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Kale R, Chaturvedi D, Dandekar P, Jain R. Analytical techniques for screening of cannabis and derivatives from human hair specimens. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:1133-1149. [PMID: 38314866 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00786c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis and associated substances are some of the most frequently abused drugs across the globe, mainly due to their anxiolytic and euphorigenic properties. Nowadays, the analysis of hair samples has been given high importance in forensic and analytical sciences and in clinical studies because they are associated with a low risk of infection, do not require complicated storage conditions, and offer a broad window of non-invasive detection. Analysis of hair samples is very easy compared to the analysis of blood, urine, and saliva samples. This review places particular emphasis on methodologies of analyzing hair samples containing cannabis, with a special focus on the preparation of samples for analysis, which involves screening and extraction techniques, followed by confirmatory assays. Through this manuscript, we have presented an overview of the available literature on the screening of cannabis using mass spectroscopy techniques. We have presented a detailed overview of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique, to establish it as a suitable method for the analysis of cannabis from hair samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Kale
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Deepa Chaturvedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Prajakta Dandekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Ratnesh Jain
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
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Neukamm MA, Halter S, Auwärter V, Schmitt G, Giorgetti A, Bartel M. Death after smoking of fentanyl, 5F-ADB, 5F-MDMB-P7AICA and other synthetic cannabinoids with a bucket bong. Forensic Toxicol 2024; 42:82-92. [PMID: 37300633 PMCID: PMC10808286 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-023-00666-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE We report a case of a polydrug user who consumed various synthetic cannabinoids and fentanyl from a transdermal patch via a bucket bong. Toxicological results from postmortem matrices with special focus on synthetic cannabinoids are discussed in terms of their relevance to the death. METHODS The samples were analyzed by toxicological screening procedures involving immunoassays and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) as well as quantitative analyses by means of GC-MS and high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). RESULTS At the autopsy, coronary artery disease and signs of liver congestion were noted, in the absence of acute myocardial ischemic changes. Femoral blood concentrations of fentanyl and pregabalin were 14 ng/mL and 3,200 ng/mL, respectively. In addition, 2.7 ng/mL 5F-ADB and 13 ng/mL 5F-MDMB-P7AICA were detected together with relatively low amounts of 5 other synthetic cannabinoids in cardiac blood. A total number of up to 17 synthetic cannabinoids were detected in kidney, liver, urine and hair. Fentanyl and 5F-ADB were also detected in the water of the bucket bong. CONCLUSIONS The cause of death could be attributed to an acute mixed intoxication by fentanyl and 5F-ADB (both Toxicological Significance Score (TSS) = 3) with a contribution of pregabalin and 5F-MDMB-P7AICA (TSS = 2), in a subject suffering from pre-existing heart damage. The most plausible mechanism of death consists in a respiratory depression. This case report demonstrates that use of opioids in combination with synthetic cannabinoids might be particularly dangerous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merja A Neukamm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Sebastian Halter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Georg Schmitt
- Institute of Forensic and Traffic Medicine, University Hospital, Voßstrasse 2, 69115, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 49, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marc Bartel
- Institute of Forensic and Traffic Medicine, University Hospital, Voßstrasse 2, 69115, Heidelberg, Germany
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3
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Giorgetti A, Fais P, Pascali JP, Mohamed S, Rossi F, Garagnani M, Pelletti G. External hair contamination from cannabis and "light cannabis" delivered by smoking and vaping: An in vitro study. Drug Test Anal 2023. [PMID: 38145896 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
External contamination of hair by cannabis smoking requires a careful evaluation in forensic toxicology. Medical and recreational cannabis are increasingly consumed by e-cigarettes, which give rise to side-stream vapor. Moreover, products containing low Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and rich in cannabidiol (CBD) started spreading legally. The goal of the present study was to assess whether hair analysis could allow to distinguish the type of delivered product, with low or high Δ9-THC, and the delivering mode, by smoking or vaping. Contamination of blank hair was mimicked by in vitro exposure to low- (0.4%) and high-Δ9-THC (9.7%) products delivered by smoking and vaping within a small confined system. Cannabis vaping extracts were prepared to deliver identical target Δ9-THC doses. Eighty samples were analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and quantified for Δ9-THC and CBD. After contamination by cannabis smoking, THC levels were in line with past in vitro and in vivo studies. Samples exposed to cannabis (169.30 ng/mg) showed significantly higher Δ9-THC than hair exposed to "light cannabis" (35.54 ng/mg), and the opposite was seen for the CBD/Δ9-THC ratio. Hair contaminated by vaping or smoking did not show a statistically different Δ9-THC content. Under our in vitro conditions, hair analysis might allow to discriminate whether external contamination is determined by products containing low or high Δ9-THC, but not the delivering mode. More research is needed in real-life conditions, to see whether the same also applies to the interpretation of forensic casework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Fais
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jennifer Paola Pascali
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Susan Mohamed
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesca Rossi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Garagnani
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Guido Pelletti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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4
