-channels for Ca2+. The resulting deficiency in Ca2+ entry has many consequences, including lack of K+-stimulated glycogenolysis and release of gliotransmitter ATP. Lack of purinergic stimulation compromises oligodendrocyte survival and myelination and affects connexins and K+ channels. Mice lacking the oligodendrocytic connexins Cx32 and 47 show similar neurological dysfunction as Jimpy. This possibly reflects that K+ released by intermodal axonal Kv channels is transported underneath a loosened myelin sheath instead of reaching the extracellular space via connexin-mediated transport to oligodendrocytes, followed by release and astrocytic Na+,K+-ATPase-driven uptake with subsequent Kir4.1-facilitated release and neuronal uptake.

Morphological study of a connexin 43-GFP reporter mouse highlights glial heterogeneity, amacrine cells, and olfactory ensheathing cells

Connexin 43 (Cx43) is the main astrocytic connexin and forms the basis of the glial syncytium. The morphology of connexin-expressing cells can be best studied in transgenic mouse lines expressing cytoplasmic fluorescent reporters, since immunolabeling the plaques can obscure the shapes of the individual cells. The Cx43kiECFP mouse generated by Degen et al. (FASEBJ 26:4576, 2012) expresses cytosolic ECFP and has previously been used to establish that Cx43 may not be expressed by all astrocytes within a population, and this can vary in a region-dependent way. To establish this mouse line as a tool for future astrocyte and connexin research, we sought to consolidate reporter authenticity, studying cell types and within-region population heterogeneity. Applying anti-GFP, all cell types related to astroglia were positive-namely, protoplasmic astrocytes in the hippocampus, cortex, thalamus, spinal cord, olfactory bulb, cerebellum with Bergmann glia and astrocytes also in the molecular layer, and retinal Müller cells and astrocytes. Labeled cell types further comprise white matter astrocytes, olfactory ensheathing cells, radial glia-like stem cells, retinal pigment epithelium cells, ependymal cells, and meningeal cells. We furthermore describe a retinal Cx43-expressing amacrine cell morphologically reminiscent of ON-OFF wide-field amacrine cells, representing the first example of a mammalian CNS neuron-expressing Cx43 protein. In double staining with cell type-specific markers (GFAP, S100ß, glutamine synthetase), Cx43 reporter expression in the hippocampus and cortex was restricted to GFAP⁺ astrocytes. Altogether, this mouse line is a highly reliable tool for studies of Cx43-expressing CNS cells and astroglial cell morphology. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Systemic inflammation disrupts oligodendrocyte gap junctions and induces ER stress in a model of CNS manifestations of X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease

X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT1X) is a common form of inherited neuropathy resulting from different mutations affecting the gap junction (GJ) protein connexin32 (Cx32). A subset of CMT1X patients may additionally present with acute fulminant CNS dysfunction, typically triggered by conditions of systemic inflammation and metabolic stress. To clarify the underlying mechanisms of CNS phenotypes in CMT1X we studied a mouse model of systemic inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection to compare wild type (WT), connexin32 (Cx32) knockout (KO), and KO T55I mice expressing the T55I Cx32 mutation associated with CNS phenotypes. Following a single intraperitoneal LPS or saline (controls) injection at the age of 40-60 days systemic inflammatory response was documented by elevated TNF-α and IL-6 levels in peripheral blood and mice were evaluated 1 week after injection. Behavioral analysis showed graded impairment of motor performance in LPS treated mice, worse in KO T55I than in Cx32 KO and in Cx32 KO worse than WT. Iba1 immunostaining revealed widespread inflammation in LPS treated mice with diffusely activated microglia throughout the CNS. Immunostaining for the remaining major oligodendrocyte connexin Cx47 and for its astrocytic partner Cx43 revealed widely reduced expression of Cx43 and loss of Cx47 GJs in oligodendrocytes. Real-time PCR and immunoblot analysis indicated primarily a down regulation of Cx43 expression with secondary loss of Cx47 membrane localization. Inflammatory changes and connexin alterations were most severe in the KO T55I group. To examine why the presence of the T55I mutant exacerbates pathology even more than in Cx32 KO mice, we analyzed the expression of ER-stress markers BiP, Fas and CHOP by immunostaining, immunoblot and Real-time PCR. All markers were increased in LPS treated KO T55I mice more than in other genotypes. In conclusion, LPS induced neuroinflammation causes disruption of the main astrocyte-oligodendrocyte GJs, which may contribute to the increased sensitivity of Cx32 KO mice to LPS and of patients with CMT1X to various stressors. Moreover the presence of an intracellularly retained, misfolded CMT1X mutant such as T55I induces ER stress under inflammatory conditions, further exacerbating oligodendrocyte dysfunction and pathological changes in the CNS.

