Localization and quantification of 5-hydroxytryptophan and serotonin in the central nervous systems of Tritonia and Aplysia: 5-HTP Localization in Tritonia and Aplysia

Role of serotonin in the lack of sensitization caused by prolonged food deprivation in Aplysia

Food deprivation may cause neurological dysfunctions including memory impairment. The mollusk Aplysia is a suitable animal model to study prolonged food deprivation-induced memory deficits because it can sustain up to 14 days of food deprivation (14DFD). Sensitization of defensive withdrawal reflexes has been used to illustrate the detrimental effects of 14DFD on memory formation. Under normal feeding conditions (i.e., two days food deprivation, 2DFD), aversive stimuli lead to serotonin (5-HT) release into the hemolymph and neuropil, which mediates sensitization and its cellular correlates including increased excitability of tail sensory neurons (TSNs). Recent studies found that 14DFD prevents both short-term and long-term sensitization, as well as short-term increased excitability of TSNs induced by in vitro aversive training. This study investigated the role of 5-HT in the absence of sensitization and TSN increased excitability under 14DFD. Because 5-HT is synthesized from tryptophan obtained through diet, and its exogeneous application alone induces sensitization and increases TSN excitability, we hypothesized that 1) 5-HT level may be reduced by 14DFD and 2) 5-HT may still induce sensitization and TSN increased excitability in 14DFD animals. Results revealed that 14DFD significantly decreased hemolymph 5-HT level, which may contribute to the lack of sensitization and its cellular correlates, while ganglia 5-HT level was not changed. 5-HT exogenous application induced sensitization in 14DFD Aplysia, albeit smaller than that in 2DFD animals, suggesting that this treatment can only induce partial sensitization in food deprived animals. Under 14DFD, 5-HT increased TSN excitability indistinguishable from that observed under 2DFD. Taken together, these findings characterize 5-HT metabolic deficiency under 14DFD, which may be compensated, at least in part, by 5-HT exogenous application.

5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP): Natural Occurrence, Analysis, Biosynthesis, Biotechnology, Physiology and Toxicology

L-5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is both a drug and a natural component of some dietary supplements. 5-HTP is produced from tryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), which is present in two isoforms (TPH1 and TPH2). Decarboxylation of 5-HTP yields serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) that is further transformed to melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine). 5-HTP plays a major role both in neurologic and metabolic diseases and its synthesis from tryptophan represents the limiting step in serotonin and melatonin biosynthesis. In this review, after an look at the main natural sources of 5-HTP, the chemical analysis and synthesis, biosynthesis and microbial production of 5-HTP by molecular engineering will be described. The physiological effects of 5-HTP are discussed in both animal studies and human clinical trials. The physiological role of 5-HTP in the treatment of depression, anxiety, panic, sleep disorders, obesity, myoclonus and serotonin syndrome are also discussed. 5-HTP toxicity and the occurrence of toxic impurities present in tryptophan and 5-HTP preparations are also discussed.

An Argument for Amphetamine-Induced Hallucinations in an Invertebrate

Hallucinations – compelling perceptions of stimuli that aren’t really there – occur in many psychiatric and neurological disorders, and are triggered by certain drugs of abuse. Despite their clinical importance, the neuronal mechanisms giving rise to hallucinations are poorly understood, in large part due to the absence of animal models in which they can be induced, confirmed to be endogenously generated, and objectively analyzed. In humans, amphetamine (AMPH) and related psychostimulants taken in large or repeated doses can induce hallucinations. Here we present evidence for such phenomena in the marine mollusk Tritonia diomedea. Animals injected with AMPH were found to sporadically launch spontaneous escape swims in the absence of eliciting stimuli. Deafferented isolated brains exposed to AMPH, where real stimuli could play no role, generated sporadic, spontaneous swim motor programs. A neurophysiological search of the swim network traced the origin of these drug-induced spontaneous motor programs to spontaneous bursts of firing in the S-cells, the CNS afferent neurons that normally inform the animal of skin contact with its predators and trigger the animal’s escape swim. Further investigation identified AMPH-induced enhanced excitability and plateau potential properties in the S-cells. Taken together, these observations support an argument that Tritonia’s spontaneous AMPH-induced swims are triggered by false perceptions of predator contact – i.e., hallucinations—and illuminate potential cellular mechanisms for such phenomena.