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Hehet P, Franz T, Kunert N, Musshoff F. Fast and highly sensitive determination of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) metabolites in hair using liquid chromatography-multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MS 3 ). Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1614-1622. [PMID: 35648798 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In hair analysis, identification of 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), one of the major endogenously formed metabolites of the psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is considered unambiguous proof of cannabis consumption. Due to the complex hair matrix and low target concentrations of THC-COOH in hair, this kind of investigation represents a great analytical challenge. The aim of this work was to establish a fast, simple, and reliable LC-MS3 routine method for sensitive detection of THC-COOH in hair samples. Furthermore, the LC-MS3 method developed also included the detection of derivatized 11-hydroxy-∆9 -THC (11-OH-THC) as an additional marker of cannabis use. Hair sample preparation prior to detection of the two THC metabolites was based on digestion of the hair matrix under alkaline conditions followed by an optimized liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) procedure. Sample preparation by LLE proved to be more suitable than solid-phase extraction (SPE) due to less laborious and time-consuming steps while still yielding satisfactory results. A significant improvement in analytical detection was introduced by multistage fragmentation (MS3 ), which led to enhanced sensitivity and selectivity and thus low limits of quantification (0.1 pg/mg hair). The MS3 method included two transitions for THC-COOH (m/z 343 → 299 → 245 and m/z 343 → 299 → 191) encompassing the quantifier (m/z 245) and the qualifier ion (m/z 191). The method was fully validated, and successful application to authentic toxicology case samples was demonstrated by the analysis of more than 2000 hair samples from cannabis users with THC-COOH concentrations determined ranging from 0.1 to >15 pg/mg hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Hehet
- Bavarian State Criminal Police Office, Forensic Science Institute, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Franz
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich (FTC), Munich, Germany
| | - Natalie Kunert
- Bavarian State Criminal Police Office, Forensic Science Institute, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich (FTC), Munich, Germany
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5
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Scholz C, Cabalzar J, Kraemer T, Baumgartner MR. A Comprehensive Multi-Analyte Method for Hair Analysis: Substance-Specific Quantification Ranges and Tool for Task-Oriented Data Evaluation. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:701-712. [PMID: 32986078 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to quantify a large number of analytes including opioids, stimulants, benzodiazepines, z-drugs, antidepressants and neuroleptics within a single sample workup followed by a single analytical measurement. Expected drug concentrations in hair are strongly substance dependent. Therefore, three different calibration ranges were implemented: 0.5 to 600 pg/mg (group 1), 10 to 12,000 pg/mg (group 2) and 50 to 60,000 pg/mg (group 3). In order to avoid saturation effects, different strategies were applied for selected transitions including the use of parent mass ions containing one or two 13C-isotopes and detuning of the declustering potential and/or collision energy. Drugs were extracted from pulverized hair by a two-step extraction protocol and measured by liquid chromatrography--tandem mass spectrometry (LC--MS-MS) using Scheduled MRM™ Algorithm Pro. In total, 275 MRM transitions including 43 deuterated standards were measured. The method has been fully validated according to international guidelines. A MultiQuant™ software based tool for task-oriented data evaluation was established, which allows extracting selected information from the measured data sets. The matrix effects and recoveries were within the allowed ranges for the majority of the analytes. The lower limits of quantification (LLOQs) were for ∼72% of the analytes in the low-pg/mg range (0.5-5 pg/mg) and for ∼24% of the analytes between 10 and 50 pg/mg. These LLOQs considered cut-offs by the Society of Hair Testing (SoHT), if recommended. The herein established multi-analyte approach meets the specific requirements of forensic hair testing and can be used for the rapid and robust measurement of a wide range of psychoactive substances. The analyte-specific wide concentration ranges open up a wide field of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Scholz
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, CH-8006 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - J Cabalzar
- AB Sciex Switzerland GmbH, SCIEX, CH-5401 Baden, Switzerland
| | - T Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, CH-8006 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - M R Baumgartner
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, CH-8006 Zurich, Switzerland
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Scholz C, Madry MM, Kraemer T, Baumgartner MR. LC-MS/MS Analysis of Δ9-THC, CBN and CBD in Hair: Investigation of Artefacts. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:504-511. [PMID: 34041537 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In forensic toxicology, high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is increasingly used for the fast and sensitive measurement of a wide range of drugs. For our routine casework, a liquid chromatography atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-APCI-MS/MS) method for the quantification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD) in hair was established and fully validated. Separation was achieved using a Kinetex® C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 100 Å, 1.7 μm, Phenomenex) at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. Measurements were performed on a QTrap 5,500 mass spectrometer (Sciex, Darmstadt, Germany). Unexpected signals were observed in authentic THC-positive hair samples. First, a signal with a slightly shifted retention time of THC whose origin could be assigned to the isomer Δ8-THC. Second, additional peaks exhibiting the same fragments as CBN and Δ9-THC but eluting at different retention times were detected. Spiking experiments and enhanced product ion scans (EPI) pointed to the origin of these additional signals as result of in-source decarboxylation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (Δ9-THCA-A) into Δ9-THC and further partial oxidation of Δ9-THC into CBN, respectively. Positive findings of Δ9-THCA-A in hair have been shown to derive from external contamination, therefore, the herein described artefacts may be used as indirect markers for external contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clementine Scholz