Simvastatin Sodium Salt and Fluvastatin Interact with Human Gap Junction Gamma-3 Protein

Finding pleiomorphic targets for drugs allows new indications or warnings for treatment to be identified. As test of concept, we applied a new chemical genomics approach to uncover additional targets for the widely prescribed lipid-lowering pro-drug simvastatin. We used mRNA extracted from internal mammary artery from patients undergoing coronary artery surgery to prepare a viral cardiovascular protein library, using T7 bacteriophage. We then studied interactions of clones of the bacteriophage, each expressing a different cardiovascular polypeptide, with surface-bound simvastatin in 96-well plates. To maximise likelihood of identifying meaningful interactions between simvastatin and vascular peptides, we used a validated photo-immobilisation method to apply a series of different chemical linkers to bind simvastatin so as to present multiple orientations of its constituent components to potential targets. Three rounds of biopanning identified consistent interaction with the clone expressing part of the gene GJC3, which maps to Homo sapiens chromosome 7, and codes for gap junction gamma-3 protein, also known as connexin 30.2/31.3 (mouse connexin Cx29). Further analysis indicated the binding site to be for the N-terminal domain putatively 'regulating' connexin hemichannel and gap junction pores. Using immunohistochemistry we found connexin 30.2/31.3 to be present in samples of artery similar to those used to prepare the bacteriophage library. Surface plasmon resonance revealed that a 25 amino acid synthetic peptide representing the discovered N-terminus did not interact with simvastatin lactone, but did bind to the hydrolysed HMG CoA inhibitor, simvastatin acid. This interaction was also seen for fluvastatin. The gap junction blockers carbenoxolone and flufenamic acid also interacted with the same peptide providing insight into potential site of binding. These findings raise key questions about the functional significance of GJC3 transcripts in the vasculature and other tissues, and this connexin's role in therapeutic and adverse effects of statins in a range of disease states.

Unilateral microinjection of carbenoxolone into the pontis caudalis nucleus inhibits the pentylenetetrazole-induced epileptiform activity in rats

Pontine reticular formation (PRF) is involved in the generation and maintenance of generalized epileptic seizures. Carbenoxolone (CBX) is a gap junction blocker with anticonvulsant properties. Therefore, the present study was designed to explore the effects of CBX microinjected into the pontis caudalis nucleus (PnC) on generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) and epileptiform activity induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ). All control rats presented GTCS after a single dose of PTZ. The microinjection of CBX into the PnC reduced the GTCS incidence induced by PTZ. Moreover, the CBX significantly increased the latency to the first myoclonic jerk. Additionally, CBX significantly decreased the spectral power and the amplitude of the epileptiform activity induced by PTZ. By contrast, the microinjection of a gap junction opener (trimethylamine) did not cause anticonvulsant effects and even increased the duration of the GTCS. These findings suggest that the PnC is a particular nucleus where the CBX could exert its action mechanisms and elicit anticonvulsant effects.

Support of Nerve Conduction by Respiring Myelin Sheath: Role of Connexons

Recently, we have demonstrated that myelin conducts an extramitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, hypothesizing a novel supportive role for myelin in favor of the axon. We have also hypothesized that the ATP produced in myelin could be transferred thought gap junctions. In this work, by biochemical, immunohistochemical, and electrophysiological techniques, the existence of a connection among myelin to the axon was evaluated, to understand how ATP could be transferred from sheath to the axoplasm. Data confirm a functional expression of oxidative phosphorylation in isolated myelin. Moreover, WB and immunohistochemistry on optic nerve slices show that connexins 32 and 43 are present in myelin and colocalize with myelin basic protein. Interestingly, addition of carbenoxolone or oleamide, two gap junction blockers, causes a decrease in oxidative metabolism in purified myelin, but not in mitochondria. Similar effects were observed on conduction speed in hippocampal Schaffer collateral, in the presence of oleamide. Confocal analysis of optic nerve slices showed that lucifer yellow (that only passes through aqueous pores) signal was found in both the sheath layers and the axoplasma. In the presence of oleamide, but not with oleic acid, signal significantly decreased in the sheath and was lost inside the axon. This suggests the existence of a link among myelin and axons. These results, while supporting the idea that ATP aerobically synthesized in myelin sheath could be transferred to the axoplasm through gap junctions, shed new light on the function of the sheath.

GJB1-associated X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, a disorder affecting the central and peripheral nervous systems

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) is a group of inherited diseases characterized by exclusive or predominant involvement of the peripheral nervous system. Mutations in GJB1, the gene encoding Connexin 32 (Cx32), a gap-junction channel forming protein, cause the most common X-linked form of CMT, CMT1X. Cx32 is expressed in Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes, the myelinating glia of the peripheral and central nervous systems, respectively. Thus, patients with CMT1X have both central and peripheral nervous system manifestations. Study of the genetics of CMT1X and the phenotypes of patients with this disorder suggest that the peripheral manifestations of CMT1X are likely to be due to loss of function, while in the CNS gain of function may contribute. Mice with targeted ablation of Gjb1 develop a peripheral neuropathy similar to that seen in patients with CMT1X, supporting loss of function as a mechanism for the peripheral manifestations of this disorder. Possible roles for Cx32 include the establishment of a reflexive gap junction pathway in the peripheral and central nervous system and of a panglial syncitium in the central nervous system.

