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Siddiqui AM, Sabljic TF, Ball AK. Anatomical location of injected microglia in different activation states and time course of injury determines survival of retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve crush. Int J Neurosci 2024; 134:677-699. [PMID: 36371721 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2022.2142579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Background: Activated microglia release harmful substances to retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), but may also benefit by removing cellular debris and secreting neurotrophic factors. These paradoxical roles remain controversial because the nature and time-course of the injury that defines their role is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine if pharmacological manipulation of microglia to acquire a pro-inflammatory or pro-survival phenotype will exacerbate or enhance neuronal survival after injury.Material and methods: Treated HAP I (highly aggressively proliferating immortalized) microglia were injected into the vitreous or tail vein (T V) of female Sprague-Dawley rats. Retinas were examined at 4-14 days following optic nerve crush (ONC) and the number of surviving RGCs was determined.Results: Injection of untreated HAP I cells resulted in the greater loss of RGCs early after ONC when injected into the vitreous and later after ONC when injected into the T V. LP S activated HAP I cells injected into the vitreous resulted in greater RGC loss with and without injury. When injected into the T V with ONC there was no loss of RGCs 4 days after ONC but greater loss afterwards. Minocycline treated HAP I cells injected into the vitreous resulted in greater RGC survival than untreated HAP I cells. However, when injected into the T V with ONC there was greater loss of RGCs. These results suggest that optic nerve signals attract extrinsic microglia to the retina, resulting in a proinflammatory response.Conclusion: Neuroprotection or cytotoxicity of microglia depends on the type of activation, time course of the injury, and if they act on the axon or cell body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahad M Siddiqui
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Thomas F Sabljic
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Alexander K Ball
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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2
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Biber J, Jabri Y, Glänzer S, Dort A, Hoffelner P, Schmidt CQ, Bludau O, Pauly D, Grosche A. Gliosis-dependent expression of complement factor H truncated variants attenuates retinal neurodegeneration following ischemic injury. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:56. [PMID: 38388518 PMCID: PMC10885619 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03045-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Inherited, age-related, and acute retinal diseases are often exacerbated by an aberrant or excessive activity of the complement system. Consequently, cells not directly affected by an acute event or genetic variants may degenerate, resulting in enhanced visual impairment. The therapeutic potential of supplementation of complement factor H (FH), a key regulator of the complement cascade, is therefore particularly promising in the context of retinal diseases caused by complement activation. In this study, we engineered adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) containing sequences of two truncated human FH variants. The expression of these variants was regulated by the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter, which is selectively active in gliotic Müller cells. Both FH variants consisted of FH domains 19-20, which were connected to domains 1-4 and 1-7, respectively, by a polyglycine linker. These AAVs were intravitreally injected following ischemic injury of C57BL/6J mouse retinas. We observed transgene expression in gliotic Müller cells and to some extent in astrocytes. The expression correlated directly with damage severity. Interventions resulted in decreased complement activation, accelerated normalization of microglia activity and morphological improvements. Reduced levels of C3 transcripts and C3d protein in conjunction with higher transcript levels of inhibitory regulators like Cfi and Cfh, hinted at attenuated complement activity. This study demonstrates the great potential of complement regulatory gene addition therapy. With further in vivo testing it could be applied to treat a wide range of retinal diseases where no causative therapies are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Biber
- Department of Physiological Genomics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Yassin Jabri
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Glänzer
- Department of Physiological Genomics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Aaron Dort
- Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Patricia Hoffelner
- Department of Physiological Genomics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Christoph Q Schmidt
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacology of Natural Products, University of Ulm Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
- Institute of Pharmacy, Biochemical Pharmacy Group, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Oliver Bludau
- Department of Physiological Genomics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Diana Pauly
- Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany.
| | - Antje Grosche
- Department of Physiological Genomics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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3
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Lepre CC, Russo M, Trotta MC, Petrillo F, D'Agostino FA, Gaudino G, D'Amico G, Campitiello MR, Crisci E, Nicoletti M, Gesualdo C, Simonelli F, D'Amico M, Hermenean A, Rossi S. Inhibition of Galectins and the P2X7 Purinergic Receptor as a Therapeutic Approach in the Neurovascular Inflammation of Diabetic Retinopathy. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119721. [PMID: 37298672 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most frequent microvascular retinal complication of diabetic patients, contributing to loss of vision. Recently, retinal neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration have emerged as key players in DR progression, and therefore, this review examines the neuroinflammatory molecular basis of DR. We focus on four important aspects of retinal neuroinflammation: (i) the exacerbation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress; (ii) the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome; (iii) the role of galectins; and (iv) the activation of purinergic 2X7 receptor (P2X7R). Moreover, this review proposes the selective inhibition of galectins and the P2X7R as a potential pharmacological approach to prevent the progression of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Claudia Lepre
- "Aurel Ardelean" Institute of Life Sciences, Vasile Goldis Western University of Arad, 310144 Arad, Romania
| | - Marina Russo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Consiglia Trotta
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Francesco Petrillo
- Ph.D. Course in Translational Medicine, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Fabiana Anna D'Agostino
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Gennaro Gaudino
- School of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | | | - Maria Rosaria Campitiello
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Physiopathology of Human Reproduction, ASL Salerno, 84124 Salerno, Italy
| | - Erminia Crisci
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Maddalena Nicoletti
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Carlo Gesualdo
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Francesca Simonelli
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Michele D'Amico
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Anca Hermenean
- "Aurel Ardelean" Institute of Life Sciences, Vasile Goldis Western University of Arad, 310144 Arad, Romania
| | - Settimio Rossi
- Multidisciplinary Department of Medical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
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4
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Cuadros MA, Sepulveda MR, Martin-Oliva D, Marín-Teva JL, Neubrand VE. Microglia and Microglia-Like Cells: Similar but Different. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:816439. [PMID: 35197828 PMCID: PMC8859783 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.816439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the tissue-resident macrophages of the central nervous parenchyma. In mammals, microglia are thought to originate from yolk sac precursors and posteriorly maintained through the entire life of the organism. However, the contribution of microglial cells from other sources should also be considered. In addition to “true” or “bona-fide” microglia, which are of embryonic origin, the so-called “microglia-like cells” are hematopoietic cells of bone marrow origin that can engraft the mature brain mainly under pathological conditions. These cells implement great parts of the microglial immune phenotype, but they do not completely adopt the “true microglia” features. Because of their pronounced similarity, true microglia and microglia-like cells are usually considered together as one population. In this review, we discuss the origin and development of these two distinct cell types and their differences. We will also review the factors determining the appearance and presence of microglia-like cells, which can vary among species. This knowledge might contribute to the development of therapeutic strategies aiming at microglial cells for the treatment of diseases in which they are involved, for example neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A Cuadros
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - M Rosario Sepulveda
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - David Martin-Oliva
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - José L Marín-Teva
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Veronika E Neubrand
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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5
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Honig MG, Del Mar NA, Henderson DL, O'Neal D, Yammanur M, Cox R, Li C, Perry AM, Moore BM, Reiner A. Raloxifene, a cannabinoid type-2 receptor inverse agonist, mitigates visual deficits and pathology and modulates microglia after ocular blast. Exp Eye Res 2022; 218:108966. [PMID: 35143834 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.108966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Visual deficits after ocular blast injury (OBI) are common, but pharmacological approaches to improve long-term outcomes have not been identified. Blast forces frequently damage the retina and optic nerves, and work on experimental animals has shown the pro-inflammatory actions of microglia can further exacerbate such injuries. Cannabinoid type-2 receptor (CB2) inverse agonists specifically target activated microglia, biasing them away from the harmful pro-inflammatory M1 state toward the helpful reparative M2 state. We previously found that treating mice with CB2 inverse agonists after traumatic brain injury, produced by either focal cranial air blast or dorsal cranial impact, greatly attenuated the visual deficits and pathology that otherwise resulted. Here we examined the consequences of single and repeat OBI and the benefit provided by raloxifene, an FDA-approved estrogen receptor drug that possesses noteworthy CB2 inverse agonism. After single OBI, although the amplitudes of the A- and B-waves of the electroretinogram and pupil light response appeared to be normal, the mice showed hints of deficits in contrast sensitivity and visual acuity, a trend toward optic nerve axon loss, and significantly increased light aversion, which were reversed by 2 weeks of daily treatment with raloxifene. Mice subjected to repeat OBI (5 blasts spaced 1 min apart), exhibited more severe visual deficits, including decreases in contrast sensitivity, visual acuity, the amplitudes of the A- and B-waves of the electroretinogram, light aversion, and resting pupil diameter (i.e. hyperconstriction), accompanied by the loss of photoreceptor cells and optic nerve axons, nearly all of which were mitigated by raloxifene. Interestingly, optic nerve axon abundance was strongly correlated with contrast sensitivity and visual acuity across all groups of experimental mice in the repeat OBI study, suggesting optic nerve axon loss with rOBI and its attenuation with raloxifene are associated with the extent of these two deficits while photoreceptor abundance was highly correlated with A-wave amplitude and resting pupil size, suggesting a prominent role for photoreceptors in these two deficits. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) showed levels of M1-type microglial markers (e.g. iNOS, IL1β, TNFα, and CD32) in retina, optic nerve, and thalamus were increased 3 days after repeat OBI. With raloxifene treatment, the overall expression of M1 markers was more similar to that in sham mice. Raloxifene treatment was also associated with the elevation of IL10 transcripts in all three tissues compared to repeat OBI alone, but the results for the three other M2 microglial markers we examined were more varied. Taken together, the qPCR results suggest that raloxifene benefit for visual function and pathology was associated with a lessening of the pro-inflammatory actions of microglia. The benefit we find for raloxifene following OBI provides a strong basis for phase-2 efficacy testing in human clinical trials for treating ocular injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia G Honig
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Nobel A Del Mar
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Desmond L Henderson
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Dylan O'Neal
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Meghna Yammanur
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Rachel Cox
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Chunyan Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Aaron M Perry
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Bob M Moore
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA
| | - Anton Reiner
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology(,) the University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, 38163, USA.
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6
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Rodrigo MJ, Subías M, Montolío A, Méndez-Martínez S, Martínez-Rincón T, Arias L, García-Herranz D, Bravo-Osuna I, Garcia-Feijoo J, Pablo L, Cegoñino J, Herrero-Vanrell R, Carretero A, Ruberte J, Garcia-Martin E, Pérez del Palomar A. Analysis of Parainflammation in Chronic Glaucoma Using Vitreous-OCT Imaging. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9121792. [PMID: 34944608 PMCID: PMC8698891 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9121792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma causes blindness due to the progressive death of retinal ganglion cells. The immune response chronically and subclinically mediates a homeostatic role. In current clinical practice, it is impossible to analyse neuroinflammation non-invasively. However, analysis of vitreous images using optical coherence tomography detects the immune response as hyperreflective opacities. This study monitors vitreous parainflammation in two animal models of glaucoma, comparing both healthy controls and sexes over six months. Computational analysis characterizes in vivo the hyperreflective opacities, identified histologically as hyalocyte-like Iba-1+ (microglial marker) cells. Glaucomatous eyes showed greater intensity and number of vitreous opacities as well as dynamic fluctuations in the percentage of activated cells (50–250 microns2) vs. non-activated cells (10–50 microns2), isolated cells (10 microns2) and complexes (>250 microns2). Smaller opacities (isolated cells) showed the highest mean intensity (intracellular machinery), were the most rounded at earlier stages (recruitment) and showed the greatest change in orientation (motility). Study of vitreous parainflammation could be a biomarker of glaucoma onset and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Jesús Rodrigo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (M.S.); (S.M.-M.); (T.M.-R.); (L.A.); (L.P.); (E.G.-M.)