Serial-section atlas of the Tritonia pedal ganglion

The pedal ganglion of the nudibranch gastropod Tritonia diomedea has been the focus of neurophysiological studies for more than 50 yr. These investigations have examined the neural basis of behaviors as diverse as swimming, crawling, reflex withdrawals, orientation to water flow, orientation to the earth's magnetic field, and learning. Despite this sustained research focus, most studies have confined themselves to the layer of neurons that are visible on the ganglion surface, leaving many neurons, which reside in deeper layers, largely unknown and thus unstudied. To facilitate work on such neurons, the present study used serial-section light microscopy to generate a detailed pictorial atlas of the pedal ganglion. One pedal ganglion was sectioned horizontally at 2-µm intervals and another vertically at 5-µm intervals. The resulting images were examined separately or combined into stacks to generate movie tours through the ganglion. These were also used to generate 3D reconstructions of individual neurons and rotating movies of digitally desheathed whole ganglia to reveal all surface neurons. A complete neuron count of the horizontally sectioned ganglion yielded 1,885 neurons. Real and virtual sections from the image stacks were used to reveal the morphology of individual neurons, as well as the major axon bundles traveling within the ganglion to and between its several nerves and connectives. Extensive supplemental data are provided, as well as a link to the Dryad Data Repository site, where the complete sets of high-resolution serial-section images can be downloaded. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Because of the large size and relatively low numbers of their neurons, gastropod mollusks are widely used for investigations of the neural basis of behavior. Most studies, however, focus on the neurons visible on the ganglion surface, leaving the majority, located out of sight below the surface, unexamined. The present light microscopy study generates the first detailed visual atlas of all neurons of the highly studied Tritonia pedal ganglion.

GABA-, histamine-, and FMRFamide-immunoreactivity in the visual, vestibular and central nervous systems of Hermissenda crassicornis

Hermissenda crassicornis is a model for studying the molecular and cellular basis for classical conditioning, based on its ability to associate light with vestibular stimulation. We used confocal microscopy to map histamine (HA), FMRF-amide, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) immunoreactivity in the central nervous system (CNS), eyes, optic ganglia and statocysts of the nudibranchs. For HA immunoreactivity, we documented both consistently and variably labeled CNS structures across individuals. We also noted minor differences in GABA immunoreactivity in the CNS compared to previous work on Hermissenda. Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence for GABA inside the visual or vestibular systems. Instead, we found only FMRFamide- and HA immunoreactivity (FMRFamide: 4 optic ganglion cells, 4-5 hair cells; HA: 3 optic ganglion cells, 8 hair cells). Overall, our results can act as basis for comparisons of nervous systems across nudibranchs, and suggest further exploration of intraspecific plasticity versus evolutionary changes in gastropod nervous systems.

Social status differences regulate the serotonergic system of a cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni

Serotonin (5-HT) inhibits aggression and modulates aspects of sexual behaviour in many species, but the mechanisms responsible are not well understood. Here, we exploited the social dominance hierarchy of Astatotilapia burtoni to understand the role of the serotonergic system in long-term maintenance of social status. We identified three populations of 5-HT cells in dorsal and ventral periventricular pretectal nuclei (PPd, PPv), the nucleus of the paraventricular organ (PVO) and raphe. Dominant males had more 5-HT cells than subordinates in the raphe, but the size of these cells did not differ between social groups. Subordinates had higher serotonergic turnover in the raphe and preoptic area (POA), a nucleus essential for hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis function. The relative abundance of mRNAs for 5-HT receptor (5-HTR) subtypes 1A and 2A (htr1a, htr2a) was higher in subordinates, a difference restricted to the telencephalon. Because social status is tightly linked to reproductive capacity, we asked whether serotonin turnover and the expression of its receptors correlated with testes size and circulating levels of 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT). We found negative correlations between both raphe and POA serotonin turnover and testes size, as well as between htr1a mRNA levels and circulating 11-KT. Thus, increased serotonin turnover in non-aggressive males is restricted to specific brain nuclei and is associated with increased expression of 5-HTR subtypes 1A and 2A exclusively in the telencephalon.

