Getting under the skin: Physiological stress and witnessing paternal arrest in young children with incarcerated fathers

Associations between Social Adversity and Biomarkers of Inflammation, Stress, and Aging in Children

BACKGROUND

Prior work has found relationships between childhood social adversity and biomarkers of stress, but knowledge gaps remain. To help address these gaps, we explored associations between social adversity and biomarkers of inflammation (interleukin-1β [IL-1β], IL-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α], and salivary cytokine hierarchical "clusters" based on the three interleukins), neuroendocrine function (cortisol, cortisone, dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, and progesterone), neuromodulation (N-arachidonoylethanolamine, stearoylethanolamine, oleoylethanolamide, and palmitoylethanolamide), and epigenetic aging (Pediatric-Buccal-Epigenetic clock).

METHODS

We collected biomarker samples of children ages 0-17 recruited from an acute care pediatrics clinic and examined their associations with caregiver-endorsed education, income, social risk factors, and cumulative adversity. We calculated regression-adjusted means for each biomarker and compared associations with social factors using Wald tests. We used logistic regression to predict being in the highest cytokine cluster based on social predictors.

RESULTS

Our final sample included 537 children but varied based on each biomarker. Cumulative social adversity was significantly associated with having higher levels of all inflammatory markers and with cortisol, displaying a U-shaped distribution. There were no significant relationships between cumulative social adversity and cortisone, neuromodulation biomarkers or epigenetic aging.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support prior work suggesting that social stress exposures contribute to increased inflammation in children.

IMPACT

Our study is one of the largest studies examining associations between childhood social adversity and biomarkers of inflammation, neuroendocrine function, neuromodulation, and epigenetic aging. It is one of the largest studies to link childhood social adversity to biomarkers of inflammation, and the first of which we are aware to link cumulative social adversity to cytokine clusters. It is also one of the largest studies to examine associations between steroids and epigenetic aging among children, and one of the only studies of which we are aware to examine associations between social adversity and endocannabinoids among children.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT02746393.

Witnessing Parental Arrest As a Predictor of Child Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms During and After Parental Incarceration

Purpose

One in fourteen children in the United States experiences the incarceration of a parent with whom they have lived. Although prior research has established that witnessing the arrest of a parent is a common occurrence for children of criminal justice-involved parents, child outcomes following such an event are understudied. Little is known about the long-term impacts of witnessing an arrest on children and the extent to which they may vary by child age.

Methods

Using longitudinal data from the Parent Child Study of mothers and fathers incarcerated in state prison, we examine the witnessing of parental arrest as an acute traumatic event and identify the extent to which this type of trauma predicts externalizing and internalizing symptoms for children during their parents' incarceration and following release.

Results

Witnessing a parent's arrest predicted greater internalizing behavior concerns while parents were incarcerated, with a greater magnitude of effect for children under eight years of age. Six months post-release of the parent, children younger than age eight who witnessed the arrest showed significantly higher internalizing and externalizing behaviors. No effect was found for children ages eight years or older.

Conclusion

Implications for future policies to reduce the likelihood of children witnessing parental arrests, as well as the potential benefit of screening for trauma when working with children with incarcerated parents, are discussed.

The intergenerational effects of paternal incarceration on children's social and psychological well-being from early childhood to adolescence

The present study sought to unravel the psychological processes through which mass incarceration, specifically paternal incarceration, is negatively affecting the next generation of children. Data came from 4,327 families from 20 cities who participated in a 10-year longitudinal study. Parents and children reported on children's rule-breaking behaviors and depressive symptoms when they were on average ages 5 (2003-2006), 9 (2007-2010), and 15 (2014-2017). Parental surveys and disposition information were combined to assess paternal incarceration at each age. Results showed that children who experienced paternal incarceration at age 5 also demonstrated more rule-breaking behaviors at age 15. Children's age-9 depressive symptoms partially mediated our finding, such that children who experienced paternal incarceration at age 5 also showed greater depressive symptoms at age 9, which in turn predicted greater rule-breaking behaviors at age 15. Paternal incarceration predicted future rule-breaking behaviors more strongly than did other forms of father loss. Because we found paternal incarceration during childhood is associated with worsened adjustment into adolescence, we discussed the need for developmentally appropriate practices in the criminal justice system.