- Miguel Servet Ophthalmology Research Group (GIMSO), Aragon Health Research Institute (IIS Aragon), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- National Ocular Pathology Network (OFTARED), Carlos III Health Institute, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-976765558; Fax: +34-976566234
| | - Manuel Subías
- Department of Ophthalmology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (M.S.); (S.M.-M.); (T.M.-R.); (L.A.); (L.P.); (E.G.-M.)
- Miguel Servet Ophthalmology Research Group (GIMSO), Aragon Health Research Institute (IIS Aragon), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Alberto Montolío
- Biomaterials Group, Aragon Engineering Research Institute (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (A.M.); (J.C.); (A.P.d.P.)
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Silvia Méndez-Martínez
- Department of Ophthalmology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (M.S.); (S.M.-M.); (T.M.-R.); (L.A.); (L.P.); (E.G.-M.)
- Miguel Servet Ophthalmology Research Group (GIMSO), Aragon Health Research Institute (IIS Aragon), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Teresa Martínez-Rincón
- Department of Ophthalmology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (M.S.); (S.M.-M.); (T.M.-R.); (L.A.); (L.P.); (E.G.-M.)
- Miguel Servet Ophthalmology Research Group (GIMSO), Aragon Health Research Institute (IIS Aragon), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Lorena Arias
- Department of Ophthalmology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (M.S.); (S.M.-M.); (T.M.-R.); (L.A.); (L.P.); (E.G.-M.)
- Miguel Servet Ophthalmology Research Group (GIMSO), Aragon Health Research Institute (IIS Aragon), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - David García-Herranz
- Innovation, Therapy and Pharmaceutical Development in Ophthalmology (InnOftal) Research Group, UCM 920415, Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), 28040 Madrid, Spain;
- Health Research Institute of the San Carlos Clinical Hospital (IdISSC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
- University Institute of Industrial Pharmacy (IUFI), School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Irene Bravo-Osuna
- University Institute of Industrial Pharmacy (IUFI), School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Julian Garcia-Feijoo
- Department of Ophthalmology, San Carlos Clinical Hospital, UCM, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Luis Pablo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (M.S.); (S.M.-M.); (T.M.-R.); (L.A.); (L.P.); (E.G.-M.)
- Miguel Servet Ophthalmology Research Group (GIMSO), Aragon Health Research Institute (IIS Aragon), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- National Ocular Pathology Network (OFTARED), Carlos III Health Institute, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - José Cegoñino
- Biomaterials Group, Aragon Engineering Research Institute (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (A.M.); (J.C.); (A.P.d.P.)
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Rocio Herrero-Vanrell
- National Ocular Pathology Network (OFTARED), Carlos III Health Institute, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
- University Institute of Industrial Pharmacy (IUFI), School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Ana Carretero
- Centre for Animal Biotechnology and Gene Therapy (CBATEG), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (A.C.); (J.R.)
- CIBER for Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Diseases (CIBERDEM), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Animal Health and Anatomy, School of Veterinary Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Jesus Ruberte
- Centre for Animal Biotechnology and Gene Therapy (CBATEG), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (A.C.); (J.R.)
- CIBER for Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Diseases (CIBERDEM), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Animal Health and Anatomy, School of Veterinary Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Elena Garcia-Martin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain; (M.S.); (S.M.-M.); (T.M.-R.); (L.A.); (L.P.); (E.G.-M.)
- Miguel Servet Ophthalmology Research Group (GIMSO), Aragon Health Research Institute (IIS Aragon), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- National Ocular Pathology Network (OFTARED), Carlos III Health Institute, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Amaya Pérez del Palomar
- Biomaterials Group, Aragon Engineering Research Institute (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (A.M.); (J.C.); (A.P.d.P.)
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
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7
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Honig MG, Del Mar NA, Henderson DL, O'Neal D, Doty JB, Cox R, Li C, Perry AM, Moore BM, Reiner A. Raloxifene Modulates Microglia and Rescues Visual Deficits and Pathology After Impact Traumatic Brain Injury. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:701317. [PMID: 34776838 PMCID: PMC8585747 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.701317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) involves widespread axonal injury and activation of microglia, which initiates secondary processes that worsen the TBI outcome. The upregulation of cannabinoid type-2 receptors (CB2) when microglia become activated allows CB2-binding drugs to selectively target microglia. CB2 inverse agonists modulate activated microglia by shifting them away from the harmful pro-inflammatory M1 state toward the helpful reparative M2 state and thus can stem secondary injury cascades. We previously found that treatment with the CB2 inverse agonist SMM-189 after mild TBI in mice produced by focal cranial blast rescues visual deficits and the optic nerve axon loss that would otherwise result. We have further shown that raloxifene, which is Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved as an estrogen receptor modulator to treat osteoporosis, but also possesses CB2 inverse agonism, yields similar benefit in this TBI model through its modulation of microglia. As many different traumatic events produce TBI in humans, it is widely acknowledged that diverse animal models must be used in evaluating possible therapies. Here we examine the consequences of TBI created by blunt impact to the mouse head for visual function and associated pathologies and assess raloxifene benefit. We found that mice subjected to impact TBI exhibited decreases in contrast sensitivity and the B-wave of the electroretinogram, increases in light aversion and resting pupil diameter, and optic nerve axon loss, which were rescued by daily injection of raloxifene at 5 or 10 mg/ml for 2 weeks. Raloxifene treatment was associated with reduced M1 activation and/or enhanced M2 activation in retina, optic nerve, and optic tract after impact TBI. Our results suggest that the higher raloxifene dose, in particular, may be therapeutic for the optic nerve by enhancing the phagocytosis of axonal debris that would otherwise promote inflammation, thereby salvaging less damaged axons. Our current work, together with our prior studies, shows that microglial activation drives secondary injury processes after both impact and cranial blast TBI and raloxifene mitigates microglial activation and visual system injury in both cases. The results thus provide a strong basis for phase 2 human clinical trials evaluating raloxifene as a TBI therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia G Honig
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Nobel A Del Mar
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Desmond L Henderson
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Dylan O'Neal
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - John B Doty
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Rachel Cox
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Chunyan Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Aaron M Perry
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Bob M Moore
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Anton Reiner
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
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8
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ASSESSMENT OF HYPERREFLECTIVE FOCI AFTER BEVACIZUMAB OR DEXAMETHASONE TREATMENT ACCORDING TO DURATION OF MACULAR EDEMA IN PATIENTS WITH BRANCH RETINAL VEIN OCCLUSION. Retina 2021; 41:355-365. [PMID: 32349101 DOI: 10.1097/iae.0000000000002826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the association between hyperreflective foci (HRF) on spectral domain optical coherence tomography and therapeutic effect of intravitreal bevacizumab (IVB) or intravitreal dexamethasone implants (IVD) according to macular edema (ME) duration in branch retinal vein occlusion. METHODS Consecutive treatment-naive patients received IVB or IVD for at least 6 months. Each group was subdivided according to ME duration (<3 months vs. ≥3 months). Hyperreflective foci and best-corrected visual acuity were compared. RESULTS Of 139 eyes (139 patients), 69 received IVB and 70 received IVD. At baseline, eyes with ME ≥ 3 months had more outer and total retinal HRF than eyes with ME < 3 months (P < 0.001 and P = 0.001). At 6 months, the IVD group exhibited a greater reduction in outer retinal HRF than the IVB group in both ME duration subgroups (P = 0.015 and P < 0.001). In the ME ≥ 3 months group, IVD resulted in greater best-corrected visual acuity improvement than IVB (P = 0.017). CONCLUSION Increased outer retinal HRF at baseline in eyes with ME ≥ 3 months together with a greater reduction in HRF at 6 months and better visual outcomes after IVD suggests that the inflammatory aspect of disease should be considered in the treatment of ME. Thus, IVD injection could be more appropriate for patients with a longer ME duration after branch retinal vein occlusion.
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Castanos MV, Zhou DB, Linderman RE, Allison R, Milman T, Carroll J, Migacz J, Rosen RB, Chui TYP. Imaging of Macrophage-Like Cells in Living Human Retina Using Clinical OCT. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 61:48. [PMID: 32574351 PMCID: PMC7416910 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.61.6.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To image retinal macrophages at the vitreoretinal interface in the living human retina using a clinical optical coherence tomography (OCT) device. Methods Eighteen healthy controls and three patients with retinopathies were imaged using a clinical spectral-domain OCT. In controls, 10 sequential scans were collected at three different locations: (1) ∼9 degrees temporal to the fovea, (2) the macula, and (3) the optic nerve head (ONH). Intervisit repeatability was evaluated by imaging the temporal retina twice on the same day and 3 days later. Only 10 scans at the temporal retina were obtained from each patient. A 3-µm OCT reflectance (OCT-R) slab located above the inner limiting membrane (ILM) surface was averaged. Results In controls, ramified macrophage-like cells with regular spatial separation were visualized in the temporal and ONH OCT-R images; however, cell structures were not resolvable at the macula. Interim changes in cell position suggestive of cell translocation were observed between images collected on the same day and those collected 3 days later. There was considerable variation in cell density and nearest-neighbor distance (NND) across controls. Mean ± SD cell densities measured at the temporal and ONH were 78 ± 23 cells/mm2 and 57 ± 16 cells/mm2, respectively. Similarly, mean ± SD NNDs measured at the temporal and ONH were 74.3 ± 13.3 µm and 93.3 ± 20.0 µm, respectively. Nonuniform spatial distribution and altered morphology of the cells were identified in patients with retinopathies. Conclusions Our findings showed regular spatial separation and ramified morphology of macrophage-like cells on the ILM surface with cell translocation over time in controls. Their distribution and morphology suggest an origin of macrophage-like cells such as microglia or hyalocytes.