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Milena M Madry
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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8
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Harpaz D, Veltman B, Sadeh Y, Marks RS, Bernstein N, Eltzov E. The effect of cannabis toxicity on a model microbiome bacterium epitomized by a panel of bioluminescent E. coli. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 263:128241. [PMID: 33297188 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The world acceptance of medical cannabis slowly widens. Cannabinoids are known as the main therapeutic active compounds in the cannabis plant, yet their bioactive physiological effects are still unknown. In this study, the mode of action of nine selected cannabinoids was examined using a bioluminescent bacterial panel, as well as the extracts of six different cannabis varieties and cannabinoids standards artificial mixtures. The bacterial panel was composed of genetically modified E. coli bacteria that is commonly found in the gut microbiome, to which a lux operon was added to various stress promoters. The panel was exposed to the cannabinoids in order to identify bacterial defense mechanism, via the aforementioned specific stress types response. This enables the understanding of the toxicity mode of action of cannabinoids. From all the tested cannabinoids, only delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA) produced a genotoxic effect, while the other tested cannabinoids, demonstrated cytotoxic or oxidative damages. Unlike pure cannabinoids, cannabis plant extracts exhibited mostly genotoxicity, with minor cytotoxicity or oxidative stress responses. Moreover, cannabinoids standards artificial mixtures produced a different response patterns compared to their individual effects, which may be due to additional synergistic or antagonistic reactions between the mixed chemicals on the bacterial panel. The results showed that despite the lack of cannabigerol (CBG), cannabidivarin (CBDV), cannabinol (CBN), and cannabichromene (CBC) in the artificial solution mimicking the CN6 cannabis variety, a similar response pattern to the cannabinoids standards mixture was obtained. This work contributes to the understanding of such correlations and may provide a realistic view of cannabinoid effects on the human microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorin Harpaz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 76100, Israel; Department of Postharvest Science, Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Boris Veltman
- Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 76100, Israel; Department of Postharvest Science, Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Yael Sadeh
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, POBox 6, Bet-Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Robert S Marks
- Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Science, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel; National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel; The Ilse Katz Center for Meso and Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel
| | - Nirit Bernstein
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, POBox 6, Bet-Dagan, 50250, Israel.
| | - Evgeni Eltzov
- Department of Postharvest Science, Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel.
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Karschner EL, Swortwood-Gates MJ, Huestis MA. Identifying and Quantifying Cannabinoids in Biological Matrices in the Medical and Legal Cannabis Era. Clin Chem 2020; 66:888-914. [DOI: 10.1093/clinchem/hvaa113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundCannabinoid analyses generally included, until recently, the primary psychoactive cannabis compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and/or its inactive metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, in blood, plasma, and urine. Technological advances revolutionized the analyses of major and minor phytocannabinoids in diverse biological fluids and tissues. An extensive literature search was conducted in PubMed for articles on cannabinoid analyses from 2000 through 2019. References in acquired manuscripts were also searched for additional articles.ContentThis article summarizes analytical methodologies for identification and quantification of multiple phytocannabinoids (including THC, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, and cannabichromene) and their precursors and/or metabolites in blood, plasma, serum, urine, oral fluid, hair, breath, sweat, dried blood spots, postmortem matrices, breast milk, meconium, and umbilical cord since the year 2000. Tables of nearly 200 studies outline parameters including analytes, specimen volume, instrumentation, and limits of quantification. Important diagnostic and interpretative challenges of cannabinoid analyses are also described. Medicalization and legalization of cannabis and the 2018 Agricultural Improvement Act increased demand for cannabinoid analyses for therapeutic drug monitoring, emergency toxicology, workplace and pain-management drug testing programs, and clinical and forensic toxicology applications. This demand is expected to intensify in the near future, with advances in instrumentation performance, increasing LC-MS/MS availability in clinical and forensic toxicology laboratories, and the ever-expanding knowledge of the potential therapeutic use and toxicity of phytocannabinoids.SummaryCannabinoid analyses and data interpretation are complex; however, major and minor phytocannabinoid detection windows and expected concentration ranges in diverse biological matrices improve the interpretation of cannabinoid test results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Karschner
- Armed Forces Medical Examiner System, Division of Forensic Toxicology, Dover Air Force Base, Dover, DE
| | | | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
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10