Transplantation of stem cell-derived astrocytes for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spinal cord injury

Neglected for years, astrocytes are now recognized to fulfill and support many, if not all, homeostatic functions of the healthy central nervous system (CNS). During neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal cord injury (SCI), astrocytes in the vicinity of degenerating areas undergo both morphological and functional changes that might compromise their intrinsic properties. Evidence from human and animal studies show that deficient astrocyte functions or loss-of-astrocytes largely contribute to increased susceptibility to cell death for neurons, oligodendrocytes and axons during ALS and SCI disease progression. Despite exciting advances in experimental CNS repair, most of current approaches that are translated into clinical trials focus on the replacement or support of spinal neurons through stem cell transplantation, while none focus on the specific replacement of astroglial populations. Knowing the important functions carried out by astrocytes in the CNS, astrocyte replacement-based therapies might be a promising approach to alleviate overall astrocyte dysfunction, deliver neurotrophic support to degenerating spinal tissue and stimulate endogenous CNS repair abilities. Enclosed in this review, we gathered experimental evidence that argue in favor of astrocyte transplantation during ALS and SCI. Based on their intrinsic properties and according to the cell type transplanted, astrocyte precursors or stem cell-derived astrocytes promote axonal growth, support mechanisms and cells involved in myelination, are able to modulate the host immune response, deliver neurotrophic factors and provide protective molecules against oxidative or excitotoxic insults, amongst many possible benefits. Embryonic or adult stem cells can even be genetically engineered in order to deliver missing gene products and therefore maximize the chance of neuroprotection and functional recovery. However, before broad clinical translation, further preclinical data on safety, reliability and therapeutic efficiency should be collected. Although several technical challenges need to be overcome, we discuss the major hurdles that have already been met or solved by targeting the astrocyte population in experimental ALS and SCI models and we discuss avenues for future directions based on latest molecular findings regarding astrocyte biology.

Oligodendrocyte gap junction loss and disconnection from reactive astrocytes in multiple sclerosis gray matter

Gap junctions are essential for glial cell function and have been increasingly implicated in multiple sclerosis (MS). Because increasing cortical abnormalities correlate with disease progression and cognitive dysfunction, we examined the expression of oligodendrocytic connexin32 (Cx32) and Cx47 and their astrocytic partners Cx30 and Cx43 in cortical lesions and normal-appearing gray matter (NAGM) in MS patients. Postmortem brain tissue samples from 9 MS cases were compared with 10 controls using real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunoblot, and immunohistochemical analyses. Connexin32 and Cx47 gap junction formation in oligodendrocytes was reduced within lesions, whereas Cx32 loss also extended to NAGM. In contrast, astrocytic Cx30 expression was increased within cortical lesions, whereas Cx43 was elevated in both lesions and NAGM. Diffuse microglial activation and marked astrogliotic changes accompanied these connexin abnormalities. Increased expression of Cx43 correlated with inflammatory load (r = 0.828, p = 0.042), whereas Cx32 expression correlated with longer disease duration and, therefore, milder course (r = 0.825, p = 0.043). Thus, there is a loss of intramyelin and intercellular oligodendrocyte gap junctions in MS gray matter lesions and NAGM, whereas interastrocytic gap junctions are increased, reflecting astrogliosis. These changes correlate with inflammation and disease duration and suggest that disconnection of oligodendrocytes from reactive astrocytes may play a role in failed remyelination and disease progression.

Quantitative proteomic profiling reveals novel region-specific markers in the adult mouse brain

Despite major advances in neuroscience, a comprehensive understanding of the structural and functional components of the adult brain compartments remains to be fully elucidated at a quantitative molecular level. Indeed, over half of the soluble- and membrane-annotated proteins are currently unmapped within online digital brain atlases. In this study, two complementary approaches were used to assess the unique repertoire of proteins enriched within select regions of the adult mouse CNS, including the brain stem, cerebellum, and remaining brain hemispheres. Of the 1200 proteins visualized by 2D-DIGE, approximately 150 (including cytosolic and membrane proteins) were found to exhibit statistically significant changes in relative abundance thus representing putative region-specific brain markers. In addition to using a high-precision (18) O-labeling strategy for the quantitative LC-MS/MS mapping of membrane proteins isolated from myelin-enriched fractions, we have identified over 1000 proteins that have yet to be described in any other mammalian myelin proteome. A comparison of our myelin proteome was made to an existing transcriptome database containing mRNA abundance profiles during oligodendrocyte differentiation and has confirmed statistically significant abundance changes for ∼500 of these newly mapped proteins, thus revealing new roles in oligodendrocyte and myelin biology. These data offer a resource for the neuroscience community studying the molecular basis for specialized neuronal activities in the CNS and myelin-related disorders. The MS proteomics data associated with this manuscript have been deposited to the ProteomeXchange Consortium with the dataset identifier PXD000327 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD000327).