Localization of serotonin in the nervous system of Biomphalaria glabrata, an intermediate host for schistosomiasis

The digenetic trematode Schistosoma mansoni that causes the form of schistosomiasis found in the Western Hemisphere requires the freshwater snail Biomphalaria glabrata as its primary intermediate host. It has been proposed that the transition from the free-living S. mansoni miracidium to parasitic mother sporocyst depends on uptake of biogenic amines, e.g. serotonin, from the snail host. However, little is known about potential sources of serotonin in B. glabrata tissues. This investigation examined the localization of serotonin-like immunoreactivity (5HTli) in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral tissues of B. glabrata. Emphasis was placed on the cephalic and anterior pedal regions that are commonly the sites of S. mansoni miracidium penetration. The anterior foot and body wall were densely innervated by 5HTli fibers but no peripheral immunoreactive neuronal somata were detected. Within the CNS, clusters of 5HTli neurons were observed in the cerebral, pedal, left parietal, and visceral ganglia, suggesting that the peripheral serotonergic fibers originate from the CNS. Double-labeling experiments (biocytin backfill × serotonin immunoreactivity) of the tentacular nerve and the three major pedal nerves (Pd n. 10, Pd n. 11, and Pd n. 12) disclosed central neurons that project to the cephalopedal periphery. Overall, the central distribution of 5HTli neurons suggests that, as in other gastropods, serotonin regulates the locomotion, reproductive, and feeding systems of Biomphalaria. The projections to the foot and body wall indicate that serotonin may also participate in defensive, nociceptive, or inflammation responses. These observations identify potential sources of host-derived serotonin in this parasite-host system. Inc.

Analysis of neurotransmitter distribution in brain development of benthic and pelagic octopod cephalopods

The database on neurotransmitter distribution during central nervous system development of cephalopod mollusks is still scarce. We describe the ontogeny of serotonergic (5-HT-ir) and FMRFamide-like immunoreactive (Fa-lir) neurons in the central nervous system of the benthic Octopus vulgaris and Fa-lir distribution in the pelagic Argonauta hians. Comparing our data to previous studies, we aim at revealing shared immunochemical domains among coleoid cephalopods, i.e., all cephalopods except nautiluses. During development of O. vulgaris, 5-HT-ir and Fa-lir elements occur relatively late, namely during stage XII, when the brain neuropils are already highly differentiated. In stage XII-XX individuals, Fa-lir cell somata are located in the middle and posterior subesophageal mass and in the optic, posterior basal, and superior buccal lobes. 5-HT is predominately expressed in cell somata of the superior buccal, anterior basal, and optic lobes, as well as in the subesophageal mass. The overall population of Fa-lir neurons is larger than the one expressing 5-HT. Fa-lir elements are distributed throughout homologous brain areas of A. hians and O. vulgaris. We identified neuronal subsets with similar cell number and immunochemical phenotype in coleoids. These are located in corresponding brain regions of developmental stages and adults of O. vulgaris, A. hians, and the decapod squid Idiosepius notoides. O. vulgaris and I. notoides exhibit numerous 5-HT-ir cell somata in the superior buccal lobes but none or very few in the inferior buccal lobes. The latter have previously been homologized to the gastropod buccal ganglia, which also lack 5-HT-ir cell somata in euthyneuran gastropods. Among coleoids, 5-HT-ir neuronal subsets, which are located ventrally to the lateral anterior basal lobes and in the anterior middle subesophageal mass, are candidates for homologous subsets. Contrary to I. notoides, octopods exhibit Fa-lir cell somata ventrally to the brachial lobes and 5-HT-ir cell somata close to the stellate ganglia.