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Scholz C, Quednow BB, Herdener M, Kraemer T, Baumgartner MR. Cocaine Hydroxy Metabolites in Hair: Indicators for Cocaine Use Versus External Contamination☆. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 43:543-552. [PMID: 30927360 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Given that external contamination must be considered in hair analysis, there is still a demand for reliable tools to differentiate between incorporation of drugs into the hair as a result of drug consumption and of the hair shaft by external contamination. With the aim of establishing alternative discrimination parameters, some of the hydroxy metabolites of cocaine i.e., para- and meta-hydroxycocaine and para- and meta-hydroxybenzoylecgonine were measured together with cocaine, benzoylecgonine, cocaethylene, and norcocaine in five seized street cocaine samples and in hair samples from different cohorts: cohort 1 (in vivo external contamination study, n = 28), cohort 2 (individuals with self-reported cocaine use, n = 92), and cohort 3 (individuals with suspected cocaine use or contamination, n = 198). Statistical evaluation of the data of cohort 1 and 2 using ROC curves yielded metabolic ratios indicating cocaine use. Based on these results, a decision workflow was established for the discrimination between cocaine use and external contamination. The power of this approach was finally statistically validated across the different cohorts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clementine Scholz
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marcus Herdener
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Sempio C, Lindley E, Klawitter J, Christians U, Bowler RP, Adgate JL, Allshouse W, Awdziejczyk L, Fischer S, Bainbridge J, Vandyke M, Netsanet R, Crume T, Kinney GL. Surface Detection of THC Attributable to Vaporizer Use in the Indoor Environment. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18587. [PMID: 31819131 PMCID: PMC6901575 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55151-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of cannabis users increased up to 188 million users worldwide in 2017. Smoking and vaping are the most common consumption routes with formation of side-stream smoke/vapor and secondhand exposure to cannabinoids has been described in the literature. External contamination of hair by cannabis smoke has been studied but there are no studies on third-hand cannabis exposure due to deposition of smoke or vapor on surfaces. We tested whether cannabinoids could be detected on surfaces and objects in a room where cannabis is vaporized. Surface samples were collected using isopropanol imbued non-woven wipes from hard surfaces and objects. Each surface was swabbed three times with standardized swabbing protocol including three different patterns. Samples were analyzed using LC-ESI-MS/MS in combination with online extraction. THC was detected on 6 samples out of the 15 collected in the study room at quantifiable levels ranging 348-4882 ng/m2. Negative control samples collected from areas outside the study room were all negative. We demonstrated that surfaces exposed to side-stream cannabis vapor are positive for THC at quantifiable levels. This study represents a first step in understanding how side-stream cannabis vapor deposits in the environment and potentially results in a tertiary exposure for users and non-users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Sempio
- iC42 Integrated Solutions in Systems Biology for Clinical Research & Development, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Emily Lindley
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Jost Klawitter
- iC42 Integrated Solutions in Systems Biology for Clinical Research & Development, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Uwe Christians
- iC42 Integrated Solutions in Systems Biology for Clinical Research & Development, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Russell P Bowler
- National Jewish Health and University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA
| | - John L Adgate
- National Jewish Health and University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - William Allshouse
- National Jewish Health and University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Lauren Awdziejczyk
- iC42 Integrated Solutions in Systems Biology for Clinical Research & Development, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Sarah Fischer
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Jacquelyn Bainbridge
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Mike Vandyke
- Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Rahwa Netsanet
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Tessa Crume
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Gregory L Kinney
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
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Mantinieks D, Wright P, Di Rago M, Gerostamoulos D. A systematic investigation of forensic hair decontamination procedures and their limitations. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1542-1555. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Mantinieks
- Department of Forensic Medicine Monash University Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 65 Kavanagh Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
| | - Paul Wright
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University PO Box 71 Bundoora VIC 3083 Australia
| | - Matthew Di Rago
- Department of Forensic Medicine Monash University Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 65 Kavanagh Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
| | - Dimitri Gerostamoulos
- Department of Forensic Medicine Monash University Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 65 Kavanagh Street Southbank VIC 3006 Australia
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Shah I, Al-Dabbagh B, Salem AE, Hamid SAA, Muhammad N, Naughton DP. A review of bioanalytical techniques for evaluation of cannabis (Marijuana, weed, Hashish) in human hair. BMC Chem 2019; 13:106. [PMID: 31428743 PMCID: PMC6694587 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-019-0627-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis products (marijuana, weed, hashish) are among the most widely abused psychoactive drugs in the world, due to their euphorigenic and anxiolytic properties. Recently, hair analysis is of great interest in analytical, clinical, and forensic sciences due to its non-invasiveness, negligible risk of infection and tampering, facile storage, and a wider window of detection. Hair analysis is now widely accepted as evidence in courts around the world. Hair analysis is very feasible to complement saliva, blood tests, and urinalysis. In this review, we have focused on state of the art in hair analysis of cannabis with particular attention to hair sample preparation for cannabis analysis involving pulverization, extraction and screening techniques followed by confirmatory tests (e.g., GC–MS and LC–MS/MS). We have reviewed the literature for the past 10 years’ period with special emphasis on cannabis quantification using mass spectrometry. The pros and cons of all the published methods have also been discussed along with the prospective future of cannabis analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iltaf Shah