Re-evaluation of connexins associated with motoneurons in rodent spinal cord, sexually dimorphic motor nuclei and trigeminal motor nucleus

Electrical synapses formed by neuronal gap junctions composed of connexin36 (Cx36) are a common feature in mammalian brain circuitry, but less is known about their deployment in spinal cord. It has been reported based on connexin mRNA and/or protein detection that developing and/or mature motoneurons express a variety of connexins, including Cx26, Cx32, Cx36 and Cx43 in trigeminal motoneurons, Cx36, Cx37, Cx40, Cx43 and Cx45 in spinal motoneurons, and Cx32 in sexually dimorphic motoneurons. We re-examined the localization of these connexins during postnatal development and in adult rat and mouse using immunofluorescence labeling for each connexin. We found Cx26 in association only with leptomeninges in the trigeminal motor nucleus (Mo5), Cx32 only with oligodendrocytes and myelinated fibers among motoneurons in this nucleus and in the spinal cord, and Cx37, Cx40 and Cx45 only with blood vessels in the ventral horn of spinal cord, including those among motoneurons. By freeze-fracture replica immunolabeling, > 100 astrocyte gap junctions but no neuronal gap junctions were found based on immunogold labeling for Cx43, whereas 16 neuronal gap junctions at postnatal day (P)4, P7 and P18 were detected based on Cx36 labeling. Punctate labeling for Cx36 was localized to the somatic and dendritic surfaces of peripherin-positive motoneurons in the Mo5, motoneurons throughout the spinal cord, and sexually dimorphic motoneurons at lower lumbar levels. In studies of electrical synapses and electrical transmission between developing and between adult motoneurons, our results serve to focus attention on mediation of this transmission by gap junctions composed of Cx36.

The role of gap junction channels during physiologic and pathologic conditions of the human central nervous system

Gap junctions (GJs) are expressed in most cell types of the nervous system, including neuronal stem cells, neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, cells of the blood brain barrier (endothelial cells and astrocytes) and under inflammatory conditions in microglia/macrophages. GJs connect cells by the docking of two hemichannels, one from each cell with each hemichannel being formed by 6 proteins named connexins (Cx). Unapposed hemichannels (uHC) also can be open on the surface of the cells allowing the release of different intracellular factors to the extracellular space. GJs provide a mechanism of cell-to-cell communication between adjacent cells that enables the direct exchange of intracellular messengers, such as calcium, nucleotides, IP(3), and diverse metabolites, as well as electrical signals that ultimately coordinate tissue homeostasis, proliferation, differentiation, metabolism, cell survival and death. Despite their essential functions in physiological conditions, relatively little is known about the role of GJs and uHC in human diseases, especially within the nervous system. The focus of this review is to summarize recent findings related to the role of GJs and uHC in physiologic and pathologic conditions of the central nervous system.

Gap junctions in inherited human disorders of the central nervous system

CNS glia and neurons express connexins, the proteins that form gap junctions in vertebrates. We review the connexins expressed by oligodendrocytes and astrocytes, and discuss their proposed physiologic roles. Of the 21 members of the human connexin family, mutations in three are associated with significant central nervous system manifestations. For each, we review the phenotype and discuss possible mechanisms of disease. Mutations in GJB1, the gene for connexin 32 (Cx32) cause the second most common form of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT1X). Though the only consistent phenotype in CMT1X patients is a peripheral demyelinating neuropathy, CNS signs and symptoms have been found in some patients. Recessive mutations in GJC2, the gene for Cx47, are one cause of Pelizaeus-Merzbacher-like disease (PMLD), which is characterized by nystagmus within the first 6 months of life, cerebellar ataxia by 4 years, and spasticity by 6 years of age. MRI imaging shows abnormal myelination. A different recessive GJC2 mutation causes a form of hereditary spastic paraparesis, which is a milder phenotype than PMLD. Dominant mutations in GJA1, the gene for Cx43, cause oculodentodigital dysplasia (ODDD), a pleitropic disorder characterized by oculo-facial abnormalities including micropthalmia, microcornia and hypoplastic nares, syndactyly of the fourth to fifth fingers and dental abnormalities. Neurologic manifestations, including spasticity and gait difficulties, are often but not universally seen. Recessive GJA1 mutations cause Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, a disorder showing substantial overlap with ODDD. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, composition, structure and functions.