Organization of the serotonergic innervation of the feeding (buccal) musculature during the maturation of the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis: a morphological and biochemical study

The serotonergic innervation of the buccal musculature responsible for feeding (radula protraction) was investigated during the maturation of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis L., applying light and electron microscopic immunohistochemistry and biochemical approaches. According to epifluorescence and laser confocal microscopy, the first 5-HT-like-immunoreactive (5-HTLIR) processes appeared on the surface of the musculature at the postmetamorphic E80% embryonic stage. Until hatching, the innervation continued to increase in density, showing axon arborizations with projections into the deeper muscle levels. An adult-like pattern of 5-HTLIR innervation appeared at P2-P3 juvenile stages. At the ultrastructural level, close (16-20 nm) but mostly unspecialized neuromuscular contacts were formed by both unlabeled and 5-HTLIR axon profiles from the E80% embryonic stage. Labeled processes were also found located relatively far from the muscle cells. An HPLC assay showed a gradual increase of the 5-HT level in the buccal mass during development. The buccal mass was characterized by a single-component high-affinity 5-HT uptake system, and 5-HT release could be evoked by 100 mM K(+) and blocked in Ca(2+) -free medium. It is suggested that 5-HT plays a wide modulatory role in the peripheral feeding system and is also involved in the functional maturation of the muscle system.

Neurochemical and neuroanatomical identification of central pattern generator neuron homologues in Nudipleura molluscs

Certain invertebrate neurons can be identified by their behavioral functions. However, evolutionary divergence can cause some species to not display particular behaviors, thereby making it impossible to use physiological characteristics related to those behaviors for identifying homologous neurons across species. Therefore, to understand the neural basis of species-specific behavior, it is necessary to identify homologues using characteristics that are independent of physiology. In the Nudipleura mollusc Tritonia diomedea, Cerebral Neuron 2 (C2) was first described as being a member of the swim central pattern generator (CPG). Here we demonstrate that neurochemical markers, in conjunction with previously known neuroanatomical characteristics, allow C2 to be uniquely identified without the aid of electrophysiological measures. Specifically, C2 had three characteristics that, taken together, identified the neuron: 1) a white cell on the dorsal surface of the cerebral ganglion, 2) an axon that projected to the contralateral pedal ganglion and through the pedal commissure, and 3) immunoreactivity for the peptides FMRFamide and Small Cardioactive Peptide B. These same anatomical and neurochemical characteristics also uniquely identified the C2 homologue in Pleurobranchaea californica (called A1), which was previously identified by its analogous role in the Pleurobranchaea swim CPG. Furthermore, these characteristics were used to identify C2 homologues in Melibe leonina, Hermissenda crassicornis, and Flabellina iodinea, species that are phylogenetically closer to Tritonia than Pleurobranchaea, but do not display the same swimming behavior as Tritonia or Pleurobranchaea. These identifications will allow future studies comparing and contrasting the physiological properties of C2 across species that can and cannot produce the type of swimming behavior exhibited by Tritonia.

Toward locating the source of serotonergic axons in the tail nerve of Aplysia

Stimulation of the tail nerve (pedal nerve 9, p9) of the mollusk, Aplysia californica, causes release of serotonin (5-HT), which mediates sensitization of withdrawal responses. There are about 35 serotonin-immunoreactive (5-HT-ir) axons in p9, yet the cell bodies of these axons have not been located. Backfills of p9 were combined with 5-HT immunohistochemistry to locate the cell bodies of 5-HT-ir neurons with axons in p9. About 100 neurons had axons in p9. Only about ten neurons, however, were both backfilled and 5-HT-ir. These double-labeled neurons were all located in the pedal ganglion associated with p9, which had a total of approximately 42 5-HT-ir somata. The discrepancy between the number of 5-HT-ir axons and double-labeled cell bodies is not likely due to neurons having multiple axons in the nerve; intracellular fills suggest that these neurons do not branch before entering p9. Additionally, no evidence was found for peripheral 5-HT-ir cell bodies that project axons centrally through p9. Thus, approximately 70% of the neurons that give rise to the 5-HT-ir axons in tail nerve are unaccounted for, but likely to reside in the pedal ganglion.