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Sabry DA, El-Badry D. Altered retina and cornea of Clarias gariepinus (Siluriformes: Clariidae) under the effect of bright and dim lights. ZOOLOGIA 2020. [DOI: 10.3897/zoologia.37.e51603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of constant bright light on the cornea and retina of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and to examine whether it can change after constant exposure to dim light. Twenty-one adult individuals of C. gariepinus were divided into three groups (n = 7). The first group was maintained under normal light (NL). The second group was exposed to the intense bright light (BL) (3020 Lux) of white light lamps for seven days. The third group was exposed to dim light for seven days (DL) following the previous exposure to intense bright light for seven days. The eyes of each fish group were removed and fixed. The following aspects of the eye were investigated: histopathological, immunohistochemical (GFAP and BAX) staining and biochemical study for lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA) and glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase (G6PDH). Also, isoenzyme electrophoresis of LDH, G6PDH and SOD were performed. The present study found that, seven-days BL exposure caused damage to both cornea and retina. However, after exposure to dim-light after bright light there was partial improvement in corneal and retinal structure and an increase in the assayed SOD and G6PDH levels, along with a reduction in MDA content and activity of LDH. These findings demonstrate a plasticity that may help C. gariepinus survive disturbances in the aquatic environment.
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Moriuchi Y, Iwagawa T, Tsuhako A, Koso H, Fujita Y, Watanabe S. RasV12 Expression in Microglia Initiates Retinal Inflammation and Induces Photoreceptor Degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2020; 61:34. [PMID: 33231622 PMCID: PMC7691791 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.61.13.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The role of activated retinal microglia in driving retinal degeneration has been implicated in a number of in vivo disease models. Here, we investigated the primary consequences of microglial activation by the specific expression of constitutively active Ras in microglia in a transgenic mouse model before the onset of any degenerative changes in the retina. Methods The double transgenic lines CAG-LSL-RasV12-IRES-EGFP; Cx3cr1CreER/+ (Cx3cr1-RasV12 mice) and CAG-LSL-EGFP; Cx3cr1CreER_+ (control mice) were generated. The expression of RasV12 was induced in microglia by tamoxifen administration, and the retinas were examined by immunohistochemistry of frozen sections, RT-qPCR, and live imaging. Results RasV12 expression in retinal microglial cells promoted cell proliferation, cytokine expression, and phagocytosis. RasV12-expressing microglia migrated toward the inner and outer layers of the retina. Examination of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression revealed activation of Müller glia in the retina. We also observed loss of the photoreceptors in the outer nuclear layer in close proximity to microglial cells. However, no significant neurodegeneration was detected in the inner nuclear layer (INL) or ganglion cell layer (GCL). The morphology of RasV12-expressing microglia in the GCL and INL retained more ramified features compared with the predominantly-ameboid morphology found in outer retinal microglia. Conclusions The expression of RasV12 is sufficient to activate microglia and lead to photoreceptor degeneration. Neurons in the inner side of the retina were not damaged by the RasV12-activated microglia, suggesting that microenvironment cues may modulate the microglial phenotypic features and effects of microglial activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Moriuchi
- Division of Molecular and Developmental Biology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshiro Iwagawa
- Division of Molecular and Developmental Biology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Asano Tsuhako
- Division of Molecular and Developmental Biology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideto Koso
- Division of Molecular and Developmental Biology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Fujita
- Department of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Sumiko Watanabe
- Division of Molecular and Developmental Biology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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12
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Morales-Ropero JM, Arroyo-Urea S, Neubrand VE, Martín-Oliva D, Marín-Teva JL, Cuadros MA, Vangheluwe P, Navascués J, Mata AM, Sepúlveda MR. The endoplasmic reticulum Ca 2+ -ATPase SERCA2b is upregulated in activated microglia and its inhibition causes opposite effects on migration and phagocytosis. Glia 2020; 69:842-857. [PMID: 33105046 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Activation of microglia is an early immune response to damage in the brain. Although a key role for Ca2+ as trigger of microglial activation has been considered, little is known about the molecular scenario for regulating Ca2+ homeostasis in these cells. Taking into account the importance of the endoplasmic reticulum as a cellular Ca2+ store, the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA2b) is an interesting target to modulate intracellular Ca2+ dynamics. We found upregulation of SERCA2b in activated microglia of human brain with Alzheimer's disease and we further studied the participation of SERCA2b in microglial functions by using the BV2 murine microglial cell line and primary microglia isolated from mouse brain. To trigger microglia activation, we used the bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is known to induce an increase of cytosolic Ca2+ . Our results showed an upregulated expression of SERCA2b in LPS-induced activated microglia likely associated to an attempt to restore the increased cytosolic Ca2+ concentration. We analyzed SERCA2b contribution in microglial migration by using the specific SERCA inhibitor thapsigargin in scratch assays. Microglial migration was strongly stimulated with thapsigargin, even more than with LPS-induction, but delayed in time. However, phagocytic capacity of microglia was blocked in the presence of the SERCA inhibitor, indicating the importance of a tight control of cytosolic Ca2+ in these processes. All together, these results provide for the first time compelling evidence for SERCA2b as a major player regulating microglial functions, affecting migration and phagocytosis in an opposite manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Morales-Ropero
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Sandra Arroyo-Urea
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Veronika E Neubrand
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - David Martín-Oliva
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - José L Marín-Teva
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel A Cuadros
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Peter Vangheluwe
- Laboratory of Cellular Transport Systems, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Julio Navascués
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ana M Mata
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Sciences, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - M Rosario Sepúlveda
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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Johansson K, Svensson LA, Mohlin C. Morphological analyzes of microglia heterogeneity and dynamics during photoreceptor degeneration in vitro: Presumptive dark microglia in porcine retina. Exp Eye Res 2020; 200:108217. [PMID: 32896534 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In the adult retina, ramifying microglia interact with the outer plexiform layer (OPL) monitoring the synaptic integrity between photoreceptors and post-synaptic target cells. Microglia are reactive during photoreceptor diseases, but their disease-related function(s) are not fully understood. Retinal explant cultures are model systems used to study degenerative events including photoreceptor degeneration and gliosis. Our culture paradigm, with adult porcine retinas subjected to coculture with human A-retinal pigment epithelia-19 (ARPE) cells, is an experimental approach resulting in improved photoreceptor survival and reduced gliosis. Under the in vitro pathological conditions with photoreceptor degeneration, reactive Iba1-and CD11b-immunoreactive microglia and their processes positioned in proximity with the OPL and among photoreceptor outer segments. Coculture for 3 days with ARPE-cells resulted in a significantly increased density of microglia at the OPL. After 5 days of culture, the density of microglia at the OPL was similar between coculture and control specimens. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of two subtypes of microglia: one exhibiting a dark nucleus and cytosol with dilated endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, endosomes and mitochondrial variations. This subtype localized close to synaptic structures in the OPL. The other subtype appeared as pale phagocytic microglia localized among degenerating outer segments. The Iba1-and CD11b-immunoreactive microglia in degenerating retina may be of two separate subtypes, which differ in localization, subcellular morphology and perhaps function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Camilla Mohlin
- Department of Chemistry and Biomedicine, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
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14
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Microglia Activation in Retinal Ischemia Triggers Cytokine and Toll-Like Receptor Response. J Mol Neurosci 2020; 71:527-544. [PMID: 32833183 PMCID: PMC8575759 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-020-01674-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms and progression of ischemic injuries in the retina are still incompletely clarified. Therefore, the time course of microglia activation as well as resulting cytokine expression and downstream signaling were investigated. Ischemia was induced in one eye by transiently elevated intraocular pressure (60 min) followed by reperfusion; the other eye served as a control. Eyes were processed for RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry analyses at 2, 6, 12, and 24 h as well as at 3 and 7 days. Already 2 h after ischemia, more microglia/macrophages were in an active state in the ischemia group. This was accompanied by an upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, and TGFβ. Activation of TLR3, TLR2, and the adaptor molecule Myd88 was also observed after 2 h. NFκB revealed a wave-like activation pattern. In addition, an extrinsic caspase pathway activation was noted at early time points, while enhanced numbers of cleaved caspase 3+ cells could be observed in ischemic retinae throughout the study. Retinal ischemia induced an early and strong microglia/macrophage response as well as cytokine and apoptotic activation processes. Moreover, in early and late ischemic damaging processes, TLR expression and downstream signaling were involved, suggesting an involvement in neuronal death in ischemic retinae. Graphical Abstract.
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15
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Burns JC, Cotleur B, Walther DM, Bajrami B, Rubino SJ, Wei R, Franchimont N, Cotman SL, Ransohoff RM, Mingueneau M. Differential accumulation of storage bodies with aging defines discrete subsets of microglia in the healthy brain. eLife 2020; 9:e57495. [PMID: 32579115 PMCID: PMC7367682 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, microglia subsets in the healthy CNS have not been identified. Utilizing autofluorescence (AF) as a discriminating parameter, we identified two novel microglia subsets in both mice and non-human primates, termed autofluorescence-positive (AF+) and negative (AF-). While their proportion remained constant throughout most adult life, the AF signal linearly and specifically increased in AF+ microglia with age and correlated with a commensurate increase in size and complexity of lysosomal storage bodies, as detected by transmission electron microscopy and LAMP1 levels. Post-depletion repopulation kinetics revealed AF- cells as likely precursors of AF+ microglia. At the molecular level, the proteome of AF+ microglia showed overrepresentation of endolysosomal, autophagic, catabolic, and mTOR-related proteins. Mimicking the effect of advanced aging, genetic disruption of lysosomal function accelerated the accumulation of storage bodies in AF+ cells and led to impaired microglia physiology and cell death, suggestive of a mechanistic convergence between aging and lysosomal storage disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Carlos Burns
- Multiple Sclerosis & Neurorepair Research Unit, BiogenCambridgeUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of MedicineBostonUnited States
| | - Bunny Cotleur
- Emerging Neurosciences Research Unit, BiogenCambridgeUnited States
| | | | - Bekim Bajrami
- Chemical Biology and ProteomicsCambridgeUnited States
| | - Stephen J Rubino
- Multiple Sclerosis & Neurorepair Research Unit, BiogenCambridgeUnited States
| | - Ru Wei
- Chemical Biology and ProteomicsCambridgeUnited States
| | | | - Susan L Cotman
- Center for Genomic Medicine, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | | | - Michael Mingueneau
- Multiple Sclerosis & Neurorepair Research Unit, BiogenCambridgeUnited States
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Abstract
Patients with diabetes continue to suffer from impaired visual performance before the appearance of overt damage to the retinal microvasculature and later sight-threatening complications. This diabetic retinopathy (DR) has long been thought to start with endothelial cell oxidative stress. Yet newer data surprisingly finds that the avascular outer retina is the primary site of oxidative stress before microvascular histopathology in experimental DR. Importantly, correcting this early oxidative stress is sufficient to restore vision and mitigate the histopathology in diabetic models. However, translating these promising results into the clinic has been stymied by an absence of methods that can measure and optimize anti-oxidant treatment efficacy in vivo. Here, we review imaging approaches that address this problem. In particular, diabetes-induced oxidative stress impairs dark-light regulation of subretinal space hydration, which regulates the distribution of interphotoreceptor binding protein (IRBP). IRBP is a vision-critical, anti-oxidant, lipid transporter, and pro-survival factor. We show how optical coherence tomography can measure subretinal space oxidative stress thus setting the stage for personalizing anti-oxidant treatment and prevention of impactful declines and loss of vision in patients with diabetes.
