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Suenaga J, Cui DF, Yamamoto I, Ohno S, Hirai SI. Developmental changes in the expression pattern of the JNK activator kinase MUK/DLK/ZPK and active JNK in the mouse cerebellum. Cell Tissue Res 2006; 325:189-95. [PMID: 16520976 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-006-0164-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2005] [Accepted: 01/09/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
JNK is one of the key molecules regulating cell differentiation and migration in a variety of cell types, including cerebral cortical neurons. MUK/DLK/ZPK belongs to the MAP kinase-kinase-kinase class of protein kinases for the JNK pathway and is expressed predominantly in neural tissue. We have determined the expression pattern of MUK/DLK/ZPK and active JNK in the cerebellum at different stages of postnatal development. Quantitative analysis by Western blotting has showed that high expression levels of MUK/DLK/ZPK and active JNK are maintained during the postnatal development of the cerebellum, and that these levels decrease in the adult cerebellum. Immunohistochemical staining has revealed, however, that their distribution in the developing cerebellum is considerably different. Although active JNK is highly concentrated in the premigratory zone of the external germinal layer (EGL), high expression of MUK/DLK/ZPK has been observed in the molecular layer and in the premigratory zone. Neither the active JNK nor MUK protein has been detected in the proliferative zone of the EGL. These observations suggest that during the postnatal development of the cerebellum, the MUK-JNK signaling pathway contributes to the regulation of granule cell differentiation and migration; further, the activity of MUK/DLK/ZPK is tightly regulated by posttranslational mechanisms and by its expression level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Suenaga
- Department of Molecular Biology, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medical Science, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-0004, Japan
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Hammond RR, Iskander S, Achim CL, Hearn S, Nassif J, Wiley CA. A reliable primary human CNS culture protocol for morphological studies of dendritic and synaptic elements. J Neurosci Methods 2002; 118:189-98. [PMID: 12204309 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0270(02)00126-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Primary dissociated human fetal forebrain cultures were grown in defined serum-free conditions. At 4 weeks in vitro the cultures contained abundant morphologically well differentiated neurons with complex dendritic arbors. Astrocytic proliferation was negligible without the use of antimitotic agents. Confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) and electron microscopy confirmed the presence of a dense neuropil, numerous cell-cell contacts and synapses. Neurons expressed a variety of proteins including growth associated protein-43 (GAP43), microtubule associated protein-2ab (MAP), class-III beta tubulin (C3BT), neurofilaments (NF), synaptophysin (SYN), parvalbumin (PA) and calbindin (CB). The cultures have proven to be reliable and simple to initiate and maintain for many weeks without passaging. They are useful in investigations of dendritic growth and injury of primary human CNS neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Hammond
- Department of Pathology, London Health Sciences Centre, University of Western Ontario, London, Ont., Canada N6A 5C1.
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3
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Abstract
The dendritic branching pattern of cultured hippocampal neurons was analyzed to obtain mathematical parameters that fit the time-dependent growth of dendrites under limited extrinsic influence. Cultured neurons were stained with a non-toxic carbocyanine dye (diO) and pyramidal-shaped neurons that were physically separated from one another were analyzed at post-plating days 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. The geometric branching pattern of the dendrites was analyzed using a mathematical model that incorporates random effects in the form of a Galton-Watson branching process where splitting of one branch is statistically independent of the splitting of all other branches, and deterministic effects in the form of a parameter that measures the extent to which dense patterns (clusters) or sparse patterns (elongated trees) are formed. The geometric branching pattern of the dendrites was analyzed using a mathematical model that incorporates random and deterministic effects. The model parameters were estimated via the method of maximum likelihood. The data suggest that in vitro basal dendrites grow according to a purely random branching process without pronounced dense or sparse patterns, while apical dendrites tend to form elongated trees with fewer secondary bifurcations. This trend is quantified, and it depends on the culture conditions in which the neurons are grown. The quantitative assessment of various influences on dendritic growth patterns are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Uemura
- Department of Anatomy, Iowa State University, Ames 50011, USA
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Tanaka M, Tomita A, Yoshida S, Yano M, Shimizu H. Observation of the highly organized development of granule cells in rat cerebellar organotypic cultures. Brain Res 1994; 641:319-27. [PMID: 8012835 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(94)90161-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Cerebellar slices of 9-day-old rats were cultured for a week at the interface between air and a culture medium containing horse serum and hormone cocktail, and the development of granule cells was characterized morphologically. The typical layered structure of the cerebellar cortex was well preserved during the cultivation. Many granule cells in the external granular layer (EGL) proliferated actively within the early culture period. They were migrating downward at 3 days in vitro (DIV) and almost completed the migration to the internal granular layer (IGL) after 6 DIV. In the middle and upper molecular layer (ML), parallel fibers were elongated horizontally, which is the orientation 90 degrees rotated compared to that in vivo. They formed synapses with Purkinje cell dendrites. Regional differences in synapse density and maturity existed which might reflect a gradient in progressive synapse formation comparable to that in vivo. Thus, a serial process of highly organized development of granule cells was realized for the first time in vitro, although some spatial or temporal modifications existed. Such a culture system could be a useful experimental model for the study of cellular and molecular mechanisms of spatiotemporally organized neuronal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tanaka