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Bayan Al-Dabbagh
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Alaa Eldin Salem
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Saber A A Hamid
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Neak Muhammad
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, UAEU, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Declan P Naughton
- 2School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Surrey, UK
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Hair cannabinoid concentrations in emergency patients with cannabis hyperemesis syndrome. CAN J EMERG MED 2019; 21:477-481. [PMID: 30806339 DOI: 10.1017/cem.2018.479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Cannabis hyperemesis syndrome is characterized by bouts of protracted vomiting in regular users of cannabis. We wondered whether this poorly understood condition is idiosyncratic, like motion sickness or hyperemesis gravidarum, or the predictable dose-response effect of prolonged heavy use. METHODS Adults with an emergency department visit diagnosed as cannabis hyperemesis syndrome, near-daily use of cannabis for ≥6 months, and ≥2 episodes of severe vomiting in the previous year were age- and sex-matched to two control groups: RU controls (recreational users without vomiting), and ED controls (patients in the emergency department for an unrelated condition). Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC concentrations in scalp hair were compared for subjects with positive urine THC. RESULTS We obtained satisfactory hair samples from 46 subjects with positive urine THC: 16 cases (age 26.8 ± 9.2 years; 69% male), 16 RU controls and 14 ED controls. Hair cannabinoid concentrations were similar between all three groups (e.g. cases THC 220 [median; IQR 100,730] pg/mg hair, RU controls 150 [71,320] and ED controls 270 [120,560]). Only the THC:CBN ratio was different between groups, with a 2.6-fold (95%CI 1.3,5.7) lower age- and sex-adjusted ratio in cases than RU controls. Hair cannabidiol concentrations were often unquantifiably low in all subjects. CONCLUSIONS Similar hair cannabinoid concentrations in recreational users with and without hyperemesis suggest that heavy use is necessary but not sufficient for hyperemesis cannabis. Our results underline the high prevalence of chronic heavy cannabis use in emergency department patients and our limited understanding of this plant's adverse effects.
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Kieliba T, Lerch O, Andresen-Streichert H, Rothschild MA, Beike J. Simultaneous quantification of THC-COOH, OH-THC, and further cannabinoids in human hair by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electron ionization applying automated sample preparation. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:267-278. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Kieliba
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | | | | | - Markus A. Rothschild
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | - Justus Beike
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
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16
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The effectiveness of decontamination procedures used in forensic hair analysis. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2018; 14:349-357. [DOI: 10.1007/s12024-018-9994-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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17
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Newmeyer MN, Swortwood MJ, Abulseoud OA, Huestis MA. Subjective and physiological effects, and expired carbon monoxide concentrations in frequent and occasional cannabis smokers following smoked, vaporized, and oral cannabis administration. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 175:67-76. [PMID: 28407543 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although smoking is the most common cannabis administration route, vaporization and consumption of cannabis edibles are common. Few studies directly compare cannabis' subjective and physiological effects following multiple administration routes. METHODS Subjective and physiological effects, and expired carbon monoxide (CO) were evaluated in frequent and occasional cannabis users following placebo (0.001% Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]), smoked, vaporized, and oral cannabis (6.9% THC, ∼54mg). RESULTS Participants' subjective ratings were significantly elevated compared to placebo after smoking and vaporization, while only occasional smokers' ratings were significantly elevated compared to placebo after oral dosing. Frequent smokers' maximum ratings were significantly different between inhaled and oral routes, while no differences in occasional smokers' maximum ratings between active routes were observed. Additionally, heart rate increases above baseline 0.5h after smoking (mean 12.2bpm) and vaporization (10.7bpm), and at 1.5h (13.0bpm) and 3h (10.2bpm) after oral dosing were significantly greater than changes after placebo, with no differences between frequent and occasional smokers. Finally, smoking produced significantly increased expired CO concentrations 0.25-6h post-dose compared to vaporization. CONCLUSIONS All participants had significant elevations in subjective effects after smoking and vaporization, but only occasional smokers after oral cannabis, indicating partial tolerance to subjective effects with frequent exposure. There were no differences in occasional smokers' maximum subjective ratings across the three active administration routes. Vaporized cannabis is an attractive alternative for medicinal administrations over smoking or oral routes; effects occur quickly and doses can be titrated with minimal CO exposure. These results have strong implications for safety and abuse liability assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew N Newmeyer
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States; Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Madeleine J Swortwood
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Forensic Science, College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, United States
| | - Osama A Abulseoud
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States; University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.