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17
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Phosphatidylserine recognition and Rac1 activation are required for Müller glia proliferation, gliosis and phagocytosis after retinal injury. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1488. [PMID: 32001733 PMCID: PMC6992786 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58424-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Müller glia, the principal glial cell type in the retina, have the potential to reenter the cell cycle after retinal injury. In mammals, proliferation of Müller glia is followed by gliosis, but not regeneration of neurons. Retinal injury is also accompanied by phagocytic removal of degenerated cells. We here investigated the possibility that proliferation and gliosis of Müller glia and phagocytosis of degenerated cells may be regulated by the same molecular pathways. After N-methyl-N–nitrosourea-induced retinal injury, degenerated photoreceptors were eliminated prior to the infiltration of microglia/macrophages into the outer nuclear layer, almost in parallel with cell cycle reentry of Müller glia. Inhibition of microglia/macrophage activation with minocycline did not affect the photoreceptor clearance. Accumulation of lysosomes and rhodopsin-positive photoreceptor debris within the cytoplasm of Müller glia indicated that Müller glia phagocytosed most photoreceptor debris. Pharmacological inhibition of phosphatidylserine and Rac1, key regulators of the phagocytic pathway, prevented cell cycle reentry, migration, upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein, and phagocytic activity of Müller glia. These data provide evidence that phosphatidylserine and Rac1 may contribute to the crosstalk between different signaling pathways activated in Müller glia after injury.
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18
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Klee K, Storti F, Barben M, Samardzija M, Langmann T, Dunaief J, Grimm C. Systemic knockout of Tspo in mice does not affect retinal morphology, function and susceptibility to degeneration. Exp Eye Res 2019; 188:107816. [PMID: 31562844 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.107816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Translocator protein (18 kDa) (TSPO) is a mitochondrial protein expressed by reactive microglia and astrocytes at the site of neuronal injury. Although TSPO function has not been fully determined, synthetic TSPO ligands have beneficial effects on different pathologies of the central nervous system, including the retina. Here, we studied the pattern of Tspo expression in the aging human retina and in two mouse models of retinal degeneration. Using a newly generated Tspo-KO mouse, we investigated the impact of the lack of TSPO on retinal morphology, function and susceptibility to degeneration. We show that TSPO was expressed in both human and mouse retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Tspo was induced in the mouse retina upon degeneration, but constitutively expressed in the RPE. Similarly, TSPO expression levels in healthy human retina and RPE were not differentially regulated during aging. Tspo-KO mice had normal retinal morphology and function up to 48 weeks of age. Photoreceptor loss caused either by exposure to excessive light levels or by a mutation in the phosphodiesterase 6b gene was not affected by the absence of Tspo. The reactivity states of retinal mononuclear phagocytes following light-damage were comparable in Tspo-KO and control mice. Our data suggest that lack of endogenous TSPO does not directly influence the magnitude of photoreceptor degeneration or microglia activation in these two models of retinal degeneration. We therefore hypothesize that the interaction of TSPO with its ligands may be required to modulate disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Klee
- Lab for Retinal Cell Biology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland; Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Federica Storti
- Lab for Retinal Cell Biology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Maya Barben
- Lab for Retinal Cell Biology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Marijana Samardzija
- Lab for Retinal Cell Biology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Langmann
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), Cologne, Germany
| | - Joshua Dunaief
- Department of Ophthalmology, Scheie Eye Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Christian Grimm
- Lab for Retinal Cell Biology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland; Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Neuroscience Center, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Rashid K, Akhtar-Schaefer I, Langmann T. Microglia in Retinal Degeneration. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1975. [PMID: 31481963 PMCID: PMC6710350 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The retina is a complex tissue with multiple cell layers that are highly ordered. Its sophisticated structure makes it especially sensitive to external or internal perturbations that exceed the homeostatic range. This necessitates the continuous surveillance of the retina for the detection of noxious stimuli. This task is mainly performed by microglia cells, the resident tissue macrophages which confer neuroprotection against transient pathophysiological insults. However, under sustained pathological stimuli, microglial inflammatory responses become dysregulated, often worsening disease pathology. In this review, we provide an overview of recent studies that depict microglial responses in diverse retinal pathologies that have degeneration and chronic immune reactions as key pathophysiological components. We also discuss innovative immunomodulatory therapy strategies that dampen the detrimental immunological responses to improve disease outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalid Rashid
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Isha Akhtar-Schaefer
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Langmann
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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20
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Kezic JM, McMenamin PG. Systemic exposure to CpG-ODN elicits low-grade inflammation in the retina. Exp Eye Res 2019; 186:107708. [PMID: 31242444 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.107708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have reported that topical exposure to the toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 ligand CpG-ODN causes widespread ocular inflammation, including retinal microglial activation and posterior segment inflammation. Here we sought to determine the effects of systemic exposure to CpG-ODN in the retina and whether this inflammatory response was altered with Cx3cr1 deficiency or hyperglycemia. Male non-diabetic Cx3cr1+/gfp and Cx3cr1gfp/gfp littermates (normoglycemic controls) and Cx3cr1+/gfpIns2Akitaand Cx3cr1gfp/gfpIns2Akita diabetic mice were injected intraperitoneally with 40 μg CpG-ODN. Immunofluorescence staining was performed 1 week later to assess the expression of MHC Class II and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), as well as to identify morphological changes to microglia and changes in retinal macrophage cell density. Systemic exposure to CpG-ODN induced the upregulated expression of both GFAP on retinal Müller cells and MHC Class II on the retinal vasculature. Additionally, there was an increased accumulation of macrophages in the subretinal space 1 week after exposure to systemic CpG-ODN as well as characteristic morphological changes to microglia indicative of an activated phenotype. These preliminary studies demonstrate that low-grade inflammatory changes were not enhanced in Cx3cr1-deficient or diabetic mice, indicating that the inflammatory response to systemic CpG-ODN in the retina is unaltered in the context of Cx3cr1 deficiency or prolonged hyperglycemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena M Kezic
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Paul G McMenamin
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Todd L, Palazzo I, Suarez L, Liu X, Volkov L, Hoang TV, Campbell WA, Blackshaw S, Quan N, Fischer AJ. Reactive microglia and IL1β/IL-1R1-signaling mediate neuroprotection in excitotoxin-damaged mouse retina. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:118. [PMID: 31170999 PMCID: PMC6555727 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1505-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microglia and inflammation have context-specific impacts upon neuronal survival in different models of central nervous system (CNS) disease. Herein, we investigate how inflammatory mediators, including microglia, interleukin 1 beta (IL1β), and signaling through interleukin 1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1), influence the survival of retinal neurons in response to excitotoxic damage. Methods Excitotoxic retinal damage was induced via intraocular injections of NMDA. Microglial phenotype and neuronal survival were assessed by immunohistochemistry. Single-cell RNA sequencing was performed to obtain transcriptomic profiles. Microglia were ablated by using clodronate liposome or PLX5622. Retinas were treated with IL1β prior to NMDA damage and cell death was assessed in wild type, IL-1R1 null mice, and mice expressing IL-1R1 only in astrocytes. Results NMDA-induced damage included neuronal cell death, microglial reactivity, upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and genes associated with IL1β-signaling in different types of retinal neurons and glia. Expression of the IL1β receptor, IL-1R1, was evident in astrocytes, endothelial cells, some Müller glia, and OFF bipolar cells. Ablation of microglia with clodronate liposomes or Csf1r antagonist (PLX5622) resulted in elevated cell death and diminished neuronal survival in excitotoxin-damaged retinas. Exogenous IL1β stimulated the proliferation and reactivity of microglia in the absence of damage, reduced numbers of dying cells in damaged retinas, and increased neuronal survival following an insult. IL1β failed to provide neuroprotection in the IL-1R1-null retina, but IL1β-mediated neuroprotection was rescued when expression of IL-1R1 was restored in astrocytes. Conclusions We conclude that reactive microglia provide protection to retinal neurons, since the absence of microglia is detrimental to survival. We propose that, at least in part, the survival-influencing effects of microglia may be mediated by IL1β, IL-1R1, and interactions of microglia and other macroglia. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-019-1505-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levi Todd
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Isabella Palazzo
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 3020 Graves Hall, 333 W. 10th Ave, Columbus, OH, 43210-1239, USA
| | - Lilianna Suarez
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 3020 Graves Hall, 333 W. 10th Ave, Columbus, OH, 43210-1239, USA
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Leo Volkov
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Thanh V Hoang
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Warren A Campbell
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 3020 Graves Hall, 333 W. 10th Ave, Columbus, OH, 43210-1239, USA
| | - Seth Blackshaw
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ning Quan
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Division of Biosciences, College of Dentistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Andy J Fischer
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 3020 Graves Hall, 333 W. 10th Ave, Columbus, OH, 43210-1239, USA.
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Telegina DV, Kozhevnikova OS, Kolosova NG. Changes in Retinal Glial Cells with Age and during Development of Age-Related Macular Degeneration. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2018; 83:1009-1017. [PMID: 30472939 DOI: 10.1134/s000629791809002x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Age is the major risk factor in the age-related macular degeneration (AMD) which is a complex multifactor neurodegenerative disease of the retina and the main cause of irreversible vision loss in people over 60 years old. The major role in AMD pathogenesis belongs to structure-functional changes in the retinal pigment epithelium cells, while the onset and progression of AMD are commonly believed to be caused by the immune system dysfunctions. The role of retinal glial cells (Muller cells, astrocytes, and microglia) in AMD pathogenesis is studied much less. These cells maintain neurons and retinal vessels through the synthesis of neurotrophic and angiogenic factors, as well as perform supporting, separating, trophic, secretory, and immune functions. It is known that retinal glia experiences morphological and functional changes with age. Age-related impairments in the functional activity of glial cells are closely related to the changes in the expression of trophic factors that affect the status of all cell types in the retina. In this review, we summarized available literature data on the role of retinal macro- and microglia and on the contribution of these cells to AMD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- D V Telegina
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - O S Kozhevnikova
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - N G Kolosova
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia.