- Division of Biophysical Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, Japan
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Sobkowicz HM, Slapnick SM, August BK. Presynaptic fibres of spiral neurons and reciprocal synapses in the organ of Corti in culture. JOURNAL OF NEUROCYTOLOGY 1993; 22:979-93. [PMID: 8301328 DOI: 10.1007/bf01218355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Isolated segments of the newborn mouse organ of Corti were explanted together with the spiral ganglion components. Within the innervation provided by the spiral neurons, we observed presynaptic vesiculated nerve endings that form reciprocal ribbon-afferent/efferent synapses with inner hair cells. These intracochlear presynaptic fibres are characteristically located between adjoining inner hair cells, on the modiolar side, low and close to the supporting cells. The presynaptic fibres display different modes of synaptic connectivity, forming repetitive reciprocal synapses on single inner hair cells or on adjoining hair cells, or connecting adjoining inner hair cells through simultaneous efferent synapses. Many presynaptic fibres exhibit a distinctive ultrastructure: defined clusters of synaptic vesicles, dense core vesicles, coated vesicles, and mitochondria. These organelles occur focally at the synaptic sites; beyond the efferent synaptic specializations, the endings appear quite nondescript and afferent-like. We believe that the reciprocal synapses, although observed in cultures of the organ of Corti, represent real intracochlear synaptic arrangements providing a feedback mechanism between the primary sensory receptors and a special class of spiral ganglion cells that have yet to be recognized in the organ in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Sobkowicz
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706
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7
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Abstract
Roller tube cultures of parasagittal cerebellar slices were taken from young rats aged 9-11 days, and maintained in vitro for 1-2 weeks. Morphological aspects of cell types and synaptic relationships in such organ cultures were examined at light and electron microscopic levels. Some neurons were marked by intracellular injections of horseradish peroxidase for subsequent identification of their connection patterns. Cytoarchitecture of the cerebellar cortex was largely preserved in the organ cultures. Dendritic trees of Purkinje cells exhibited isoplanar organizations that often resembled their orientation at the time of explanation. Other cerebellar neurons, namely granule cells, Golgi cells, basket cells, stellate cells, all differentiated within the organ cultures. In addition, some neurons of the deep cerebellar nuclei remained viable during the period of culture. Mossy fibers most probably of cerebellar nuclear origin were found terminating on the dendrites of granule cells and Golgi cells. Quite unexpected were certain types of direct synapses of afferent fibers on short necked spines arising from Purkinje cell smooth dendrites and somata. Such terminals resembled climbing fibers. They were most likely modified mossy fiber afferents, since the organ cultures did not include neurons of the inferior olive which are well spearated from the cerebellar mass at postnatal stages. These "ascending" mossy fibers presumably occupied postsynaptic surfaces that were either vacated by deafferentation or induced by the afferent fibers themselves. Intracellularly labeled Purkinje cells had widely distributed axonal collateral branches. Labeled axons were distributed within the Purkinje cell layer. Several recurrent Purkinje cell axon collaterals stained with reaction products of horseradish peroxidase tracer were followed at the ultrastructural level. In one case, labeled terminals were examined in an area of approximately 2 mm2. Terminals of Purkinje cell collaterals formed symmetric synapses with somata of basket cells and dendrites of Golgi cells, but not Purkinje cell somata. Some large boutons of serially traced Purkinje cell axon collaterals formed asymmetric contacts with profiles interpreted as Golgi cell dendrites. In contrast to the apparent axonal sprouting in cerebellar organ cultures, maturation of dendritic processes remained static. Astroglia cells of diverse shapes were observed following immunocytochemical staining with antisera to glia filament proteins. The distribution patterns of immunoreactive astrocytes changed dramatically in cerebellar slice cultures maintained for 3-6 weeks in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- C B Jaeger
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, New York University Medical Center, NY 10016
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8
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Cull-Candy SG, Howe JR, Ogden DC. Noise and single channels activated by excitatory amino acids in rat cerebellar granule neurones. J Physiol 1988; 400:189-222. [PMID: 2458453 PMCID: PMC1191804 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.1988.sp017117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