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18
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Berthet A, De Cesare M, Favrat B, Sporkert F, Augsburger M, Thomas A, Giroud C. A systematic review of passive exposure to cannabis. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 269:97-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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19
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Moosmann B, Auwärter V. Reply to Restolho et al. 'Contactless decontamination of hair samples: cannabinoids'. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:289-290. [PMID: 27783890 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bjoern Moosmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
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Simultaneous quantification of 11 cannabinoids and metabolites in human urine by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry using WAX-S tips. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:6461-71. [PMID: 27422645 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9765-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive cannabinoid urine quantification method may improve clinical and forensic result interpretation and is necessary to support our clinical research. A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry quantification method for ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCAA), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG), ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV (THCVCOOH), THC-glucuronide (THC-gluc), and THCCOOH-glucuronide (THCCOOH-gluc) in urine was developed and validated according to the Scientific Working Group on Toxicology guidelines. Sample preparation consisted of disposable pipette extraction (WAX-S) of 200 μL urine. Separation was achieved on a Kinetex C18 column using gradient elution with flow rate 0.5 mL/min, mobile phase A (10 mM ammonium acetate in water), and mobile phase B (15 % methanol in acetonitrile). Total run time was 14 min. Analytes were monitored in both positive and negative ionization modes by scheduled multiple reaction monitoring. Linear ranges were 0.5-100 μg/L for THC and THCCOOH; 0.5-50 μg/L for 11-OH-THC, CBD, CBN, THCAA, and THC-gluc; 1-100 μg/L for CBG, THCV, and THCVCOOH; and 5-500 μg/L for THCCOOH-gluc (R (2) > 0.99). Analytical biases were 88.3-113.7 %, imprecisions 3.3-14.3 %, extraction efficiencies 42.4-81.5 %, and matrix effect -10 to 32.5 %. We developed and validated a comprehensive, simple, and rapid LC-MS/MS cannabinoid urine method for quantification of 11 cannabinoids and metabolites. This method is being used in a controlled cannabis administration study, investigating urine cannabinoid markers documenting recent cannabis use, chronic frequent smoking, or route of drug administration and potentially improving urine cannabinoid result interpretation.
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Heinl S, Lerch O, Erdmann F. Automated GC–MS Determination of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabinol and Cannabidiol in Hair. J Anal Toxicol 2016; 40:498-503. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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Hill VA, Schaffer MI, Stowe GN. Carboxy-THC in Washed Hair: Still the Reliable Indicator of Marijuana Ingestion. J Anal Toxicol 2016; 40:345-9. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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23
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Hair analysis for opiates: hydromorphone and hydrocodone as indicators of heroin use. Bioanalysis 2016; 8:953-64. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2016-0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Identification of external contamination is a challenge in hair analysis. This study investigates metabolite ratios of hydromorphone to morphine and hydrocodone to codeine as indicators to distinguish contamination from heroin use provided that hydromorphone/hydrocodone intake is excluded. Results: Hair samples after external contamination with street heroin proved to be negative for hydromorphone/hydrocodone. Hair samples from individuals with suspected street heroin use/contamination or opiate medication were analyzed for 6-monoacetylmorphine, morphine, acetylcodeine, codeine, hydromorphone and hydrocodone, and metabolite ratios of hydromorphone to morphine and hydrocodone to codeine were assessed. Hair samples from individuals with medicinal heroin/morphine/codeine use displayed significantly higher metabolite ratios than those with suspected street heroin use/contamination. Conclusion: Hydromorphone/hydrocodone are solely formed during body passage. Thus, metabolite ratios can be used to distinguish morphine/heroin use from external contamination.
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Restolho J, Barroso M, Saramago B, Dias M, Afonso CA. Contactless decontamination of hair samples: cannabinoids. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:282-288. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- José Restolho
- nal von minden GmbH; Friedenstrasse 32 93053 Regensburg Germany
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.UL); Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade de Lisboa; Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisbon Portugal
- Centro de Química Estrutural do Instituto Superior Técnico; Universidade de Lisboa; Av. Rovisco Pais 1049-001 Lisbon Portugal
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses; Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses; IP - Delegação do Sul, Rua Manuel Bento de Sousa, 3 1169-201 Lisbon Portugal
| | - Benilde Saramago
- Centro de Química Estrutural do Instituto Superior Técnico; Universidade de Lisboa; Av. Rovisco Pais 1049-001 Lisbon Portugal
| | - Mário Dias
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses; Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses; IP - Delegação do Sul, Rua Manuel Bento de Sousa, 3 1169-201 Lisbon Portugal
| | - Carlos A.M. Afonso
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.UL); Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade de Lisboa; Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisbon Portugal
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Metabolites of synthetic cannabinoids in hair—proof of consumption or false friends for interpretation? Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:3445-52. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9422-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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26
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Evidence based decontamination protocols for the removal of external Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) from contaminated hair. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 259:110-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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27
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Kuwayama K, Miyaguchi H, Yamamuro T, Tsujikawa K, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Micro-pulverized extraction pretreatment for highly sensitive analysis of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in hair by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2015; 29:2158-2166. [PMID: 26467228 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE A primary metabolite of Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxytetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), serves as an effective indicator for cannabis intake. According to the recommendations of the Society of Hair Testing, at least 0.2 pg/mg of THC-COOH (cut-off level) must be present in a hair sample to constitute a positive result in a drug test. Typically, hair is digested with an alkaline solution and is subjected to gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS/MS) with negative ion chemical ionization (NICI). METHODS It is difficult to quantify THC-COOH at the cut-off level using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) without acquisition of second-generation product ions in triple quadrupole-ion trap mass spectrometers, because large amounts of matrix components in the low-mass range produced by digestion interfere with the THC-COOH peak. Using the typical pretreatment method (alkaline dissolution) and micro-pulverized extraction (MPE) with a stainless bullet, we compared the quantification of THC-COOH using GC/MS/MS and LC/MS/MS. RESULTS MPE reduced the amount of matrix components in the low-mass range and enabled the quantification of THC-COOH at 0.2 pg/mg using a conventional triple quadrupole liquid chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer. On the other hand, the MPE pretreatment was unsuitable for GC/MS/MS, probably due to matrix components in the high-mass range. The proper combination of pretreatments and instrumental analyses was shown to be important for detecting trace amounts of THC-COOH in hair. CONCLUSIONS In MPE, samples can be prepared rapidly, and LC/MS/MS is readily available, unlike GC/MS/MS with NICI. The combination of MPE and LC/MS/MS might therefore be used in the initial screening for THC-COOH in hair prior to confirmatory analysis using GC/MS/MS with NICI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Kuwayama