Disruption of oligodendrocyte gap junctions in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Gap junctions (GJs) are vital for oligodendrocyte survival and myelination. In order to examine how different stages of inflammatory demyelination affect oligodendrocyte GJs, we studied the expression of oligodendrocytic connexin32 (Cx32) and Cx47 and astrocytic Cx43 in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model of multiple sclerosis (MS) induced by recombinant myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. EAE was characterized by remissions and relapses with demyelination and axonal loss. Formation of GJ plaques was quantified in relation to the lesions and in normal appearing white matter (NAWM). During acute EAE at 14 days postimmunization (dpi) both Cx47 and Cx32 GJs were severely reduced within and around lesions but also in the NAWM. Cx47 was localized intracellularly in oligodendrocytes while protein levels remained unchanged, and this redistribution coincided with the loss of Cx43 GJs in astrocytes. Cx47 and Cx32 expression increased during remyelination at 28 dpi but decreased again at 50 dpi in the relapsing phase. Oligodendrocyte GJs remained reduced even in NAWM, despite increased formation of Cx43 GJs toward lesions indicating astrogliosis. EAE induced in Cx32 knockout mice resulted in an exacerbated clinical course with more demyelination and axonal loss compared with wild-type EAE mice of the same backcross, despite similar degree of inflammation, and an overall milder loss of Cx47 and Cx43 GJs. Thus, EAE causes persistent impairment of both intra- and intercellular oligodendrocyte GJs even in the NAWM, which may be an important mechanism of MS progression. Furthermore, GJ deficient myelinated fibers appear more vulnerable to CNS inflammatory demyelination.

Gap junction communication in myelinating glia

Gap junction communication is crucial for myelination and axonal survival in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS). This review examines the different types of gap junctions in myelinating glia of the PNS and CNS (Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes respectively), including their functions and involvement in neurological disorders. Gap junctions mediate intercellular communication among Schwann cells in the PNS, and among oligodendrocytes and between oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in the CNS. Reflexive gap junctions mediating transfer between different regions of the same cell promote communication between cellular compartments of myelinating glia that are separated by layers of compact myelin. Gap junctions in myelinating glia regulate physiological processes such as cell growth, proliferation, calcium signaling, and participate in extracellular signaling via release of neurotransmitters from hemijunctions. In the CNS, gap junctions form a glial network between oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. This transcellular communication is hypothesized to maintain homeostasis by facilitating restoration of membrane potential after axonal activity via electrical coupling and the re-distribution of potassium ions released from axons. The generation of transgenic mice for different subsets of connexins has revealed the contribution of different connexins in gap junction formation and illuminated new subcellular mechanisms underlying demyelination and cognitive defects. Alterations in metabolic coupling have been reported in animal models of X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMTX) and Pelizaeus-Merzbarcher-like disease (PMLD), which are caused by mutations in the genes encoding for connexin 32 and connexin 47 respectively. Future research identifying the expression and regulation of gap junctions in myelinating glia is likely to provide a better understanding of myelinating glia in nervous system function, plasticity, and disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, roles and dysfunctions.

Ablation of connexin30 in transgenic mice alters expression patterns of connexin26 and connexin32 in glial cells and leptomeninges

Expression of connexin26 (Cx26), Cx30 and Cx43 in astrocytes and expression of Cx29, Cx32 and Cx47 in oligodendrocytes of adult rodent brain has been well documented, as has the interdependence of connexin expression patterns of macroglial cells in Cx32- and Cx47-knockout mice. To investigate this interdependence further, we examined immunofluorescence labelling of glial connexins in transgenic Cx30 null mice. Ablation of astrocytic Cx30, confirmed by the absence of immunolabelling for this connexin in all brain regions, resulted in the loss of its coupling partner Cx32 on the oligodendrocyte side of astrocyte-oligodendrocyte (A/O) gap junctions, but had no effect on the localization of astrocytic Cx43 and oligodendrocytic Cx47 at these junctions or on the distribution of Cx32 along myelinated fibres. Surprisingly, gene deletion of Cx30 led to the near total elimination of immunofluorescence labelling for Cx26 in all leptomeningeal tissues covering brain surfaces as well as in astrocytes of brain parenchyma. Moreover northern blot analysis revealed downregulation of Cx26 mRNA in Cx30-knockout brains. Our results support earlier observations on the interdependency of Cx30/Cx32 targeting to A/O gap junctions and further suggest that Cx26 mRNA expression is affected by Cx30 gene expression. In addition, Cx30 protein may be required for co-stabilization of gap junctions or for co-trafficking in cells.

Hypothesis of an energetic function for myelin

Nervous system is a great oxygen consumer, but the site of oxygen absorption has remained elusive. Four proteomic studies have shown that the respiratory complexes I to V may be expressed in isolated myelin. Myelin is an outgrowth of glial cells, surrounding many axons in multiple spires both in peripheral and central nervous system. Recent quantitative analyses strongly support the daring hypothesis that myelin is functional in aerobic ATP production, to supply the neuron with chemical energy. A vision of myelin sheath as a structure devoted to the oxygen absorbance for glucose combustion in nervous system thank to its enormous surface, would be also supported by an impressive series of characteristics and properties of myelin that do not presently find an explanation, all of which are herein examined.

Functional heterotypic interactions between astrocyte and oligodendrocyte connexins

Human genetic diseases and mouse knockouts illustrate that the maintenance of central nervous system myelin requires connexin expression by both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Because these cell types express nonoverlapping sets of connexins, the intercellular channels formed between them must be asymmetric with regard to connexin content, defined as heterotypic. Here, we show that oligodendrocyte Cx47 can form heterotypic channels with astrocyte Cx43 or Cx30 but not Cx26, whereas oligodendrocyte Cx32 can functionally interact with astrocyte Cx30 or Cx26 but not Cx43. Thus, as many as four types of intercellular channels could be formed between astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.