1. Glutamate-receptor ion channels in rat cerebellar granule cells maintained in explant cultures have been investigated with patch-clamp methods. Properties of these channels were determined from noise analysis of whole-cell currents and from noise and single-channel currents recorded in outside-out membrane patches. 2. Glutamate (10-20 microM) evoked two types of response. Some granule cells gave small inward currents accompanied by clear increases in current noise ('large noise' responses), whereas other cells gave larger inward currents and small noise increases ('small noise' responses). 3. A mean single-channel conductance (gamma) of 46.6 pS was estimated for glutamate from four 'large noise' cells. A mean gamma value of 8.4 pS was estimated for seven other 'large noise' cells. The results suggest that in these latter cells glutamate activated both large (approximately equal to 50 pS) and small conductance (approximately equal to 140 fS) channels. 4. Applications of aspartate (10-30 microM) or N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA, 10-30 microM) produced small inward currents and large increases in noise; gamma noise = 48.5 pS (aspartate) and 46.7 pS (NMDA). 5. Large single-channel currents were evoked by glutamate, aspartate and NMDA in outside-out patches. The mean conductance values obtained for the largest amplitude openings were: gamma(glutamate) = 49.5 pS, gamma(aspartate) = 51.5 pS, and gamma(NMDA) = 53.0 pS. For each agonist, these 50 pS openings comprised 75-85% of the completely resolved currents in each patch. Openings to 40 and 30 pS conductance levels accounted for 10-15% and 3-7% of the total, and the presence of apparently direct transitions between these levels and the 50 pS level suggests they are sublevels of the same multi-conductance channels. 6. A mean channel conductance of 22.9 pS was estimated from noise evoked by quisqualate (10-30 microM). Single-channel currents were examined in four patches. In two, quisqualate evoked predominantly small currents of two amplitudes, gamma = 8.4 pS and 16.5 pS; some 50 pS openings were also present. In the other two patches, most openings were 50 pS events. 7. Granule cells gave inward currents to kainate (10-30 microM), and a mean conductance of 3.1 pS was estimated from kainate noise. In patches in which aspartate or NMDA produced mainly 50 pS openings, more than 74% of the single-channel currents evoked by kainate were of smaller amplitude, with mean conductances of gamma = 8.1 and 15.1 pS.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Fowler J, Crain SM. Dendritic patterns of granule cells in organotypic explants of fetal and neonatal mouse hippocampal formation. Brain Res 1986; 368:148-53. [PMID: 3955352 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(86)91052-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Granule and granule-like neurons were labeled by Golgi and HRP techniques in the dentate area of fetal and neonatal organotypic hippocampal explants after 1 day-8 weeks in vitro. These cells resembled granule cells labeled in situ with similar techniques, although the dendritic pattern and spine development were not as elaborate as observed on granule cells from adult rodents. Many of these neurons retained basilar or multiple dendrites after 8 weeks in culture, a characteristic often associated with immature granule cells, granule cells in the reeler mutant mouse and tissues removed from human epileptic foci.
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Chuppina LM, Vlasova IG. Maturation of cerebellar neuronal elements in a tissue culture. NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIORAL PHYSIOLOGY 1986; 16:17-22. [PMID: 3736835 DOI: 10.1007/bf01186884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The process of differentiation of neurons was traced on an organotypic cerebellar culture of newborn mice. Cerebellar cells reach morphological maturity by the 18-21st day of culturing. An increase of the membrane potential begins on the 6-7th day of culturing. It reaches values characteristic for the definitive stage of the neuron (65-75 mV) by the 9-10th day of culturing. Spontaneous action potentials begin to be recorded on the 10-12th day of culturing. At this time they markedly differ in their characteristics from the action potential of the mature neuron. The differences become less noticeable by the 16-18th day of culturing. However, final maturation of the action potential occurs at later times. The formation of specific sensitivity of cerebellar neurons to acetylcholine correlates with the time of formation of the action potential.
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11
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Ultrastructural characteristics of synaptogenesis in monolayer cultures of spinal cord. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY+ 1985. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01065378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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12
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Weber A, Schachner M. Maintenance of immunocytologically identified Purkinje cells from mouse cerebellum in monolayer culture. Brain Res 1984; 311:119-30. [PMID: 6386104 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(84)91404-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Purkinje cells were identified in monolayer cultures obtained from trypsin-dissociated cerebella of embryonic and early postnatal mice by the Purkinje cell-specific monoclonal antibodies PC1, PC2, PC3 and UCHT1. These cells also expressed the neuronal marker L1 antigen but not the glial markers, glial fibrillary acidic protein or 04 antigen. They also expressed tetanus toxin receptors, PC4, M1 and Thy-1 antigens. Survival of Purkinje cells was best: (a) when cerebella were taken from mice not older than one day of age: (b) when cells were seeded at higher plating densities; and (c) cultured in chemically defined medium which facilitates the survival of neurons. No Purkinje cells could be detected in cultures from mice older than 6 days. PC1 antigen expression developed in vitro on the same time scale as in vivo, i.e. it was first detectable at the equivalent of postnatal days 3-4. At this stage cell bodies had a size of 13-14 micron in diameter and few processes. Dendrite-like arborizations, with more than one primary dendrite, extension of usually only one thin and long (0.5-1.6 mm) axon-like process and collaterals directed preferentially towards other Purkinje cells, developed with time in culture until the final form was reached by the equivalent of approximately day 16. Cell body size was 18-19 micron in diameter at this stage. Cell shapes were reminiscent of those described in certain cerebellar mouse mutants and in experimentally produced agranular cerebella. Many ultrastructural features of these cells correlated with those described for the in vivo counterpart. However, there was a lack of spiny branchlets and abnormally long persisting somatic spines. Synaptic contacts of the 'en passant' type could be seen at the Purkinje cell soma. Gray type I synapses were seen on Purkinje cell dendrites and spines.