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Hajime Miyaguchi
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Tadashi Yamamuro
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Kenji Tsujikawa
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Tatsuyuki Kanamori
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Yuko T Iwata
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Inoue
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
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Moosmann B, Roth N, Auwärter V. Finding cannabinoids in hair does not prove cannabis consumption. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14906. [PMID: 26443501 PMCID: PMC4595642 DOI: 10.1038/srep14906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Hair analysis for cannabinoids is extensively applied in workplace drug testing and in child protection cases, although valid data on incorporation of the main analytical targets, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH), into human hair is widely missing. Furthermore, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A), the biogenetic precursor of THC, is found in the hair of persons who solely handled cannabis material. In the light of the serious consequences of positive test results the mechanisms of drug incorporation into hair urgently need scientific evaluation. Here we show that neither THC nor THCA-A are incorporated into human hair in relevant amounts after systemic uptake. THC-COOH, which is considered an incontestable proof of THC uptake according to the current scientific doctrine, was found in hair, but was also present in older hair segments, which already grew before the oral THC intake and in sebum/sweat samples. Our studies show that all three cannabinoids can be present in hair of non-consuming individuals because of transfer through cannabis consumers, via their hands, their sebum/sweat, or cannabis smoke. This is of concern for e.g. child-custody cases as cannabinoid findings in a child’s hair may be caused by close contact to cannabis consumers rather than by inhalation of side-stream smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjoern Moosmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nadine Roth
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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Moosmann B, Roth N, Auwärter V. Hair analysis for Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A) and Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) after handling cannabis plant material. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:128-32. [PMID: 26097164 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A previous study has shown that Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A), the non-psychoactive precursor of Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in the cannabis plant does not get incorporated in relevant amounts into the hair through the bloodstream after repeated oral intake. However, THCA-A can be measured in forensic hair samples in concentrations often exceeding the detected THC concentrations. To investigate whether the handling of cannabis plant material prior to consumption is a contributing factor for THC-positive hair results and also the source for THCA-A findings in hair, a study comprising ten participants was conducted. In this study, the participants rolled a marijuana joint on five consecutive days and hair samples of each participant were obtained. Urine samples were taken to exclude cannabis consumption prior to and during the study. THCA-A and THC could be detected in the hair samples from all participants taken at the end of the exposure period (concentration range: 15-1800 pg/mg for THCA-A and < 10-93 pg/mg for THC). Four weeks after the first exposure, THCA-A could still be detected in the hair samples of nine participants (concentration range: 4-57 pg/mg). Furthermore, THC could be detected in the hair samples of five participants (concentration range: < 10-17 pg/mg). Based on these results, it can be concluded that at least parts of the THC as well as the major part of THCA-A found in routine hair analysis derives from external contamination caused by direct transfer through contaminated fingers. This finding is of particular interest in interpreting THC-positive hair results of children or partners of cannabis users, where such a transfer can occur due to close body contact. Analytical findings may be wrongly interpreted as a proof of consumption or at least passive exposure to cannabis smoke. Such misinterpretation could lead to severe consequences for the people concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjoern Moosmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nadine Roth
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
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Identification and quantification of 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid glucuronide (THC-COOH-glu) in hair by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry as a potential hair biomarker of cannabis use. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 249:47-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Revised: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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31
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Hair analysis for JWH-018, JWH-122, and JWH-210 after passive in vivo exposure to synthetic cannabinoid smoke. Forensic Toxicol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-014-0251-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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32
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Experimental study on external contamination of hair by synthetic cannabinoids and effect of hair treatment. Forensic Toxicol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-014-0250-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Thieme D, Sachs U, Sachs H, Moore C. Significant enhancement of 11-Hydroxy-THC detection by formation of picolinic acid esters and application of liquid chromatography/multi stage mass spectrometry (LC-MS3): Application to hair and oral fluid analysis. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:577-85. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Detlef Thieme
- Institute of Doping Analysis; Dresdner str. 12 01731 Kreischa Germany
| | - Ulf Sachs
- Albert-Ludwigs-University; Albertstr. 21 79104 Freiburg Germany
| | - Hans Sachs
- Forensic Toxicological Center; Bayerstr. 53 80335 Munich Germany
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Moosmann B, Valcheva T, Neukamm MA, Angerer V, Auwärter V. Hair analysis of synthetic cannabinoids: does the handling of herbal mixtures affect the analyst’s hair concentration? Forensic Toxicol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-014-0244-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
The use of alternative matrices such as oral fluid and hair has increased in the past decades because of advances in analytical technology. However, there are still many issues that need to be resolved. Standardized protocols of sample pretreatment are needed to link the detected concentrations to final conclusions. The development of suitable proficiency testing schemes is required. Finally, interpretation issues such as link to effect, adulteration, detection markers and thresholds will hamper the vast use of these matrices. Today, several niche areas apply these matrices with success, such as drugs and driving for oral fluid and drug-facilitated crimes for hair. Once those issues are resolved, the number of applications will markedly grow in the future.