Serotonin and its metabolism in basal deuterostomes: insights from Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and Xenoturbella bocki

Serotonin (5-HT), an important molecule in metazoans, is involved in a range of biological processes including neurotransmission and neuromodulation. Both its creation and release are tightly regulated, as is its removal. Multiple neurochemical pathways are responsible for the catabolism of 5-HT and are phyla specific; therefore, by elucidating these catabolic pathways we glean greater understanding of the relationships and origins of various transmitter systems. Here, 5-HT catabolic pathways were studied in Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and Xenoturbella bocki, two organisms occupying distinct positions in deuterostomes. The 5-HT-related compounds detected in these organisms were compared with those reported in other phyla. In S. purpuratus, 5-HT-related metabolites include N-acetyl serotonin, gamma-glutamyl-serotonin and 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid; the quantity and type were found to vary based on the specific tissues analyzed. In addition to these compounds, varying levels of tryptamine were also seen. Upon addition of a 5-HT precursor and a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, 5-HT itself was detected. In similar experiments using X. bocki tissues, the 5-HT-related compounds found included 5-HT sulfate, gamma-glutamyl-serotonin and 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid, as well as 5-HT and tryptamine. The sea urchin metabolizes 5-HT in a manner similar to both gastropod mollusks, as evidenced by the detection of gamma-glutamyl-serotonin, and vertebrates, as indicated by the presence of 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid and N-acetyl serotonin. In contrast, 5-HT metabolism in X. bocki appears more similar to common protostome 5-HT catabolic pathways.

Evolving concepts of arousal: insights from simple model systems

Arousal states strongly influence behavioral decisions. In general, arousal promotes activity and enhances responsiveness to sensory stimuli. Earlier work has emphasized general, or nonspecific, effects of arousal on multiple classes of behaviors. However, contemporary work indicates that arousal has quite specific effects on behavior. Here we review studies of arousal-related circuitry in molluscan model systems. Neural substrates for both general and specific effects of arousal have been identified. Based on the scope of their actions, we can distinguish two major classes of arousal elements: localized versus general. Actions of localized arousal elements are often limited to one class of behavior, and may thereby mediate specific effects of arousal. In contrast, general arousal elements may influence multiple classes of behaviors, and mediate both specific and nonspecific effects of arousal. One common way in which general arousal elements influence multiple behaviors is by acting on localized arousal elements of distinct networks. Often, effects on distinct networks have different time courses that may facilitate formation of specific behavioral sequences. This review highlights prominent roles of serotonergic systems in arousal that are conserved in gastropod molluscs despite extreme diversification of body forms, diet and ecological niches. The studies also indicate that the serotonergic elements can act as either localized or general arousal elements. We discuss the implications of these findings across animals.

Evidence that the swim afferent neurons of tritonia diomedea are glutamatergic

The escape swim response of the marine mollusc Tritonia diomedea is a well-established model system for studies of the neural basis of behavior. Although the swim neural network is reasonably well understood, little is known about the transmitters used by its constituent neurons. In the present study, we provide immunocytochemical and electrophysiological evidence that the S-cells, the afferent neurons that detect aversive skin stimuli and in turn trigger Tritonia's escape swim response, use glutamate as their transmitter. First, immunolabeling revealed that S-cell somata contain elevated levels of glutamate compared to most other neurons in the Tritonia brain, consistent with findings from glutamatergic neurons in many species. Second, pressure-applied puffs of glutamate produced the same excitatory response in the target neurons of the S-cells as the naturally released S-cell transmitter itself. Third, the glutamate receptor antagonist CNQX completely blocked S-cell synaptic connections. These findings support glutamate as a transmitter used by the S-cells, and will facilitate studies using this model system to explore a variety of issues related to the neural basis of behavior.

Differential influence of Pomphorhynchus laevis (Acanthocephala) on brain serotonergic activity in two congeneric host species

The physiological mechanisms by which parasites with complex life cycles manipulate the behaviour of their intermediate hosts are still poorly understood. In Burgundy, eastern France, the acanthocephalan parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis inverses reaction to light in its amphipod host Gammarus pulex, but not in Gammarus roeseli, a recent invasive species. Here, we show that this difference in manipulation actually reflects a difference in the ability of the parasite to alter brain serotonergic (5-HT) activity of the two host species. Injection of 5-HT in uninfected individuals of both host species was sufficient to inverse reaction to light. However, a difference in brain 5-HT immunocytochemical staining levels between infected and uninfected individuals was observed only in G. pulex. Local adaptation of the parasite to the local host species might explain its inability to manipulate the behaviour and nervous system of the invasive species.