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Orkand PM, Lindner J, Schachner M. Specificity of histiotypic organization and synaptogenesis in reaggregating cell cultures of mouse cerebellum. Brain Res 1984; 318:119-34. [PMID: 6488050 DOI: 10.1016/0165-3806(84)90067-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The fine structure of reaggregating cultures of cells from 6- to 7-day-old mouse cerebellum was studied at intervals between 3 and 21 days in vitro (DIV). The resulting aggregates consisted mainly of small neurons (granule, stellate and basket cells), neuroglial cells and their processes. Large neurons were rarely present. By 7 DIV the previously loosely packed components had tightened into a more compact mass. A peripheral plexiform layer had formed which had many fine axons arranged into fascicles of parallel fibers. Deep to this zone was a cellular region containing clusters of neurons interspersed with small areas of neuropil. Axosomatic synapses appeared on neurons which resembled stellate or basket cells but not on granule cells. Axo-dendritic synapses formed in the neuropil of the cellular zone and, less frequently, in the outer plexiform layer. After 3 weeks glial cell processes had increased in volume at the expense of neurons. When cerebellar cells were cultured with cells from pons and medulla, which are normal sources of mossy fiber input, aggregates formed in which synaptic glomeruli were found. They were not seen in aggregates containing cells from retina and olfactory bulb cultured with cerebellum. Our observations suggest: that natural histogenetic mechanisms persist after dissociation and reaggregation of cerebellar cells resulting in a separation of an outer, 'molecular'-like layer from an inner granule cell layer and that neurons retain specificity of their synaptogenic capabilities both with regard to appropriate cell types and the morphological form that the synapses take.
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Kromer LF, Björklund A, Stenevi U. Intracephalic embryonic neural implants in the adult rat brain. I. Growth and mature organization of brainstem, cerebellar, and hippocampal implants. J Comp Neurol 1983; 218:433-59. [PMID: 6619323 DOI: 10.1002/cne.902180408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Abstract
Subcortical neurons incorporated with mouse cerebellar explants were subjected to analysis with Golgi methods. Intracerebellar nucleus neurons included multipolar and spindle-shape cells with complex dendrites having both spinous and aspinous branches. Dorsal pontine neurons were multipolar, with generally long, spinous dendritic branches. The dendritic complexity of these neurons maintained in relatively isolated in vitro conditions is indicative of considerable intrinsic developmental capability.
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Seil FJ, Leiman AL, Blank NK. Reorganization in granuloprival cerebellar cultures after transplantation of granule cells and glia. I. Light microscopic and electrophysiological studies. J Comp Neurol 1983; 214:258-66. [PMID: 6853756 DOI: 10.1002/cne.902140304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Granuloprival cerebellar cultures were transplanted after 9 or 16 days in vitro with cerebellar explants that had been exposed to kainic acid. The latter contained granule cells and differentiated glia, elements lacking in granuloprival cultures. Changes induced by transplantation observed by light microscopy included interposition of granule cells among the large cortical neurons of host explants; a reduction of the excess neurites of the Purkinje cell axon collateral system that is characteristic of granuloprival explants; and the appearance of myelinated fibers in previously unmyelinated cultures. The most notable electrophysiologic consequence of transplantation was the disappearance of inhibition of cortical spontaneous activity in response to antidromic stimulation of Purkinje cell axons, correlating with the disappearance of excess neurites, and suggesting that Purkinje cell recurrent collateral inhibition was no longer the dominant mode of cortical inhibition. Restoration of missing elements in granuloprival cultures incited development of structural and functional characteristics resembling those of normal cerebellar explants.