Oligodendrocytes in mouse corpus callosum are coupled via gap junction channels formed by connexin47 and connexin32

According to previously published ultrastructural studies, oligodendrocytes in white matter exhibit gap junctions with astrocytes, but not among each other, while in vitro oligodendrocytes form functional gap junctions. We have studied functional coupling among oligodendrocytes in acute slices of postnatal mouse corpus callosum. By whole-cell patch clamp we dialyzed oligodendrocytes with biocytin, a gap junction-permeable tracer. On average 61 cells were positive for biocytin detected by labeling with streptavidin-Cy3. About 77% of the coupled cells stained positively for the oligodendrocyte marker protein CNPase, 9% for the astrocyte marker GFAP and 14% were negative for both CNPase and GFAP. In the latter population, the majority expressed Olig2 and some NG2, markers for oligodendrocyte precursors. Oligodendrocytes are known to express Cx47, Cx32 and Cx29, astrocytes Cx43 and Cx30. In Cx47-deficient mice, the number of coupled cells was reduced by 80%. Deletion of Cx32 or Cx29 alone did not significantly reduce the number of coupled cells, but coupling was absent in Cx32/Cx47-double-deficient mice. Cx47-ablation completely abolished coupling of oligodendrocytes to astrocytes. In Cx43-deficient animals, oligodendrocyte-astrocyte coupling was still present, but coupling to oligodendrocyte precursors was not observed. In Cx43/Cx30-double deficient mice, oligodendrocyte-to-astrocyte coupling was almost absent. Uncoupled oligodendrocytes showed a higher input resistance. We conclude that oligodendrocytes in white matter form a functional syncytium predominantly among each other dependent on Cx47 and Cx32 expression, while astrocytic connexins expression can promote the size of this network.

Tissue-specific cross-reactivity of connexin32 antibodies: problems and solutions unique to the central nervous system

Gap junction proteins are a highly homologous family of 21 connexins. Here, the authors describe a tissue-specific technical artifact complicating analysis of connexin32 protein expression in the central nervous system. The authors show that in brain, but not liver, eight commonly employed antibodies exhibit a higher affinity for a cross-reactive protein that masks the detection of connexin32. Cross-reactivity is evident in Western blot analyses when proteins are subjected to reducing/denaturing conditions but not immunoprecipitation or immunofluorescent applications. Through bioinformatic analyses, tested by sucrose gradient fractionation and immunoblotting of lysates from connexin null-mutant mice, the authors show that the cross-reactive protein is not found in the same cellular compartments as connexin32 and is likely not a member of the connexin family. These findings are presented with the intent of helping to reduce the amount of time laboratories currently expend in validating changes in connexin32 expression in the central nervous system.

Molecular disruptions of the panglial syncytium block potassium siphoning and axonal saltatory conduction: pertinence to neuromyelitis optica and other demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system

The panglial syncytium maintains ionic conditions required for normal neuronal electrical activity in the central nervous system (CNS). Vital among these homeostatic functions is "potassium siphoning," a process originally proposed to explain astrocytic sequestration and long-distance disposal of K(+) released from unmyelinated axons during each action potential. Fundamentally different, more efficient processes are required in myelinated axons, where axonal K(+) efflux occurs exclusively beneath and enclosed within the myelin sheath, precluding direct sequestration of K(+) by nearby astrocytes. Molecular mechanisms for entry of excess K(+) and obligatorily-associated osmotic water from axons into innermost myelin are not well characterized, whereas at the output end, axonally-derived K(+) and associated osmotic water are known to be expelled by Kir4.1 and aquaporin-4 channels concentrated in astrocyte endfeet that surround capillaries and that form the glia limitans. Between myelin (input end) and astrocyte endfeet (output end) is a vast network of astrocyte "intermediaries" that are strongly inter-linked, including with myelin, by abundant gap junctions that disperse excess K(+) and water throughout the panglial syncytium, thereby greatly reducing K(+)-induced osmotic swelling of myelin. Here, I review original reports that established the concept of potassium siphoning in unmyelinated CNS axons, summarize recent revolutions in our understanding of K(+) efflux during axonal saltatory conduction, then describe additional components required by myelinated axons for a newly-described process of voltage-augmented "dynamic" potassium siphoning. If any of several molecular components of the panglial syncytium are compromised, K(+) siphoning is blocked, myelin is destroyed, and axonal saltatory conduction ceases. Thus, a common thread linking several CNS demyelinating diseases is the disruption of potassium siphoning/water transport within the panglial syncytium. Continued progress in molecular identification and subcellular mapping of glial ion and water channels will lead to a better understanding of demyelinating diseases of the CNS and to development of improved treatment regimens.