Homologues of serotonergic central pattern generator neurons in related nudibranch molluscs with divergent behaviors

Homologues of a neuron that contributes to a species-specific behavior were identified and characterized in species lacking that behavior. The nudibranch Tritonia diomedea swims by flexing its body dorsally and ventrally. The dorsal swim interneurons (DSIs) are components of the central pattern generator (CPG) underlying this rhythmic motor pattern and also activate crawling. Homologues of the DSIs were identified in six nudibranchs that do not exhibit dorsal-ventral swimming: Tochuina tetraquetra, Melibe leonina, Dendronotus iris, D. frondosus, Armina californica, and Triopha catalinae. Homology was based upon shared features that distinguish the DSIs from all other neurons: (1) serotonin immunoreactivity, (2) location in the Cerebral serotonergic posterior (CeSP) cluster, and (3) axon projection to the contralateral pedal ganglion. The DSI homologues, named CeSP-A neurons, share additional features with the DSIs: irregular basal firing, synchronous inputs, electrical coupling, and reciprocal inhibition. Unlike the DSIs, the CeSP-A neurons were not rhythmically active in response to nerve stimulation. The CeSP-A neurons in Tochuina and Triopha also excited homologues of the Tritonia Pd5 neuron, a crawling efferent. Thus, the CeSP-A neurons and the DSIs may be part of a conserved network related to crawling that may have been co-opted into a rhythmic swim CPG in Tritonia.

Comparative mapping of serotonin-immunoreactive neurons in the central nervous systems of nudibranch molluscs

The serotonergic systems in nudibranch molluscs were compared by mapping the locations of serotonin-immunoreactive (5-HT-ir) neurons in 11 species representing all four suborders of the nudibranch clade: Dendronotoidea (Tritonia diomedea, Tochuina tetraquetra, Dendronotus iris, Dendronotus frondosus, and Melibe leonina), Aeolidoidea (Hermissenda crassicornis and Flabellina trophina), Arminoidea (Dirona albolineata, Janolus fuscus, and Armina californica), and Doridoidea (Triopha catalinae). A nomenclature is proposed to standardize reports of cell location in species with differing brain morphologies. Certain patterns of 5-HT immunoreactivity were found to be consistent for all species, such as the presence of 5-HT-ir neurons in the pedal and cerebral ganglia. Also, particular clusters of 5-HT-ir neurons in the anterior and posterior regions of the dorsal surface of the cerebral ganglion were always present. However, there were interspecies differences in the number of 5-HT-ir neurons in each cluster, and some clusters even exhibited strong intraspecies variability that was only weakly correlated with brain size. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the presence of particular classes of 5-HT-ir neurons exhibits a great deal of homoplasy. The conserved features of the nudibranch serotonergic system presumably represent the shared ancestral structure, whereas the derived characters suggest substantial independent evolutionary changes in the number and presence of serotonergic neurons. Although a number of studies have demonstrated phylogenetic variability of peptidergic systems, this study suggests that serotonergic systems may also exhibit a high degree of homoplasy in some groups of organisms.

Serotonin-immunoreactive CPT interneurons in Hermissenda: identification of sensory input and motor projections

Serotonin immunoreactive (5-HT-IR) neurons identified as cerebropleural ganglion triplets (CPTs) in Hermissenda may be homologues of 5-HT-IR neurons identified in other opisthobranch molluscs. In studies of isolated nervous systems and semi-intact preparations we used a combination of immunohistochemical techniques and fluorescent labeling with Lucifer yellow to identify 5-HT-IR CPT neurons after investigating sensory inputs and motor neuron projections. Here we show that identified 5-HT-IR CPT interneurons receive sensory input from mechanoreceptors and photoreceptors. In semi-intact preparations with intact pedal nerves P1 and P2, cutaneous stimulation of the middle or tail regions of the foot with calibrated von Frey hairs elicited spikes recorded from identified CPT interneurons. Illumination of the eyes evoked a small complex excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and resulted in a modest increase in the spike discharge of CPT interneurons. Immunostaining of Lucifer yellow-labeled neurons revealed that CPT interneurons projected an axonal process to the contralateral pedal ganglion. Depolarization of CPT interneurons with extrinsic current evoked EPSPs and spikes recorded from identified VP2 pedal neurons, motor neurons previously shown to elicit movement of the anterior foot. Extrinsic current stimulation of CPT interneurons in semi-intact preparations evoked movement of the anterior foot but did not facilitate ciliary activity or evoke PSPs recorded in identified VP1 ciliary motor neurons. Our results show that CPT neurons are polysensory interneurons that contribute to reflexive foot contractions in Hermissenda.