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Alvarado-Mallart RM, Sotelo C. Differentiation of cerebellar anlage heterotopically transplanted to adult rat brain: a light and electron microscopic study. J Comp Neurol 1982; 212:247-67. [PMID: 7153376 DOI: 10.1002/cne.902120304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Pieces of cerebellar primordia from (days 14 or 15 of gestation) E14 or E15 rat embryos were dissected out and transplanted into a cavity of the occipital cortex and underlying hippocampus, over the superior colliculus of 2-month-old rats. The host animals were allowed to survive for 2 to 3 months. The cytoarchitectonic and the synaptic organizations were analyzed in 16 of such transplants. Only 4 of the implants established connections with the host brain through several thin peduncles composed of myelinated fibers. The remaining 12 implants survived in an extraparenchymal situation. Independently of its partial linking to the host brain, the graft grew and developed a cerebellar structure composed of nuclear and cortical regions. The latter exhibited normal lamination and foliation, and contained the five categories of neurons which characterize normal cerebellar cortex. Electron microscopic examination disclosed that the synaptic connections normally present in the cerebellar cortex were also formed in the implants with the exception of climbing fibers, which were absent. The cerebellar interneurons kept their normal topographic distribution and gave origin to numerous synapses which maintained their own specificity. Some mossy fibers were present in the granule cell layer at the center of typical glomeruli. However, abnormal synaptic arrangements were also observed within the neuropil of this granule cell layer. They consisted of pseudoglomerular formations composed of clusters of tightly packed small axon terminals covered by granule cell dendrites. The origin of these boutons was not established. Since they did not correspond to the classes of presynaptic elements normally synapsing on these dendrites, they constitute a new example of cerebellar heterologous synapses. Their presence could be related to changes in the cellular environment due to the rarity of mossy afferents. HRP tracing experiments, carried out in extraparenchymal transplants, have allowed us to determine that the corticonucleocortical loop of normal cerebellum is also developed in the implants. Nuclear neurons are at the origin of the mossy fibers involved in glomerular formations, whereas Purkinje cells project to the nuclear region. The establishment of these reciprocal connections could determine the functional stabilization of both kinds of cerebellar neurons and thus the long survival of extraparenchymal grafts. These results allow the conclusion that the presence of extracerebellar afferents is not necessary for the organotypic and synaptotypic differentiation of cerebellar anlage.
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Blank NK, Seil FJ. Mature Purkinje cells in cerebellar tissue cultures: an ultrastructural study. J Comp Neurol 1982; 208:169-76. [PMID: 7119155 DOI: 10.1002/cne.902080206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Mature Purkinje cells in mouse cerebellar tissue cultures were morphologically analyzed by electron microscopy. Explants maintained for 19 to 31 days in vitro contained Purkinje cells that were similar in most respects to those described in vivo except for incomplete arborization of the dendritic trees. Typical features included (1) absence of Purkinje cell perisomatic spines; (2) a paucity of naked Purkinje cell dendritic spines; (3) a 1:1 relationship of Purkinje cell dendritic spines to parallel fiber terminals; and (4) almost complete astroglial investment of Purkinje cell somata and dendrites. Minimal extracellular space was present in the neuropil of the explants and unusual synapses involving Purkinje cells were absent. Atypical features described by some investigators may be a function of retarded development in suboptimal culture conditions and do not represent the limit of tissue culture methodology.
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Blank NK, Seil FJ, Herndon RM. An ultrastructural study of cortical remodeling in cytosine arabinoside induced granuloprival cerebellum in tissue culture. Neuroscience 1982; 7:1509-31. [PMID: 7121826 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4522(82)90261-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Mouse-derived cerebellar explants were exposed for 5 days to cytosine arabinoside, an inhibitor of deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis. They were then maintained in normal nutrient medium until fixation for electron microscopy at 15-20 days in vitro. The cerebellar cortex lacked granule cells, but Purkinje cells, Golgi neurons and a few basket and stellate cells survived. Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes were diminished in number and myelination was absent. Purkinje cell recurrent axon collaterals increased in number and formed synapses with the surviving cortical neurons and their processes. The ultrastructural alterations that occurred in the cytosine arabinoside-treated cultures were consistent with an interpretation of cortical remodeling in which Purkinje cell axon collaterals were the dominant inhibitory elements.