Enhancing action by sulfated hyaluronan on connexin-26, -32, and -43 gene expressions during the culture of normal human astrocytes

Astrocyte proliferation is strictly controlled during development and in the adult nervous system. In this study, we examined the role of sulfated hyaluronan (SHya) in the proliferation and differentiation of normal human astrocytes (NHAs). Cells were cultured with different concentrations of SHya for 7 days, and the number of viable cells and the presence of neural cell-specific genes were determined to assess their proliferation and development, respectively. With SHya, cell proliferation increased nonsignificantly. Furthermore, remarkable enhancing action by SHya on connexin-26, -32, and -43 gene expressions were observed during the culture of NHAs. It has been suggested that a fraction of NHAs have neural precursor activity that gives rise to astrocytes themselves, oligodendrocytes, and neurons. Our results clearly demonstrated that the expression of specific genes for neural precursor cells, astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes was significantly increased to 50 mug/mL in SHya-treated cultures when compared with that of the control culture. These findings suggest that SHya plays an important role in the proliferation and differentiation of NHAs and in the production of a novel material for tissue engineering.

Remyelination in experimentally demyelinated connexin 32 knockout mice

The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of connexin 32 (Cx 32) during remyelination of the peripheral nervous system, through a local injection of either 0,1% ethidium bromide solution or saline in the sciatic nerve of Cx 32 knockout mice. Euthanasia was performed ranging from 1, 2, 3, 7, 15, 21 to 30 days after injection. Histochemical, immunohistochemical, immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopical techniques were used to analyze the development of the lesions. Within the sciatic nerves, Schwann cells initially showed signs of intoxication and rejected their sheaths; after seven days, some thin newly formed myelin sheaths with uneven compactness and redundant loops (tomacula) were conspicuous. We concluded that the regeneration of lost myelin sheaths within the PNS followed the pattern already reported for this model in other laboratory species. Therefore, these results suggest that absence of Cx 32 did not interfere with the normal pattern of remyelination in this model in young mice.

Hereditary spastic paraplegia is a novel phenotype for GJA12/GJC2 mutations

Recessive mutations in GJA12/GJC2, the gene that encodes the gap junction protein connexin47 (Cx47), cause Pelizaeus-Merzbacher-like disease (PMLD), an early onset dysmyelinating disorder of the CNS, characterized by nystagmus, psychomotor delay, progressive spasticity and cerebellar signs. Here we describe three patients from one family with a novel recessively inherited mutation, 99C>G (predicted to cause an Ile>Met amino acid substitution; I33M) that causes a milder phenotype. All three had a late-onset, slowly progressive, complicated spastic paraplegia, with normal or near-normal psychomotor development, preserved walking capability through adulthood, and no nystagmus. MRI and MR spectroscopy imaging were consistent with a hypomyelinating leukoencephalopathy. The mutant protein forms gap junction plaques at cell borders similar to wild-type (WT) Cx47 in transfected cells, but fails to form functional homotypic channels in scrape-loading and dual whole-cell patch clamp assays. I33M forms overlapping gap junction plaques and functional channels with Cx43, however, I33M/Cx43 channels open only when a large voltage difference is applied to paired cells. These channels probably do not function under physiological conditions, suggesting that Cx47/Cx43 channels between astrocytes and oligodendrocytes are disrupted, similar to the loss-of-function endoplasmic reticulum-retained Cx47 mutants that cause PMLD. Thus, GJA12/GJC2 mutations can result in a milder phenotype than previously appreciated, but whether I33M retains a function of Cx47 not directly related to forming functional gap junction channels is not known.

Ablation of Cx47 in transgenic mice leads to the loss of MUPP1, ZONAB and multiple connexins at oligodendrocyte-astrocyte gap junctions

Oligodendrocytes in CNS are linked to astrocytes by heterotypic gap junctions composed of Cx32 and Cx47 in oligodendrocytes and Cx30 and Cx43 in astrocytes. These gap junctions also harbour regulatory proteins, including ZO-1 and ZONAB. Here, we investigated the localization of multi-PDZ domain protein 1 (MUPP1) at these gap junctions and examined accessory proteins and connexins associated with oligodendrocytes in Cx47-knockout mice. In every CNS region tested, punctate immunolabelling for MUPP1 was found on all oligodendrocyte somata in wild-type mice. These MUPP1-positive puncta were colocalized with punctate labelling for oligodendrocytic Cx32 or Cx47, and with astrocytic Cx30 or Cx43 at oligodendrocyte-astrocyte (O/A) gap junctions, but were not found at astrocyte-astrocyte gap junctions. In Cx47-knockout mice, immunolabelling of MUPP1 and ZONAB was absent on oligodendrocytes, whereas some ZO-1-positive puncta remained. In Cx32-knockout mice, MUPP1 and ZONAB persisted at O/A gap junctions. The absence of Cx47 in Cx47-knockout mice was accompanied by a total loss of punctate labelling for Cx30, Cx32 and Cx43 on oligodendrocyte somata, and by a dramatic increase in immunolabelling for Cx32 along myelinated fibers. These results demonstrate MUPP1 at O/A gap junctions and Cx47-dependent targeting of connexins to the plasma membranes of oligodendrocyte somata. Further, it appears that deficits in myelination reported in Cx47-knockout mice may arise not only from a loss of Cx47 but also from the accompanied loss of gap junctions and their regulatory proteins at oligodendrocyte somata, and that loss of Cx47 may be partly compensated for by elevated levels of Cx32 along myelinated fibers.