Pharmacological manipulation of serotonin levels in the nervous system of the opisthobranch mollusc Tritonia diomedea

Serotonin-related disorders can be treated by manipulating serotonin synthesis with the serotonin precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) or other pharmacological agents. The mollusc Tritonia diomedea is a model for investigating the effects of altering serotonin content on the functions of identified neurons. We used high-performance liquid chromatography and immunohistochemistry to examine the amount and localization of 5-HTP, serotonin, and the serotonin breakdown product 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the Tritonia brain after various pharmacological treatments. Exposure to 5-HTP (2 mM for 30 min-1 h) caused an immediate and massive increase in total 5-HTP content, which lasted more than 20 h, and the widespread appearance of 5-HTP immunoreactivity in neurons. Serotonin levels rose gradually, but only a restricted number of additional neurons displayed serotonin immunoreactivity. 5-HTP treatment also caused an increase in the total amount of 5-HIAA and the appearance of 5-HIAA immunoreactivity throughout the brain. Treatment with the synthesis cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin, the initial precursor tryptophan, or serotonin itself had no persistent effect on total serotonin content. The amino acid decarboxylase inhibitor hydroxybenzylhydrazine (NSD-1015) also had no effect on the total serotonin content, although it caused an accumulation of 5-HTP. Thus, serotonin levels in the brain of T. diomedea appear to be maintained by a homeostatic mechanism that can be disrupted by 5-HTP.

Serotonergic immunoreactivity in the pedal ganglia of the pulmonate snail Megalobulimus abbreviatus after thermal stimulus: A semi-quantitative analysis

Using an immunohistochemical procedure and optical densitometry, the distribution of neurons containing serotonin (5-HT) was investigated in the pedal ganglia of Megalobulimus abbreviatus after thermal "non-functional stimulus" (22 degrees C) and stressful thermal conditions (50 degrees C). The animals were sacrificed at different times (3 h, 6 h and 24 h) following these stimuli. In control animals, the results showed the location of these serotonergic immunoreactive elements (5HT-ir) in this ganglion to be similar to those shown in other studies, where the anterior region of ventral sections showed the largest number of 5HT-ir neurons. In the anterior neurons, significant differences (p < 0.01) were observed between the groups of animals stimulated at 50 degrees C and 22 degrees C and sacrificed after 6 h. In the medial neurons, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed between the control group and the groups of animals stimulated at 50 degrees C and sacrificed after 6 and 24 h. Neuropilar area 1 showed differences (p < 0.01) in 5HT-ir between the control group and the groups of animals stimulated at 50 degrees C and sacrificed after 3 and 24 h. Neuropilar area 2 showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the groups of animals stimulated at 22 degrees C and sacrificed after 3 and 24 h. These results suggest the involvement of 5-HT in the nociceptive circuit of M. abbreviatus, mainly that of the medial neurons and neuropilar area 1, which showed increases in 5HT-ir after thermal aversive stimuli. These results could be helpful in drawing cellular homologies with other gastropods.