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Herndon RM, Seil FJ, Seidman C. Synaptogenesis in mouse cerebellum: a comparative in vivo and tissue culture study. Neuroscience 1981; 6:2587-98. [PMID: 7322352 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4522(81)90104-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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21
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Hendelman WJ, Marshall KC. Axonal projection patterns visualized with horseradish peroxidase in organized cultures of cerebellum. Neuroscience 1980; 5:1833-46. [PMID: 7432625 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4522(80)90033-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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22
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Aggerwal AS, Hendelman WJ. The Purkinje neuron: II. Electron microscopic analysis of the mature Purkinje neuron in organotypic culture. J Comp Neurol 1980; 193:1081-96. [PMID: 7430438 DOI: 10.1002/cne.901930418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Purkinje neurons of organotypic cultures were investigated electron microscopically following their analysis with the Golgi technique. The purpose of this study was to critically examine the issue of synaptic specificity in CNS cultures. The unique finding was the synaptic cluster, a terminal which engulfs many Purkinje spines. In the neuropil and on the major dendrites, this synaptic arrangement was interpreted to be a hypertrophic parallel fiber, representing a type of synaptic modulation. The terminals on the somatic spines are also in the form of clusters; some or all of these spines were thought to have developed to form synapses with the climbing fiber. In the absence of this afferent, the parallel fiber--a competing system--takes over the site. This represents a form of synaptic plasticity in these cultures. The inhibitory synaptic relationships were maintained on the soma and dendrites, but it was found that the basket synapses did not quantitatively encase the soma as is seen in the intact animal. Mossy-type terminals were found occasionally synapsing with Purkinje dendritic spines, as has been seen in agranular cerebellum in animals. These mossy terminals are presently thought to originate from the deep cerebellar nuclei within these cultures. Synaptic errors were rarely encountered. It is concluded that this preparation develops in accordance with established neurobiological principles, that the Purkinje neuron reaches a mature state in culture, and that this model has a sound anatomical basis for further experimental work.
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Hendelman WJ, Aggerwal AS. The Purkinje neuron: I. A Golgi study of its development in the mouse and in culture. J Comp Neurol 1980; 193:1063-79. [PMID: 7430437 DOI: 10.1002/cne.901930417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The development of the Purkinje neuron was studied in organotypic culture and compared to that occurring in the intact animal, using a modified Golgi-Cox method. The post-natal sequence of development in the intact animal occurred in five distinct stages beginning with (1) an immature state (0-3 days), (2) a stage of perisomatic dendritic processes (4-6 days), and then (3) a stage characterized by the presence of spines on the soma region (7-10 days). This stage of somatic spines has not been delineated previously in Golgi studies of the Purkinje cell during its development. There was no evidence that the lateral somatic processes resorb; rather they continue to grow and develop into dendritic branches. It is proposed that by a process of perikaryal translocation, the soma region becomes transferred "downward," resulting in an elongation of the primary, apical dendrite (stage 4, 11-14 days). Beyond 15 days (stage 5) the dendritic branches grow to the pial surface and the neuron has its full complement of secondary, tertiary, and spiny branches. In culture, the development parallels that occurring in the intact animal during the first 10 days (stages 1, 2, 3) despite the absence of extracerebellar afferents and the special conditions of the culture. However, there is an overall absence of lamination of the cortex, the Purkinje neurons do not align, and the developmental process is modified because of the failure of the process of perikaryal translocation in culture. The resultant mature neuron has an altered morphology characterized by the presence of several dendrites and spines attached to the soma, and also lacks the complete development of the smaller dendritic branches.
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Seil FJ, Leiman AL, Woodward WR. Cytosine arabinoside effects on developing cerebellum in tissue culture. Brain Res 1980; 186:393-408. [PMID: 7357460 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(80)90984-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Cerebellar explants derived from neonatal mice were exposed to cytosine arabinoside, an inhibitor of DNA synthesis. Following such exposure, the cortical regions of the explants contained numerous closely packed large neurons with few intervening elements and without lamination. The surviving large cortical neurons included Golgi cells and Purkinje cells, the latter with persistent dendritic spines in the absence of granule cells. A marked increase in density of subcortical and intracortical neurites was evident in fiber stains. The neurites were identified as Purkinje cell axons and axon collaterals by fiber tracing. Myelin failed to form around the axonal elements. Both regular and phasic spontaneous discharges were recorded electrophysiologically. Trains of cortical stimuli elicited both excitatory and inhibitory responses in the absence of parallel fibers. Antidromic stimulation of Purkinje cell axons evoked inhibition of spontaneous cortical discharges. By contrast, antidromic activation of Purkinje cell axons in control cultures had no effect on spontaneous cortical discharges, or provoked a transient increase in discharge rate. These responses were interpreted as consistent with a cortical remodeling in granuloprival cerebellar cultures in which basket-stellate cell inhibition of Purkinje cells was preempted by Purkinje cell recurrent axon collateral inhibition.
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Abstract
Cultures of mouse cerebellum were exposed for various intervals after explantation to kainic acid, a glutamic acid analog. Purkinje cells and intracerebellar nucleus neurons were destroyed and cortical laminar formation was inhibited by exposure to kainic acid, while granule cells were relatively spared. Prolonged kainate treatment also reduced the granule cell population. The destructive effects of kainic acid were evident upon exposure of Purkinje cells prior to the development of parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses, the neurotransmitter for which is believed to be glutamic acid. Glutamate application to intracerebellar nucleus neurons in vitro did not evoke extracellularly recorded excitatory effects, suggesting that these kainate-sensitive neurons do not have significant numbers of glutamate receptors. The combination of these observations suggests that neuronal toxic effects of kainic acid are not exclusively mediated by action on glutamate receptors, but involve other, less specific mechanisms as well.