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23
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Sakami S, Imanishi Y, Palczewski K. Müller glia phagocytose dead photoreceptor cells in a mouse model of retinal degenerative disease. FASEB J 2018; 33:3680-3692. [PMID: 30462532 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201801662r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Retinitis pigmentosa is a devastating, blinding disorder that affects 1 in 4000 people worldwide. During the progression of the disorder, phagocytic clearance of dead photoreceptor cell bodies has a protective role by preventing additional retinal damage from accumulation of cellular debris. However, the cells responsible for the clearance remain unidentified. Taking advantage of a mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa ( RhoP23H/P23H), we clarified the roles of Müller glia in the phagocytosis of rod photoreceptor cells. During the early stage of retinal degeneration, Müller glial cells participated in the phagocytosis of dying or dead rod photoreceptors throughout the outer nuclear layer. Nearly 50% of Müller glia engaged in phagocytosis. Among the Müller phagosomes, >90% matured into phagolysosomes. Those observations indicated that Müller glial cells are the primary contributor to phagocytosis. In contrast, macrophages migrate to the inner part of the outer nuclear layer during photoreceptor degeneration, participating in the phagocytosis of a limited population of dying or dead photoreceptor cells. In healthy retinas of wild-type mice, Müller glial cells phagocytosed cell bodies of dead rod photoreceptors albeit at a lower frequency. Taken together, the phagocytic function of Müller glia is responsible for retinal homeostasis and reorganization under normal and pathologic conditions.-Sakami, S., Imanishi, Y., Palczewski, K. Müller glia phagocytose dead photoreceptor cells in a mouse model of retinal degenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanae Sakami
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Yoshikazu Imanishi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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24
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The Role of Microglia in Diabetic Retinopathy: Inflammation, Microvasculature Defects and Neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19010110. [PMID: 29301251 PMCID: PMC5796059 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 12/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy is a common complication of diabetes mellitus, which appears in one third of all diabetic patients and is a prominent cause of vision loss. First discovered as a microvascular disease, intensive research in the field identified inflammation and neurodegeneration to be part of diabetic retinopathy. Microglia, the resident monocytes of the retina, are activated due to a complex interplay between the different cell types of the retina and diverse pathological pathways. The trigger for developing diabetic retinopathy is diabetes-induced hyperglycemia, accompanied by leukostasis and vascular leakages. Transcriptional changes in activated microglia, mediated via the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) and extracellular signal–regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathways, results in release of various pro-inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, caspases and glutamate. Activated microglia additionally increased proliferation and migration. Among other consequences, these changes in microglia severely affected retinal neurons, causing increased apoptosis and subsequent thinning of the nerve fiber layer, resulting in visual loss. New potential therapeutics need to interfere with these diabetic complications even before changes in the retina are diagnosed, to prevent neuronal apoptosis and blindness in patients.
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25
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Sene A, Apte RS. Inflammation-Induced Photoreceptor Cell Death. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1074:203-208. [PMID: 29721945 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-75402-4_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is an important aspect of many diseases of the eye, and experimental animal models have been widely used to determine its impact on retinal homeostasis and neuron survival. Physical separation of the neurosensory retina from the underlying retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) results in activation and infiltration of macrophages. Numerous studies have shown the critical role of macrophages in retinal disease processes. In retinal detachment, accumulation of macrophages in the subretinal space is associated with changes in cytokine and chemokine profile which lead to photoreceptor cell death. Targeted disruption of macrophage chemotaxis significantly reduces retinal detachment-induced photoreceptor degeneration. Apoptosis is the predominant mechanism of cell death; however regulated necrosis is also a contributor of photoreceptor loss. Therefore, effective neuroprotective approaches could integrate combined inhibition of both apoptotic and regulated necrosis pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdoulaye Sene
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
| | - Rajendra S Apte
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Department of Developmental Biology and Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Department of Biology, Allergan, Inc., Irvine, CA, USA
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26
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Ahmed A, Wang LL, Abdelmaksoud S, Aboelgheit A, Saeed S, Zhang CL. Minocycline modulates microglia polarization in ischemia-reperfusion model of retinal degeneration and induces neuroprotection. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14065. [PMID: 29070819 PMCID: PMC5656679 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14450-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury causes irreversible loss of neurons and ultimately leads to permanent visual impairment and blindness. The cellular response under this pathological retinal condition is less clear. Using genetically modified mice, we systematically examined the behavior of microglia/macrophages after injury. We show that IR leads to activation of microglia/macrophages indicated by migration and proliferation of resident microglia and recruitment of circulating monocytes. IR-induced microglia/macrophages associate with apoptotic retinal neurons. Very interestingly, neuron loss can be mitigated by minocycline treatment. Minocycline induces Il4 expression and M2 polarization of microglia/macrophages. IL4 neutralization dampens minocycline-induced M2 polarization and neuroprotection. Given a well-established safety profile as an antibiotic, our results provide a rationale for using minocycline as a therapeutic agent for treating ischemic retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amel Ahmed
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA.,Department of Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Lei-Lei Wang
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA.,Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA
| | - Safaa Abdelmaksoud
- Department of Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Amal Aboelgheit
- Department of Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Safaa Saeed
- Department of Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Chun-Li Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA. .,Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA.
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27
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Antony BJ, Kim BJ, Lang A, Carass A, Prince JL, Zack DJ. Automated segmentation of mouse OCT volumes (ASiMOV): Validation & clinical study of a light damage model. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181059. [PMID: 28817571 PMCID: PMC5560565 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) is becoming commonplace for the in vivo longitudinal study of murine models of ophthalmic disease. Longitudinal studies, however, generate large quantities of data, the manual analysis of which is very challenging due to the time-consuming nature of generating delineations. Thus, it is of importance that automated algorithms be developed to facilitate accurate and timely analysis of these large datasets. Furthermore, as the models target a variety of diseases, the associated structural changes can also be extremely disparate. For instance, in the light damage (LD) model, which is frequently used to study photoreceptor degeneration, the outer retina appears dramatically different from the normal retina. To address these concerns, we have developed a flexible graph-based algorithm for the automated segmentation of mouse OCT volumes (ASiMOV). This approach incorporates a machine-learning component that can be easily trained for different disease models. To validate ASiMOV, the automated results were compared to manual delineations obtained from three raters on healthy and BALB/cJ mice post LD. It was also used to study a longitudinal LD model, where five control and five LD mice were imaged at four timepoints post LD. The total retinal thickness and the outer retina (comprising the outer nuclear layer, and inner and outer segments of the photoreceptors) were unchanged the day after the LD, but subsequently thinned significantly (p < 0.01). The retinal nerve fiber-ganglion cell complex and the inner plexiform layers, however, remained unchanged for the duration of the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavna Josephine Antony
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore MD 21218 United States of America
| | - Byung-Jin Kim
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore MD 21287 United States of America
| | - Andrew Lang
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore MD 21218 United States of America
| | - Aaron Carass
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore MD 21218 United States of America
| | - Jerry L. Prince
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore MD 21218 United States of America
| | - Donald J. Zack
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore MD 21287 United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287 United States of America
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287 United States of America
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287 United States of America
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28
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Bejarano-Escobar R, Sánchez-Calderón H, Otero-Arenas J, Martín-Partido G, Francisco-Morcillo J. Müller glia and phagocytosis of cell debris in retinal tissue. J Anat 2017; 231:471-483. [PMID: 28695619 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Müller cells are the predominant glial cell type in the retina of vertebrates. They play a wide variety of roles in both the developing and the mature retina that have been widely reported in the literature. However, less attention has been paid to their role in phagocytosis of cell debris under physiological, pathological or experimental conditions. Müller glia have been shown to phagocytose apoptotic cell bodies originated during development of the visual system. They also engulf foreign molecules that are injected into the eye, cone outer segments and injured photoreceptors. Phagocytosis of photoreceptor cell debris in the light-damaged teleost retina is primarily carried out by Müller cells. Once the microglial cells become activated and migrate to the photoreceptor cell layer, the phagocytic activity of Müller cells progressively decreases, suggesting a possible mechanism of communication between Müller cells and neighbouring microglia and photoreceptors. Additionally, it has been shown that phagocytic Müller cells acquire proliferating activity in the damaged teleost retina, suggesting that engulfment of apoptotic photoreceptor debris might stimulate the Müller glia to proliferate during the regenerative response. These findings highlight Müller glia phagocytosis as an underlying mechanism contributing to degeneration and regeneration under pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Bejarano-Escobar
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | | | - Josué Otero-Arenas
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Gervasio Martín-Partido
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
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29
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Hu Z, Zhang Y, Wang J, Mao P, Lv X, Yuan S, Huang Z, Ding Y, Xie P, Liu Q. Knockout of Ccr2 alleviates photoreceptor cell death in rodent retina exposed to chronic blue light. Cell Death Dis 2016; 7:e2468. [PMID: 27831552 PMCID: PMC5260896 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2016.363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of visual loss after the age of 60 years, is a degenerative retinal disease involving a variety of environmental and hereditary factors. Although it has been implicated that immune system is involved in the disease progression, the exact role that microglia has is still unclear. Here we demonstrated that knockout of Ccr2 gene could alleviate photoreceptor cell death in mice retinas exposed to chronic blue light. In Ccr2−/− mice, a damaged microglia recruitment was shown in retina and this could protect the visual function in electroretinogram and alleviate the photoreceptor apoptosis, which thus helped attenuate the blue light-induced retinopathy. We further found an increased co-location of NLRP3, Iba-1, and IL-1β in fluorescence and a concomitant increased protein expression of NLRP3, caspase-1, and IL-1β in western blotting in chronic blue light-induced retinopathy. Moreover, the activation of microglia and their cellular NLRP3 inflammasomes occurred as an earlier step before the structural and functional damage of the mice retinas, which collectively supported that microglial NLRP3 inflammasome might be the key to the chronic blue light-induced retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zizhong Hu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Junling Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Pingan Mao
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Xuehua Lv
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Songtao Yuan
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Zhengru Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Yuzhi Ding
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Ping Xie
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Qinghuai Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
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30
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31
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Puyang Z, Feng L, Chen H, Liang P, Troy JB, Liu X. Retinal Ganglion Cell Loss is Delayed Following Optic Nerve Crush in NLRP3 Knockout Mice. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20998. [PMID: 26893104 PMCID: PMC4759563 DOI: 10.1038/srep20998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The NLRP3 inflammasome, a sensor for a variety of pathogen- and host-derived threats, consists of the adaptor ASC (Apoptosis-associated Speck-like protein containing a Caspase Activation and Recruitment Domain (CARD)), pro-caspase-1, and NLRP3 (NOD-Like Receptor family Pyrin domain containing 3). NLRP3-induced neuroinflammation is implicated in the pathogenesis and progression of eye diseases, but it remains unclear whether activation of NLRP3 inflammasome contributes to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death. Here we examined NLRP3-induced neuroinflammation and RGC survival following partial optic nerve crush (pONC) injury. We showed that NLRP3 was up-regulated in retinal microglial cells following pONC, propagating from the injury site to the optic nerve head and finally the entire retina within one day. Activation of NLRP3-ASC inflammasome led to the up-regulation of caspase-1 and a proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1β (IL-1β). In NLRP3 knockout mice, up-regulation of ASC, caspase-1, and IL-1β were all reduced, and, importantly, RGC and axon loss was substantially delayed following pONC injury. The average survival time of RGCs in NLRP3 knockout mice was about one week longer than for control animals. Taken together, our study demonstrated that ablating the NLRP3 gene significantly reduced neuroinflammation and delayed RGC loss after optic nerve crush injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Puyang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dong-chuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Robert R. McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Liang Feng
- Department of Ophthalmology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Hui Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Peiji Liang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dong-chuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - John B Troy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Robert R. McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Xiaorong Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
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32
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Fate mapping reveals that microglia and recruited monocyte-derived macrophages are definitively distinguishable by phenotype in the retina. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20636. [PMID: 26856416 PMCID: PMC4746646 DOI: 10.1038/srep20636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent paradigm shift that microglia are yolk sac-derived, not hematopoietic-derived, is reshaping our knowledge about the isolated role of microglia in CNS diseases, including degenerative conditions of the retina. However, unraveling microglial-specific functions has been hindered by phenotypic overlap of microglia with monocyte-derived macrophages. The latter are differentiated from recruited monocytes in neuroinflammation, including retina. Here we demonstrate the use of fate mapping wherein microglia and monocyte-derived cells are endogenously labeled with different fluorescent reporters. Combining this method with 12-color flow cytometry, we show that these two populations are definitively distinguishable by phenotype in retina. We prove that retinal microglia have a unique CD45(lo) CD11c(lo) F4/80(lo) I-A/I-E(-) signature, conserved in the steady state and during retinal injury. The latter was observed in the widely used light-induced retinal degeneration model and corroborated in other models, including whole-body irradiation/bone-marrow transplantation. The literature contains conflicting observations about whether microglia, including in the retina, increase expression of these markers in neuroinflammation. We show that monocyte-derived macrophages have elevated expression of these surface markers, not microglia. Our resolution of such phenotypic differences may serve as a robust way to help characterize isolated roles of these cells in retinal neuroinflammation and possibly elsewhere in CNS.