Adverse childhood experiences and risk of diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

The association between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and diabetes is unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to quantify the association between the number and types of ACEs and diabetes during adulthood based on available observational studies.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search of studies exploring the association between ACEs and diabetes was conducted in PubMed, Medline, and Embase databases until 15 April 2022. A random-effects model was used to pool odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the number and types of ACEs with diabetes. Regarding the association between the number of ACEs and diabetes, we used funnel plots to examine publication bias, subgroup analysis to explore sources of heterogeneity, and sensitivity analysis to explore the robustness of the pooled results.

Results

A total of 49 studies were included. Individuals with higher continuous ACEs (per each additional ACE: OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.02-1.10), any ACE (OR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.16-1.28), or ≥4 ACEs (OR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.27-1.63) were at an increased risk of diabetes in adulthood when compared with individuals without ACEs. Across specific ACE types, childhood economic adversity (OR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.04-1.19), physical abuse (OR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.07-1.21), sexual abuse (OR = 1.25, 95% CI = 1.12-1.39), verbal abuse (OR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.03-1.20), and incarceration (OR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.03-1.45) were associated with diabetes. However, neglect, emotional abuse, domestic violence, parental divorce or separation, parental death, and living with a family member with substance abuse or mental disorders were not significantly associated with diabetes.

Conclusions

Individuals with ACEs may have a cumulative risk for diabetes in adulthood. It is critical to prevent ACEs and build resilience in individuals affected by ACEs.

The Impact of Mindfulness Training on Police Officer Stress, Mental Health, and Salivary Cortisol Levels

Unaddressed occupational stress and trauma contribute to elevated rates of mental illness and suicide in policing, and to violent and aggressive behavior that disproportionately impacts communities of color. Emerging evidence suggests mindfulness training with police may reduce stress and aggression and improve mental health, but there is limited evidence for changes in biological outcomes or the lasting benefits of mindfulness training. We conducted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of 114 police officers from three Midwestern U.S. law enforcement agencies. We assessed stress-related physical and mental health symptoms, blood-based inflammatory markers, and hair and salivary cortisol. Participants were then randomized to an 8-week mindfulness intervention or waitlist control (WLC), and the same assessments were repeated post-intervention and at 3-month follow-up. Relative to waitlist control, the mindfulness group had greater improvements in psychological distress, mental health symptoms, and sleep quality post-training, gains that were maintained at 3-month follow-up. Intervention participants also had a significantly lower cortisol awakening response (CAR) at 3-month follow-up relative to waitlist control. Contrary to hypotheses, there were no intervention effects on hair cortisol, diurnal cortisol slope, or inflammatory markers. In summary, an 8-week mindfulness intervention for police officers led to self-reported improvements in distress, mental health, and sleep, and a lower CAR. These benefits persisted (or emerged) at 3-month follow-up, suggesting that this training may buffer against the long-term consequences of chronic stress. Future research should assess the persistence of these benefits over a longer period while expanding the scope of outcomes to consider the broader community of mindfulness training for police.

Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov#NCT03488875.

The Health and Development of Young Children Who Witnessed Their Parent's Arrest Prior to Parental Jail Incarceration

Most U.S. incarceration occurs in jails, with more than 10 million annual admissions, and most individuals in jail are parents of minor children. In this short-term longitudinal study, we examined the health and development of young children who did or did not witness their parent's arrest prior to parental jail incarceration. 228 individuals in 76 triads (incarcerated parents, children, at-home caregivers) were enrolled from four jails in two states. Jailed parents and caregivers reported on whether the child witnessed the parent's arrest or crime. Children's caregivers completed questionnaires about children's emotional symptoms during the prior 6 months and demographics, as well as children's emotional reactions to separation from the parent and child health at the initial assessment and 2 weeks later. Trained researchers conducted a developmental assessment with children while waiting to visit parents. Results of regression-based moderated mediation analyses indicated that when their emotional symptoms were high, children who witnessed parental arrest were more likely to have poorer health initially and more intense negative reactions to the parent leaving for jail. In addition, when children's general emotional symptoms were low, children who witnessed their parent's arrest were more likely to exhibit developmental delays, especially in their early academic skills, compared to children who did not witness the arrest. Witnessing the parent's crime related to missed milestones in social and adaptive development. Findings have implications for policies regarding safeguarding children during parental arrest and referrals for health- and development-promotion services following parental criminal justice system involvement.