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Raybourn MS, Cork C, Schimmerling W, Tobias CA. An in vitro electrophysiological assessment of the direct cellular toxicity of carbon monoxide. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1978; 46:769-79. [PMID: 746560 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(78)90321-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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27
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Puro DG, Woodward DJ. Physiological properties of afferents and synaptic reorganization in the rat cerebellum degranulated by postnatal X-irradiation. JOURNAL OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1978; 9:195-215. [PMID: 211202 DOI: 10.1002/neu.480090303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Elimination of most granule, basket, and stellate interneurons in the rat cerebellum was achieved by repeated doses of low level x-irradiation applied during the first two weeks of postnatal life. Electrical stimulation of the brain stem and peripheral limbs was employed to investigate the properties of afferent cerebellar pathways and the nature of the reorganized neuronal synaptic circuitry in the degranulated cerebellum of the adult. Direct contacts of mossy fibers on Purkinje cells were indicated by short latency, single spike responses: 1.9 msec from the lateral reticular nucleus of brain stem and 5.4 msec from ipsilpateral forelimb. These were shorter than in normal rats by 0.9 and 2.1 msec, respectively. The topography of projections from peripheral stimulation was approximately normal. Mossy fiber responses followed stimulation at up to 20/sec, whereas climbing fiber pathways fatigued at 10/sec. The latency of climbing fiber input to peripheral limb stimulation in x-irradiated cerebellum was 23 +/- 8 (SD) msec. In x-irradiated rats, the climbing fiber pathways evoked highly variable extracellular burst responses and intracellular EPSPs of different, discrete sizes. These variable responses suggest that multiple climbing fibers contact single Purkinje cells. We conclude that each type of afferent retains identifying characteristics of transmission. However, rules for synaptic specification appear to break down so that: (1) abnormal classes of neurons develop synaptic connections, i.e., mossy fibers to Purkinje cells; (2) incorrect numbers of neurons share postsynaptic targets, i.e., more than one climbing fiber to a Purkinje cell; and (3) inhibitory synaptic actions may be carried out in the absence of the major inhibitory interneurons, i.e., Purkinje cell collaterals may be effective in lieu of basket and stellate cells.
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Trenkner E, Sidman RL. Histogenesis of mouse cerebellum in microwell cultures. Cell reaggregation and migration, fiber and synapse formation. J Cell Biol 1977; 75:915-40. [PMID: 562889 PMCID: PMC2111581 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.75.3.915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A microwell culture system was developed for analysis of cell movements and interactions during nervous system histogenesis. Cells from trypsinized 7-day-old mouse cerebellum reaggregated within hours into clusters which later developed interconnections consisting of either sheets of migrating cells and cell processes or cables of fiber bundles with cells migrating along their surfaces. Granule cells in several stages of differentiation, basket and/or stellate neurons, some larger neurons, and two types of neuroglial cells were identified in reproducible, nonrandom patterns by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Axonal and dendritic processes, both with growth cones, and numerous synapses were generated in vitro.
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Billings-Gagliardi S, Wolf MK. A simple method for examining organotypic CNS cultures with Nomarski optics. IN VITRO 1977; 13:371-7. [PMID: 885560 DOI: 10.1007/bf02615097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes a method for examination of living organotypic cultures of CNS with Nomarski differential interference-contrast optics. Cultures grown in Maximow assemblies, which promote the best differentiation of the tissue but are optically faulty, are transferred for Nomarski observation to a simple sandwich chamber which combines the optical perfection of the usual sandwich chamber with the flexibility and safeguarding of sterility characteristic of the Maximow assembly. Thus cultures can be transferred repeatedly between their maintenance and observation chambers. In the resulting microscopic images, it is possible to visualize delicate unmyelinated fibers, myelinated cell bodies and other features which are normally impossible to demonstrate in living cultures as well as to improve the images of other structures such as large neuronal perikarya and myelinated axons.