Serotonergic Modulation in Aplysia. I. Distributed Serotonergic Network Persistently Activated by Sensitizing Stimuli

A common feature of arousing stimuli used as reinforcement in animal models of learning is that they promote memory formation through widespread effects in the CNS. In the marine mollusk Aplysia, sensitization is typically induced by tail-shock, an aversive reinforcer that triggers a state of defensive arousal characterized by escape locomotion and increased heart rate. Serotonin (5-HT) contributes importantly to sensitization of defensive reflexes as well as to the regulation of locomotion and heart rate. Although specific serotonergic neurons increase their firing after tail-shock, it remains unclear whether this effect is restricted to these neurons or whether tail-shock recruits a more global serotonergic system. In this study, we recorded from serotonergic neurons throughout the CNS, which were prelabeled with 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine, during an in vitro analog of sensitization training, tail-nerve shock. We found that most of the serotonergic neurons that we recorded from (80%) increased their firing rate for several minutes after nerve shock. Most serotonergic neurons in the pedal and abdominal ganglion were also excited by 5-HT and by intracellular activation of the two serotonergic neurons CB1/CC3. This interconnectivity between serotonergic neurons might contribute to spread excitation within a large proportion of the serotonergic system during sensitization training. It is also possible that serotonergic neurons could be activated by 5-HT present in the hemolymph via a neuro-humoral positive feedback mechanism. Overall, these data indicate that sensitization training activates a large proportion of Aplysia serotonergic neurons and that this form of learning occurs in a context of increased serotonergic tone.

The effect of oral 5-HTP administration on 5-HTP and 5-HT immunoreactivity in monoaminergic brain regions of rats

5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), which is the rate-limiting precursor in serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)) biosynthesis, is used as an oral supplement to enhance serotonin levels in humans. To evaluate its effects on serotonin levels and localization, 5-hydroxytryptophan was administered to Sprague-Dawley rats either orally or via intraperitoneal injection. 5-Hydroxytryptophan-immunoreactivity was co-localized with serotonin-immunoreactivity in the serotonergic dorsal raphe nucleus of control animals and this was not changed in animals given 5-hydroxytryptophan. Oral 5-HTP administration increased the intensity of both 5-HTP and serotonin immunoreactivity in raphe neurons. However, 5-HTP treatment also caused ectopic 5-hydroxytryptophan-immunoreactivity and serotonin-immunoreactivity in normally dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra par compacta. Serotonin-immunoreactivity was confined to neurons that also displayed amino acid decarboxylase immunoreactivity, but in a small percentage of substantia nigra neurons, serotonin immunoreactivity was not co-localized with tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactivity. The intensity of the immunoreactivity to serotonin and 5-hydroxytryptophan in the substantia nigra was maximal within 2h of 5-hydroxytryptophan administration and returned to control levels by 24h. This time course mirrored changes in HPLC measurements of 5-hydroxytryptophan, serotonin, and the metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the urine. 5-Hydroxytryptophan administration did not cause ectopic appearance of either serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptophan in the noradrenergic locus coeruleus. These results suggest that a single oral dose of 5-HTP increases the 5-HTP and serotonin content of serotonergic neurons and causes the transient ectopic appearance of serotonin in some normally non-serotonergic neurons.

Improved electrochemical detection of biogenic amines in Aplysia using base-hydrolyzed cellulose-coated carbon fiber microelectrodes

A major challenge with electrochemical techniques in vivo, using carbon-fiber microelectrodes, is to achieve sufficient sensitivity to detect the low concentrations of transmitters released by neurons. In particular, when an electrode is inserted into living tissue, its sensitivity is usually substantially decreased as a result of the degradation of the carbon surface by proteins. Here, we show that this decrease can be significantly attenuated by coating the electrode with cellulose acetate. The cellulose film offers a steric barrier that prevents macromolecules from diffusing to the carbon surface and its porosity can be progressively increased by controlled hydrolysis. We compared different cellulose-coated electrodes, either non-hydrolysed or hydrolyzed, in 0.08 N KOH for 10-30 min. We found that dopamine and serotonin detection was blocked by non-hydrolysed cellulose films, but that hydrolysis restored optimal detection similar to uncoated electrodes. Moreover, cellulose films (hydrolyzed for 20 min) significantly diminished electrode degradation in vivo and allowed reliable detection of fast concentration changes with <0.5 s delay, compared to uncoated electrodes. Finally, the sensitivity to endogenous 5-HT release in Aplysia central nervous system was more than doubled with these electrodes. We conclude that the optimal hydrolysis time of cellulose-coated electrodes is approximately 20 min with our protocol and carbon fiber electrodes prepared with this method offer improved sensitivity for the detection of biogenic amines.