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33
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Chakravarthy H, Beli E, Navitskaya S, O’Reilly S, Wang Q, Kady N, Huang C, Grant MB, Busik JV. Imbalances in Mobilization and Activation of Pro-Inflammatory and Vascular Reparative Bone Marrow-Derived Cells in Diabetic Retinopathy. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0146829. [PMID: 26760976 PMCID: PMC4711951 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0146829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy is a sight-threatening complication of diabetes, affecting 65% of patients after 10 years of the disease. Diabetic metabolic insult leads to chronic low-grade inflammation, retinal endothelial cell loss and inadequate vascular repair. This is partly due to bone marrow (BM) pathology leading to increased activity of BM-derived pro-inflammatory monocytes and impaired function of BM-derived reparative circulating angiogenic cells (CACs). We propose that diabetes has a significant long-term effect on the nature and proportion of BM-derived cells that circulate in the blood, localize to the retina and home back to their BM niche. Using a streptozotocin mouse model of diabetic retinopathy with GFP BM-transplantation, we have demonstrated that BM-derived circulating pro-inflammatory monocytes are increased in diabetes while reparative CACs are trapped in the BM and spleen, with impaired release into circulation. Diabetes also alters activation of splenocytes and BM-derived dendritic cells in response to LPS stimulation. A majority of the BM-derived GFP cells that migrate to the retina express microglial markers, while others express endothelial, pericyte and Müller cell markers. Diabetes significantly increases infiltration of BM-derived microglia in an activated state, while reducing infiltration of BM-derived endothelial progenitor cells in the retina. Further, control CACs injected into the vitreous are very efficient at migrating back to their BM niche, whereas diabetic CACs have lost this ability, indicating that the in vivo homing efficiency of diabetic CACs is dramatically decreased. Moreover, diabetes causes a significant reduction in expression of specific integrins regulating CAC migration. Collectively, these findings indicate that BM pathology in diabetes could play a role in both increased pro-inflammatory state and inadequate vascular repair contributing to diabetic retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshini Chakravarthy
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Eleni Beli
- Department of Ophthalmology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Svetlana Navitskaya
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Sandra O’Reilly
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Nermin Kady
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Chao Huang
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Maria B. Grant
- Department of Ophthalmology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Julia V. Busik
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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34
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Picard E, Le Rouzic Q, Oudar A, Berdugo M, El Sanharawi M, Andrieu-Soler C, Naud MC, Jonet L, Latour C, Klein C, Galiacy S, Malecaze F, Coppin H, Roth MP, Jeanny JC, Courtois Y, Behar-Cohen F. Targeting iron-mediated retinal degeneration by local delivery of transferrin. Free Radic Biol Med 2015; 89:1105-21. [PMID: 26454080 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2015.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Revised: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Iron is essential for retinal function but contributes to oxidative stress-mediated degeneration. Iron retinal homeostasis is highly regulated and transferrin (Tf), a potent iron chelator, is endogenously secreted by retinal cells. In this study, therapeutic potential of a local Tf delivery was evaluated in animal models of retinal degeneration. After intravitreal injection, Tf spread rapidly within the retina and accumulated in photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium, before reaching the blood circulation. Tf injected in the vitreous prior and, to a lesser extent, after light-induced retinal degeneration, efficiently protected the retina histology and function. We found an association between Tf treatment and the modulation of iron homeostasis resulting in a decrease of iron content and oxidative stress marker. The immunomodulation function of Tf could be seen through a reduction in macrophage/microglial activation as well as modulated inflammation responses. In a mouse model of hemochromatosis, Tf had the capacity to clear abnormal iron accumulation from retinas. And in the slow P23H rat model of retinal degeneration, a sustained release of Tf in the vitreous via non-viral gene therapy efficently slowed-down the photoreceptors death and preserved their function. These results clearly demonstrate the synergistic neuroprotective roles of Tf against retinal degeneration and allow identify Tf as an innovative and not toxic therapy for retinal diseases associated with oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Picard
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France.
| | - Quentin Le Rouzic
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Antonin Oudar
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Marianne Berdugo
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Mohamed El Sanharawi
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Charlotte Andrieu-Soler
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Christine Naud
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Jonet
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Chloé Latour
- INSERM, U1043, Toulouse, France; CNRS, U5282, Toulouse, France; Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Toulouse, France
| | - Christophe Klein
- INSERM, U1138, CICC, Université René Descartes Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Galiacy
- INSERM U563, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France; Department of Ophthalmology, Purpan Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - François Malecaze
- INSERM U563, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France; Department of Ophthalmology, Purpan Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Hélène Coppin
- INSERM, U1043, Toulouse, France; CNRS, U5282, Toulouse, France; Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Toulouse, France
| | - Marie-Paule Roth
- INSERM, U1043, Toulouse, France; CNRS, U5282, Toulouse, France; Université de Toulouse, UPS, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Claude Jeanny
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Yves Courtois
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France
| | - Francine Behar-Cohen
- INSERM, UMRS 1138, team Behar-Cohen, From physiopathology of ocular diseases to clinical development, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Université René Descartes, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers UMRS 1138, Paris, France; Jules Gonin Ophthalmic Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Aredo B, Li T, Chen X, Zhang K, Wang CXZ, Gou D, Zhao B, He Y, Ufret-Vincenty RL. A chimeric Cfh transgene leads to increased retinal oxidative stress, inflammation, and accumulation of activated subretinal microglia in mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2015; 56:3427-40. [PMID: 26030099 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.14-16089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Variants of complement factor H (Cfh) affecting short consensus repeats (SCRs) 6 to 8 increase the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Our aim was to explore the effect of expressing a Cfh variant on the in vivo susceptibility of the retina and RPE to oxidative stress and inflammation, using chimeric Cfh transgenic mice (chCfhTg). METHODS The chCfhTg and age-matched C57BL/6J (B6) mice were subjected to oxidative stress by either normal aging, or by exposure to a combination of oral hydroquinone (0.8% HQ) and increased light. Eyes were collected for immunohistochemistry of RPE-choroid flat mounts and of retinal sections, ELISA, electron microscopy, and RPE/microglia gene expression analysis. RESULTS Aging mice to 2 years led to an increased accumulation of basal laminar deposits, subretinal microglia/macrophages (MG/MΦ) staining for CD16 and for malondialdehyde (MDA), and MDA-modified proteins in the retina in chCfhTg compared to B6 mice. The chCfhTg mice maintained on HQ diet and increased light showed greater deposition of basal laminar deposits, more accumulation of fundus spots suggestive of MG/MΦ, and increased deposition of C3d in the sub-RPE space, compared to controls. In addition, chCfhTg mice demonstrated upregulation of NLRP3, IP-10, CD68, and TREM-2 in the RNA isolates from RPE/MG/MΦ. CONCLUSIONS Expression of a Cfh transgene introducing a variant in SCRs 6 to 8 was sufficient to lead to increased retinal/RPE susceptibility to oxidative stress, a proinflammatory MG/MΦ phenotype, and a proinflammatory RPE/MG/MΦ gene expression profile in a transgenic mouse model. Our data suggest that altered interactions of Cfh with MDA-modified proteins may be relevant in explaining the effects of the Cfh variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bogale Aredo
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States 2Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States
| | - Kaiyan Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States
| | - Cynthia Xin-Zhao Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States
| | - Darlene Gou
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States
| | - Biren Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States
| | - Yuguang He
- Department of Ophthalmology UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States
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Microglial Activation Promotes Cell Survival in Organotypic Cultures of Postnatal Mouse Retinal Explants. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135238. [PMID: 26252475 PMCID: PMC4529135 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of microglia during neurodegeneration remains controversial. We investigated whether microglial cells have a neurotoxic or neuroprotective function in the retina. Retinal explants from 10-day-old mice were treated in vitro with minocycline to inhibit microglial activation, with LPS to increase microglial activation, or with liposomes loaded with clodronate (Lip-Clo) to deplete microglial cells. Flow cytometry was used to assess the viability of retinal cells in the explants and the TUNEL method to show the distribution of dead cells. The immunophenotypic and morphological features of microglia and their distribution were analyzed with flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry. Treatment of retinal explants with minocycline reduced microglial activation and simultaneously significantly decreased cell viability and increased the presence of TUNEL-labeled cell profiles. This treatment also prevented the migration of microglial cells towards the outer nuclear layer, where cell death was most abundant. The LPS treatment increased microglial activation but had no effect on cell viability or microglial distribution. Finally, partial microglial removal with Lip-Clo diminished the cell viability in the retinal explants, showing a similar effect to that of minocycline. Hence, cell viability is diminished in retinal explants cultured in vitro when microglial cells are removed or their activation is inhibited, indicating a neurotrophic role for microglia in this system.