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Seil FJ, Leiman AL, Herman MM, Fisk RA. Direct effects of ethanol on central nervous system cultures: an electrophysiological and morphological study. Exp Neurol 1977; 55:390-404. [PMID: 558106 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4886(77)90009-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Seil FJ, Leiman AL. Spontaneous versus driven activity in intracerebellar nuclei: a tissue culture study. Exp Neurol 1977; 54:110-27. [PMID: 832692 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4886(77)90239-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Mamoon AM, Schlapfer WT, Gähwiler BH, Tobias CA. Nerve cells in culture: studies on spontaneous bioelectric activity. ADVANCES IN BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL PHYSICS 1977; 16:1-40. [PMID: 233193 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-005216-5.50006-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Toran-Allerand CD. Golgi-Cox modifications for the impregnation of whole mount preparations of organotypic cultures of the CNS. Brain Res 1976; 118:293-8. [PMID: 793683 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(76)90713-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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34
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Wise SP, Jones EG. The organization and postnatal development of the commissural projection of the rat somatic sensory cortex. J Comp Neurol 1976; 168:313-43. [PMID: 950383 DOI: 10.1002/cne.901680302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 408] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Anterograde and retrograde tracing experiments have been used to demonstrate the origin and terminal distribution of commissural fibers in the first somatosensory cortex (SI) of the rat. The commissural fibers originate from pyramidal cells of all layers, but predominantly from layers III and V. The fibers terminate in a series of approximately vertical bands. In each of these there are concentrations of terminals extending from the inner portion of the molecular layer to the deep portion of layer III as well as in the superficial part of layer V, and in layer VI. Discrete vertical bands of cortex are reciprocally connected across the midline to give both the origin and terminal regions of the projection a patchy or "columnar" appearance. The commissural fibers arise from and terminate in areas of the cortex that lie between and alongside the aggregations of granule cells that distinguish SI of the rat. No commissural fibers terminate within the aggregations of layer IV cells themselves but the more superficial terminal ramifications may come to overlie these aggregations. A heterotopic projection to the contralateral second somatosensory cortex has been observed and is similar in form to the homotopic projection to SI. Many commissural fibers have crossed the midline in the corpus callosum by the day of birth but lie in the underlying white matter and do not enter the cortical plate until at least the third postnatal day. During the first postnatal week these fibers grow somewhat diffusely into the maturing cortex and their topographic and laminar pattern of distribution attains its adult characteristics by the end of the first week. Commissural axons, thus, arise from immature cells but the maturation of cell form seems to precede the ingrowth of these axons and the acquisition of commissural synapses.
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Nixon RA, Suva M, Wolf MK. Neurotoxicity of a non-metabolizable amino acid, 1-aminocyclopentane-1-carboxylic acid: antagonism by amino acids in cultures of cerebellum. J Neurochem 1976; 27:245-51. [PMID: 956827 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1976.tb01571.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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37
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Abstract
Analysis of in vitro vs in situ development of Purkinje cells was undertaken in order to compare the transitory morphology of Purkinje cells grown in situ with their differentiation in vitro. Purkinje cells in rotary cultures developed their basic morphological pattern only when the cultures were prepared from 16-day chick embryos, indicating the existence of a critical period during their normal differentiation, which lasted approximately 24 hr between days 14 and 15 embryonic development.
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Privat A, Drian MJ. Specificity of the formation of the mossy fibre-granule cell synapse in the rat cerebellum. An in vitro study. Brain Res 1975; 88:518-24. [PMID: 1139293 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90664-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Kim SU. Formation of unattached spines of Purkinje cell dendrite in organotypic cultures of mouse cerebellum. Brain Res 1975; 88:52-8. [PMID: 1168087 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90946-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Calvet MC, Drian MJ, Privat A. Spontaneous electrical patterns in cultured Purkinje cells grown with an antimitotic agent. Brain Res 1974; 79:285-90. [PMID: 4424432 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(74)90418-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Hauw JJ, Boutry JM, Crosnier-Suttin N, Robineaux R. Morphology of cultured guinea-pig cerebellum. I. Pattern of development. Comparison of phase contrast cinematography and silver impregnations of various cell types. Cell Tissue Res 1974; 152:141-64. [PMID: 4611640 DOI: 10.1007/bf00224691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Raine CS, Bornstein MB. Unusual profiles in organotypic cultures of central nervous tissue. JOURNAL OF NEUROCYTOLOGY 1974; 3:313-25. [PMID: 4474361 DOI: 10.1007/bf01097916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Geller HM, Woodward DJ. Responses of cultured cerebellar neurons to iontophoretically applied amino acids. Brain Res 1974; 74:67-80. [PMID: 4858824 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(74)90112-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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46
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Calvet MC. Patterns of spontaneous electrical activity in tissue cultures of mammalian cerebral cortex vs. cerebellum. Brain Res 1974; 69:281-95. [PMID: 4595850 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(74)90007-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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47
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Palacios E, Garber BB, Larramendi LM. Silver-chromate impregnation of chick embryo brain cell aggregates. Brain Res 1974. [DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(74)90087-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Nelson PG, Peacock JH. Electrical activity in dissociated cell cultures from fetal mouse cerebellum. Brain Res 1973; 61:163-74. [PMID: 4359221 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(73)90525-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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49
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Leiman AL, Seil FJ. Spontaneous and evoked bioelectric activity in organized cerebellar tissue cultures. Exp Neurol 1973; 40:748-58. [PMID: 4353257 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4886(73)90109-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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