Gap junctions couple astrocytes and oligodendrocytes

In vertebrates, a family of related proteins called connexins form gap junctions (GJs), which are intercellular channels. In the central nervous system (CNS), GJs couple oligodendrocytes and astrocytes (O/A junctions) and adjacent astrocytes (A/A junctions), but not adjacent oligodendrocytes, forming a "glial syncytium." Oligodendrocytes and astrocytes each express different connexins. Mutations of these connexin genes demonstrate that the proper functioning of myelin and oligodendrocytes requires the expression of these connexins. The physiological function of O/A and A/A junctions, however, remains to be illuminated.

Human oligodendrocytes express Cx31.3: function and interactions with Cx32 mutants

Murine oligodendrocytes express the gap junction (GJ) proteins connexin32 (Cx32), Cx47, and Cx29. CNS phenotypes in patients with X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease may be caused by dominant effects of Cx32 mutations on other connexins. Here we examined the expression of Cx31.3 (the human ortholog of murine Cx29) in human brain and its relation to the other oligodendrocyte GJ proteins Cx32 and Cx47. Furthermore, we investigated in vitro whether Cx32 mutants with CNS manifestations affect the expression and function of Cx31.3. Cx31.3 was localized mostly in the gray matter along small myelinated fibers similar to Cx29 in rodent brain and was co-expressed with Cx32 in a subset of human oligodendrocytes. In HeLa cells Cx31.3 was localized at the cell membrane and appeared to form hemichannels but no GJs. Cx32 mutants with CNS manifestations were retained intracellularly, but did not alter the cellular localization or function of co-expressed Cx31.3. Thus, Cx31.3 shares many characteristics with its ortholog Cx29. Cx32 mutants with CNS phenotypes do not affect the trafficking or function of Cx31.3, and may have other toxic effects in oligodendrocytes.

Cx29 and Cx32, two connexins expressed by myelinating glia, do not interact and are functionally distinct

In rodents, oligodendrocytes and myelinating Schwann cells express connexin32 (Cx32) and Cx29, which have different localizations in the two cell types. We show here that, in contrast to Cx32, Cx29 does not form gap junction plaques or functional gap junctions in transfected cells. Furthermore, when expressed together, Cx29 and Cx32 are not colocalized and do not coimmunoprecipitate. To determine the structural basis of their divergent behavior, we generated a series of chimeric Cx32-Cx29 proteins by exchanging their intracellular loops and/or their C-terminal cytoplasmic tails. Although some chimerae reach the cell membrane, others appear to be largely localized intracellularly; none form gap junction plaques or functional gap junctions. Substituting the C-terminus or the intracellular loop and the C-terminus of Cx32 with those of Cx29 does not disrupt their colocalization or coimmunoprecipitation with Cx32. Substituting the C-terminus of Cx29 with that of Cx32 does not disrupt the coimmunoprecipitation or the colocalization with Cx29, whereas substituting both the intracellular loop and the C-terminus of Cx32 with those of Cx29 diminishes the coimmunoprecipitation with Cx29. Conversely, the Cx32 chimera that contains the intracellular loop of Cx29 coimmunoprecipitates with Cx29, indicating that the intracellular loop participates in Cx29-Cx29 interactions. These data indicate that homomeric interactions of Cx29 and especially Cx32 largely require other domains: the N-terminus, transmembrane domains, and extracellular loops. Substituting the intracellular loop and/or tail of Cx32 with those of Cx29 appears to prevent Cx32 from forming functional gap junctions.

Two distinct heterotypic channels mediate gap junction coupling between astrocyte and oligodendrocyte connexins

Genetic diseases demonstrate that the normal function of CNS myelin depends on connexin32 (Cx32) and Cx47, gap junction (GJ) proteins expressed by oligodendrocytes. GJs couple oligodendrocytes and astrocytes (O/A channels) as well as astrocytes themselves (A/A channels). Because astrocytes express different connexins (Cx30 and Cx43), O/A channels must be heterotypic, whereas A/A channels may be homotypic or heterotypic. Using electrophysiological and immunocytochemical approaches, we found that Cx47/Cx43 and Cx32/Cx30 efficiently formed functional channels, but other potential heterotypic O/A and A/A pairs did not. These results suggest that Cx30/Cx30 and Cx43/Cx43 channels mediate A/A coupling, and Cx47/Cx43 and Cx32/Cx30 channels mediate O/A coupling. Furthermore, Cx47/Cx43 and Cx32/Cx30 channels have distinct macroscopic and single-channel properties and different dye permeabilities. Finally, Cx47 mutants that cause Pelizaeus-Merzbacher-like disease do not efficiently form functional channels with Cx43, indicating that disrupted Cx47/Cx43 channels cause this disease.