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Bell BA, Kaul C, Bonilha VL, Rayborn ME, Shadrach K, Hollyfield JG. The BALB/c mouse: Effect of standard vivarium lighting on retinal pathology during aging. Exp Eye Res 2015; 135:192-205. [PMID: 25895728 PMCID: PMC4446204 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2015.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Revised: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BALB/cJ mice housed under normal vivarium lighting conditions can exhibit profound retinal abnormalities, including retinal infoldings, autofluorescent inflammatory cells, and photoreceptor degeneration. To explore the sensitivity of the outer retina to cyclic lighting during aging, a cohort of BALB/cJ mice was evaluated with Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (SLO), Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and conventional histopathology. Mice were bred and reared in a low-illuminance (extracage/intracage: 13 lx/1 lx) vivarium under cyclic light (14 h light: 10 h dark). Retinal imaging (around postnatal day 70) was performed to screen for any pre-existing abnormalities and to establish a baseline. Mice with normal retinas were separated into groups (A, B, C) and placed on bottom (Groups A & B) or top (Group C) of the cage racks where cage illumination was <10 & 150 lx respectively. Experimental groups B & C were imaged multiple times over a 17 month period. Mice from group A (controls) were imaged only once post-baseline at various times for comparison to groups B & C. Mice were assessed by histology at 8, 15, 20, 36, and 56 weeks and immunohistochemistry at 15 weeks post-baseline. SLO and OCT retinal images were measured and the resulting trends displayed as a function of age and light exposure. Retinal lesions (RL) and autofluorescent foci (AFF) were identified with histology as photoreceptor layer infoldings (IF) and localized microglia/macrophages (MM), respectively. Few RL and AFF were evident at baseline. Retinal infoldings were the earliest changes followed by subjacent punctate autofluorescent MM. The colocalization of IF and MM suggests a causal relationship. The incidence of these pathological features increased in all groups relative to baseline. OCT imaging revealed thinning of the outer nuclear layer (ONL) in all groups at 1 year relative to baseline. ONL thinning followed an exponential rate of change but the decay constant varied depending on intensity of illumination of the groups. Advanced age and top row illuminance conditions resulted in significant photoreceptor cell loss as judged by decreased thickness of the ONL. Photoreceptor loss was preceded by both retinal infoldings and the presence of autofluorescent inflammatory cells in the outer retina, suggesting that these changes are early indicators of light toxicity in the BALB/cJ mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brent A Bell
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Charles Kaul
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Vera L Bonilha
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Mary E Rayborn
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Karen Shadrach
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Joe G Hollyfield
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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Li L, Eter N, Heiduschka P. The microglia in healthy and diseased retina. Exp Eye Res 2015; 136:116-30. [PMID: 25952657 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2015.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The microglia are the immune cells of the central nervous system and, also the retina. They fulfil several tasks of surveillance in the healthy retina. In case of an injury or disease, microglia become activated and tries to repair the damage. However, in a lot of cases it does not work, and microglia deteriorate the situation by releasing toxic and pro-inflammatory compounds. Moreover, they further promote degenerative processes by attacking and phagocytosing damaged neurones and photoreceptors that otherwise would possibly have the chance to survive. Such deleterious action of the microglia has been observed in degeneration of retinal ganglion cells and photoreceptors, and it takes place in hereditary diseases, infections as well as in case of traumatic or light injuries. Therefore, a number of attempts has been undertaken so far to inhibit the microglia, with varying success. The task remains to study behaviour of the microglia and their interaction with other retinal cell populations in more detail with respect to released factors and expressed receptors including the time points of the corresponding events. The goal has to be to find a better balance between helpful and detrimental actions of the microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Li
- University of Münster Medical School, Department of Ophthalmology, Domagkstr. 15, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Nicole Eter
- University of Münster Medical School, Department of Ophthalmology, Domagkstr. 15, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Peter Heiduschka
- University of Münster Medical School, Department of Ophthalmology, Domagkstr. 15, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
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Karlstetter M, Scholz R, Rutar M, Wong WT, Provis JM, Langmann T. Retinal microglia: just bystander or target for therapy? Prog Retin Eye Res 2014; 45:30-57. [PMID: 25476242 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 374] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Resident microglial cells can be regarded as the immunological watchdogs of the brain and the retina. They are active sensors of their neuronal microenvironment and rapidly respond to various insults with a morphological and functional transformation into reactive phagocytes. There is strong evidence from animal models and in situ analyses of human tissue that microglial reactivity is a common hallmark of various retinal degenerative and inflammatory diseases. These include rare hereditary retinopathies such as retinitis pigmentosa and X-linked juvenile retinoschisis but also comprise more common multifactorial retinal diseases such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and uveitis as well as neurological disorders with ocular manifestation. In this review, we describe how microglial function is kept in balance under normal conditions by cross-talk with other retinal cells and summarize how microglia respond to different forms of retinal injury. In addition, we present the concept that microglia play a key role in local regulation of complement in the retina and specify aspects of microglial aging relevant for chronic inflammatory processes in the retina. We conclude that this resident immune cell of the retina cannot be simply regarded as bystander of disease but may instead be a potential therapeutic target to be modulated in the treatment of degenerative and inflammatory diseases of the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Karlstetter
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Rebecca Scholz
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Matt Rutar
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University (ANU), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Wai T Wong
- Unit on Neuron-Glia Interactions in Retinal Disease, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jan M Provis
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University (ANU), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Thomas Langmann
- Laboratory for Experimental Immunology of the Eye, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
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Zhao Z, Xu P, Jie Z, Zuo Y, Yu B, Soong L, Sun J, Chen Y, Cai J. γδ T cells as a major source of IL-17 production during age-dependent RPE degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2014; 55:6580-9. [PMID: 25212781 PMCID: PMC4203278 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.14-15166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Chronic inflammation is a key factor contributing to the progression of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The goals of the current study were to develop an improved mouse model with retinal pathologic features similar to those of AMD and to characterize the immunoreactive cells in the outer retina and choroid during degeneration of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). METHODS Mice deficient in nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) at 12 months of age were fed a high-fat, cholesterol-rich diet for up to 16 weeks. Ocular phenotype was monitored by optical coherence tomography (OCT) and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) in live animals, and was further validated by retinal histopathology. Immunofluorescence staining of either cryosections or RPE flat mounts was used to define immunoreactive cells. Flow cytometry analyses were further performed to define the subsets of intraocular T lymphocytes. RESULTS After 16 weeks on a high-fat (HF) diet, 58% of the eyes from Nrf2-/- mice had progression of retinal lesions. Major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II)-positive microglia, FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), and CD3+ IL-17-producing T cells were detected in either the retina or sub-RPE space. Flow cytometry analyses further revealed that most of the IL-17-producing cells were CD3+ CD4- TCRγδ+ cells. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that the T cell-mediated immune responses played important roles in controlling the progression of AMD-like phenotype in Nrf2-deficient mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyang Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Pei Xu
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Zuliang Jie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Yiqin Zuo
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Bo Yu
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Lynn Soong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Jiaren Sun
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
| | - Jiyang Cai
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States
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Immunolocalization of the P2X4 receptor on neurons and glia in the mammalian retina. Neuroscience 2014; 277:55-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.06.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 06/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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The role of microglia in diabetic retinopathy. J Ophthalmol 2014; 2014:705783. [PMID: 25258680 PMCID: PMC4166427 DOI: 10.1155/2014/705783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that chronic inflammation plays a role in both the development and progression of diabetic retinopathy. There is also evidence that molecules produced as a result of hyperglycemia can activate microglia. However the exact contribution of microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, to retinal tissue damage during diabetes remains unclear. Current data suggest that dysregulated microglial responses are linked to their deleterious effects in several neurological diseases associated with chronic inflammation. As inflammatory cytokines and hyperglycemia disseminate through the diabetic retina, microglia can change to an activated state, increase in number, translocate through the retina, and themselves become the producers of inflammatory and apoptotic molecules or alternatively exert anti-inflammatory effects. In addition, microglial genetic variations may account for some of the individual differences commonly seen in patient's susceptibility to diabetic retinopathy.
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Francisco-Morcillo J, Bejarano-Escobar R, Rodríguez-León J, Navascués J, Martín-Partido G. Ontogenetic cell death and phagocytosis in the visual system of vertebrates. Dev Dyn 2014; 243:1203-25. [PMID: 25130286 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death (PCD), together with cell proliferation, cell migration, and cell differentiation, is an essential process during development of the vertebrate nervous system. The visual system has been an excellent model on which to investigate the mechanisms involved in ontogenetic cell death. Several phases of PCD have been reported to occur during visual system ontogeny. During these phases, comparative analyses demonstrate that dying cells show similar but not identical spatiotemporally restricted patterns in different vertebrates. Additionally, the chronotopographical coincidence of PCD with the entry of specialized phagocytes in some regions of the developing vertebrate visual system suggests that factors released from degenerating cells are involved in the cell migration of macrophages and microglial cells. Contradicting this hypothesis however, in many cases the cell corpses generated during degeneration are rapidly phagocytosed by neighboring cells, such as neuroepithelial cells or Müller cells. In this review, we describe the occurrence and the sites of PCD during the morphogenesis and differentiation of the retina and optic pathways of different vertebrates, and discuss the possible relationship between PCD and phagocytes during ontogeny.
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Rapid light-induced activation of retinal microglia in mice lacking Arrestin-1. Vision Res 2014; 102:71-9. [PMID: 25091460 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2014.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglia dynamically prune synaptic contacts during development, and digest waste that accumulates in degeneration and aging. In many neurodegenerative diseases, microglial activation and phagocytosis gradually increase over months or years, with poorly defined initial triggering events. Here, we describe rapid retinal microglial activation in response to physiological light levels in a mouse model of photoreceptor degeneration that arises from defective rhodopsin deactivation and prolonged signaling. Activation, migration and proliferation of microglia proceeded along a well-defined time course apparent within 12 h of light onset. Retinal imaging in vivo with optical coherence tomography revealed dramatic increases in light-scattering from photoreceptors prior to the outer nuclear layer thinning classically used as a measure of retinal neurodegeneration. This model is valuable for mechanistic studies of microglial activation in a well-defined and optically accessible neural circuit, and for the development of novel methods for detecting early signs of pending neurodegeneration in vivo.