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Cannabinoid findings in children hair - what do they really tell us? An assessment in the light of three different analytical methods with focus on interpretation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A concentrations. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:349-57. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Revised: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Baciu T, Borrull F, Aguilar C, Calull M. Recent trends in analytical methods and separation techniques for drugs of abuse in hair. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 856:1-26. [PMID: 25542354 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.06.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Hair analysis of drugs of abuse has been a subject of growing interest from a clinical, social and forensic perspective for years because of the broad time detection window after intake in comparison to urine and blood analysis. Over the last few years, hair analysis has gained increasing attention and recognition for the retrospective investigation of drug abuse in a wide variety of contexts, shown by the large number of applications developed. This review aims to provide an overview of the state of the art and the latest trends used in the literature from 2005 to the present in the analysis of drugs of abuse in hair, with a special focus on separation analytical techniques and their hyphenation with mass spectrometry detection. The most recently introduced sample preparation techniques are also addressed in this paper. The main strengths and weaknesses of all of these approaches are critically discussed by means of relevant applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Baciu
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo, s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - F Borrull
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo, s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - C Aguilar
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo, s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.
| | - M Calull
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sescelades Campus, Marcel·lí Domingo, s/n, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
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Jaques SC, Kingsbury A, Henshcke P, Chomchai C, Clews S, Falconer J, Abdel-Latif ME, Feller JM, Oei JL. Cannabis, the pregnant woman and her child: weeding out the myths. J Perinatol 2014; 34:417-24. [PMID: 24457255 DOI: 10.1038/jp.2013.180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Revised: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
To review and summarise the literature reporting on cannabis use within western communities with specific reference to patterns of use, the pharmacology of its major psychoactive compounds, including placental and fetal transfer, and the impact of maternal cannabis use on pregnancy, the newborn infant and the developing child. Review of published articles, governmental guidelines and data and book chapters. Although cannabis is one of the most widely used illegal drugs, there is limited data about the prevalence of cannabis use in pregnant women, and it is likely that reported rates of exposure are significantly underestimated. With much of the available literature focusing on the impact of other illicit drugs such as opioids and stimulants, the effects of cannabis use in pregnancy on the developing fetus remain uncertain. Current evidence indicates that cannabis use both during pregnancy and lactation, may adversely affect neurodevelopment, especially during periods of critical brain growth both in the developing fetal brain and during adolescent maturation, with impacts on neuropsychiatric, behavioural and executive functioning. These reported effects may influence future adult productivity and lifetime outcomes. Despite the widespread use of cannabis by young women, there is limited information available about the impact perinatal cannabis use on the developing fetus and child, particularly the effects of cannabis use while breast feeding. Women who are using cannabis while pregnant and breast feeding should be advised of what is known about the potential adverse effects on fetal growth and development and encouraged to either stop using or decrease their use. Long-term follow-up of exposed children is crucial as neurocognitive and behavioural problems may benefit from early intervention aimed to reduce future problems such as delinquency, depression and substance use.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Jaques
- Department of Newborn Care, Royal Hospital for Women, Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - A Kingsbury
- Mater Miseriacordiae Health Service Brisbane, Mater Mothers' Hospital, South Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - P Henshcke
- Mercy Women's Hospital, Heidelberg, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | - S Clews
- The Langton Centre, Surry Hills, NSW, Australia
| | - J Falconer
- The Langton Centre, Surry Hills, NSW, Australia
| | - M E Abdel-Latif
- The Centenary Hospital for Women and Children, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - J M Feller
- 1] The Sydney Children's Hospital, Randwick, NSW, Australia [2] School of Women's and Children's Health, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - J L Oei
- 1] Department of Newborn Care, Royal Hospital for Women, Randwick, NSW, Australia [2] School of Women's and Children's Health, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, Australia
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T. Kicman
- Department of Forensic Science and Drug Monitoring; King's College London; UK
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