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Rojas B, Gallego BI, Ramírez AI, Salazar JJ, de Hoz R, Valiente-Soriano FJ, Avilés-Trigueros M, Villegas-Perez MP, Vidal-Sanz M, Triviño A, Ramírez JM. Microglia in mouse retina contralateral to experimental glaucoma exhibit multiple signs of activation in all retinal layers. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:133. [PMID: 25064005 PMCID: PMC4128533 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Glaucomatous optic neuropathy, a leading cause of blindness, can progress despite control of intraocular pressure - currently the main risk factor and target for treatment. Glaucoma progression shares mechanisms with neurodegenerative disease, including microglia activation. In the present model of ocular hypertension (OHT), we have recently described morphological signs of retinal microglia activation and MHC-II upregulation in both the untreated contralateral eyes and OHT eyes. By using immunostaining, we sought to analyze and quantify additional signs of microglia activation and differences depending on the retinal layer. Methods Two groups of adult Swiss mice were used: age-matched control (naïve, n = 12), and lasered (n = 12). In the lasered animals, both OHT eyes and contralateral eyes were analyzed. Retinal whole-mounts were immunostained with antibodies against Iba-1, MHC-II, CD68, CD86, and Ym1. The Iba-1+ cell number in the plexiform layers (PL) and the photoreceptor outer segment (OS), Iba-1+ arbor area in the PL, and area of the retina occupied by Iba-1+ cells in the nerve fiber layer-ganglion cell layer (NFL-GCL) were quantified. Results The main findings in contralateral eyes and OHT eyes were: i) ameboid microglia in the NFL-GCL and OS; ii) the retraction of processes in all retinal layers; iii) a higher level of branching in PL and in the OS; iv) soma displacement to the nearest cell layers in the PL and OS; v) the reorientation of processes in the OS; vi) MHC-II upregulation in all retinal layers; vii) increased CD68 immunostaining; and viii) CD86 immunolabeling in ameboid cells. In comparison with the control group, a significant increase in the microglial number in the PL, OS, and in the area occupied by Iba-1+ cells in the NFL-GCL, and significant reduction of the arbor area in the PL. In addition, rounded Iba-1+ CD86+ cells in the NFL-GCL, OS and Ym1+ cells, and rod-like microglia in the NFL-GCL were restricted to OHT eyes. Conclusions Several quantitative and qualitative signs of microglia activation are detected both in the contralateral and OHT eyes. Such activation extended beyond the GCL, involving all retinal layers. Differences between the two eyes could help to elucidate glaucoma pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - José M Ramírez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Oftalmológicas Ramón Castroviejo, Facultad de Medicina, Pab VI, 4a, Avenida Complutense s/n, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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Cuenca N, Fernández-Sánchez L, Campello L, Maneu V, De la Villa P, Lax P, Pinilla I. Cellular responses following retinal injuries and therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases. Prog Retin Eye Res 2014; 43:17-75. [PMID: 25038518 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Retinal neurodegenerative diseases like age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy and retinitis pigmentosa each have a different etiology and pathogenesis. However, at the cellular and molecular level, the response to retinal injury is similar in all of them, and results in morphological and functional impairment of retinal cells. This retinal degeneration may be triggered by gene defects, increased intraocular pressure, high levels of blood glucose, other types of stress or aging, but they all frequently induce a set of cell signals that lead to well-established and similar morphological and functional changes, including controlled cell death and retinal remodeling. Interestingly, an inflammatory response, oxidative stress and activation of apoptotic pathways are common features in all these diseases. Furthermore, it is important to note the relevant role of glial cells, including astrocytes, Müller cells and microglia, because their response to injury is decisive for maintaining the health of the retina or its degeneration. Several therapeutic approaches have been developed to preserve retinal function or restore eyesight in pathological conditions. In this context, neuroprotective compounds, gene therapy, cell transplantation or artificial devices should be applied at the appropriate stage of retinal degeneration to obtain successful results. This review provides an overview of the common and distinctive features of retinal neurodegenerative diseases, including the molecular, anatomical and functional changes caused by the cellular response to damage, in order to establish appropriate treatments for these pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Cuenca
- Department of Physiology, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain; Multidisciplinary Institute for Environmental Studies "Ramon Margalef", University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain.
| | - Laura Fernández-Sánchez
- Department of Physiology, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Laura Campello
- Department of Physiology, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Victoria Maneu
- Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Pedro De la Villa
- Department of Systems Biology, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Pedro Lax
- Department of Physiology, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Isabel Pinilla
- Department of Ophthalmology, Lozano Blesa University Hospital, Aragon Institute of Health Sciences, Zaragoza, Spain
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48
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Ferrer-Martín RM, Martín-Oliva D, Sierra A, Carrasco MC, Martín-Estebané M, Calvente R, Marín-Teva JL, Navascués J, Cuadros MA. Microglial cells in organotypic cultures of developing and adult mouse retina and their relationship with cell death. Exp Eye Res 2014; 121:42-57. [PMID: 24582572 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2014.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2013] [Revised: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Organotypic cultures of retinal explants allow the detailed analysis of microglial cells in a cellular microenvironment similar to that in the in situ retina, with the advantage of easy experimental manipulation. However, the in vitro culture causes changes in the retinal cytoarchitecture and induces a microglial response that may influence the results of these manipulations. The purpose of this study was to analyze the influence of the retinal age on changes in retinal cytoarchitecture, cell viability and death, and microglial phenotype and distribution throughout the in vitro culture of developing and adult retina explants. Explants from developing (3 and 10 postnatal days, P3 and P10) and adult (P60) mouse retinas were cultured for up to 10 days in vitro (div). Dead or dying cells were recognized by TUNEL staining, cell viability was determined by flow cytometry, and the numbers and distribution patterns of microglial cells were studied by flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry, respectively. The retinal cytoarchitecture was better preserved at prolonged culture times (10 div) in P10 retina explants than in P3 or adult explants. Particular patterns of cell viability and death were observed at each age: in general, explants from developing retinas showed higher cell viability and lower density of TUNEL-positive profiles versus adult retinas. The proportion of microglial cells relative to the whole population of retinal cells was higher in explants fixed immediately after their dissection (i.e., non-cultured) from adult retinas than in those from developing retinas. This proportion was always higher in non-cultured explants than in explants at 10 div, suggesting the death of some microglial cells during the culture. Activation of microglial cells, as revealed by their phenotypical appearance, was observed in both developing and adult retina explants from the beginning of the culture. Immunofluorescence with the anti-CD68 antibody showed that some activated microglial cells were CD68-positive but others were CD68-negative. Flow cytometry using CD68-labeling revealed that the percentage of CD68-positive microglial cells was much higher in developing than in adult retina explants, despite the activation of microglia in both types of explants, indicating that CD68-labeling was more closely related to the maturity degree of microglia than to their activation. Some swollen activated microglial cells entered the outer nuclear layer in developing and adult cultured retinal explants, whereas this layer was devoid of microglia in non-cultured explants. There was no apparent correlation between the distribution of microglia and that of TUNEL-labeled profiles. However, some swollen activated microglial cells in the outer and inner nuclear layers engulfed clusters of cell nuclei that were negative or weakly positive for TUNEL. This engulfment activity of microglia mimicked that observed in degenerative pathologies of the retina. We conclude that organotypic cultures from developing retinas show a higher rate of cell viability and better preservation of the normal cytoarchitecture in comparison to those obtained from adult retinas. In addition, the features of microglial response in cultured retinal explants show them to be a useful model for studying interactions between microglial cells and degenerating neurons in retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa M Ferrer-Martín
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - David Martín-Oliva
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Ana Sierra
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Maria-Carmen Carrasco
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - María Martín-Estebané
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Ruth Calvente
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - José L Marín-Teva
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Julio Navascués
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel A Cuadros
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
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49
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Gautron L, Rutkowski JM, Burton MD, Wei W, Wan Y, Elmquist JK. Neuronal and nonneuronal cholinergic structures in the mouse gastrointestinal tract and spleen. J Comp Neurol 2013; 521:3741-67. [PMID: 23749724 PMCID: PMC4081472 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence demonstrates that acetylcholine can directly modulate immune function in peripheral tissues including the spleen and gastrointestinal tract. However, the anatomical relationships between the peripheral cholinergic system and immune cells located in these lymphoid tissues remain unclear due to inherent technical difficulties with currently available neuroanatomical methods. In this study, mice with specific expression of the tdTomato fluorescent protein in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-expressing cells were used to label preganglionic and postganglionic cholinergic neurons and their projections to lymphoid tissues. Notably, our anatomical observations revealed an abundant innervation in the intestinal lamina propria of the entire gastrointestinal tract principally originating from cholinergic enteric neurons. The aforementioned innervation frequently approached macrophages, plasma cells, and lymphocytes located in the lamina propria and, to a lesser extent, lymphocytes in the interfollicular areas of Peyer's patches. In addition to the above innervation, we observed labeled epithelial cells in the gallbladder and lower intestines, as well as Microfold cells and T-cells within Peyer's patches. In contrast, we found only a sparse innervation in the spleen consisting of neuronal fibers of spinal origin present around arterioles and in lymphocyte-containing areas of the white pulp. Lastly, a small population of ChAT-expressing lymphocytes was identified in the spleen including both T- and B-cells. In summary, this study describes the variety of cholinergic neuronal and nonneuronal cells in a position to modulate gastrointestinal and splenic immunity in the mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Gautron
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
| | - Joseph M. Rutkowski
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
- Touchstone Diabetes Center, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
| | - Michael D. Burton
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
| | - Wei Wei
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
| | - Yihong Wan
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
| | - Joel K. Elmquist
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75235
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50
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Gridley DS, Mao XW, Stodieck LS, Ferguson VL, Bateman TA, Moldovan M, Cunningham CE, Jones TA, Slater JM, Pecaut MJ. Changes in mouse thymus and spleen after return from the STS-135 mission in space. PLoS One 2013; 8:e75097. [PMID: 24069384 PMCID: PMC3777930 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous results with flight (FLT) mice showed abnormalities in thymuses and spleens that have potential to compromise immune defense mechanisms. In this study, the organs were further evaluated in C57BL/6 mice after Space Shuttle Atlantis returned from a 13-day mission. Thymuses and spleens were harvested from FLT mice and ground controls housed in similar animal enclosure modules (AEM). Organ and body mass, DNA fragmentation and expression of genes related to T cells and cancer were determined. Although significance was not obtained for thymus mass, DNA fragmentation was greater in the FLT group (P<0.01). Spleen mass alone and relative to body mass was significantly decreased in FLT mice (P<0.05). In FLT thymuses, 6/84 T cell-related genes were affected versus the AEM control group (P<0.05; up: IL10, Il18bp, Il18r1, Spp1; down: Ccl7, IL6); 15/84 cancer-related genes had altered expression (P<0.05; up: Casp8, FGFR2, Figf, Hgf, IGF1, Itga4, Ncam1, Pdgfa, Pik3r1, Serpinb2, Sykb; down: Cdc25a, E2F1, Mmp9, Myc). In the spleen, 8/84 cancer-related genes were affected in FLT mice compared to AEM controls (P<0.05; up: Cdkn2a; down: Birc5, Casp8, Ctnnb1, Map2k1, Mdm2, NFkB1, Pdgfa). Pathway analysis (apoptosis signaling and checkpoint regulation) was used to map relationships among the cancer–related genes. The results showed that a relatively short mission in space had a significant impact on both organs. The findings also indicate that immune system aberrations due to stressors associated with space travel should be included when estimating risk for pathologies such as cancer and infection and in designing appropriate countermeasures. Although this was the historic last flight of NASA’s Space Shuttle Program, exploration of space will undoubtedly continue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daila S. Gridley
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Radiation Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Xiao Wen Mao
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Radiation Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
| | - Louis S. Stodieck
- BioServe Space Technologies, Aerospace Engineering Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Virginia L. Ferguson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Ted A. Bateman
- Department of Bioengineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Maria Moldovan
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Radiation Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
| | - Christopher E. Cunningham
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Radiation Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
| | - Tamako A. Jones
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Radiation Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
| | - Jerry M. Slater
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Radiation Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Pecaut
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Radiation Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, United States of America
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