Paper-supported polystyrene membranes for micro-solid phase extraction of date-rape drugs from urine: A sustainable analytical approach

BACKGROUND

The rapid development of micro-solid phase extraction (μ-SPE) procedures with new sorption materials, in particular, based on using natural materials, is currently reported. The production of these sorbents and the entire extraction procedure should support the implementation of Green Analytical Chemistry (GAC) principles. Promising materials are sorbents based on paper, which can be relatively easily modified, among others: by covering it with a polymer membrane. In this work, the practical application of paper-supported polystyrene used in the analysis of urine samples containing selected date-rape drugs (DRD) substances, and evaluation of the entire procedure using GAC metrics is presented.

RESULTS

The paper-supported polystyrene membranes were successfully fabricated and characterized. The successful polystyrene coating on the paper was confirmed through ATR-FTIR measurements, ensuring even coverage. The μ-SPE procedure using this material facilitated extraction with a throughput of approximately 120 samples per hour in just a few steps. Throughout the research, a mixture of 100 mM acetic acid:methanol:acetonitrile (70:15:15, v/v/v) was selected as an optimal background electrolyte for capillary electrophoresis - mass spectrometry analysis. Validation results of this method demonstrated its suitability, exhibiting good linearity (R2 > 0.95), low limits of detection (3.1-15 ng mL-1), acceptable precision (<15 %), and recovery for all tested analytes. Furthermore, the greenness evaluation conducted with six different metrics: AGREEprep, AGREE, ComplexGAPI, SPMS, hexagonal metric, and WAC indicated the overall eco-friendliness and sustainability of the method, with minor concerns regarding energy consumption.

SIGNIFICANCE

The use of cellulose paper with polystyrene membranes for μ-SPE provides a versatile and eco-friendly extraction method for detecting DRDs in urine samples. The presented work is an example of the use of GAC metrics in the evaluation of the analytical procedure. The optimized PT-μ-SPE/CE-MS method allows for minimized reagent usage and waste production. Moreover, the method proves to be sustainable and efficient for forensic toxicology analysis.

Target and suspect screening of psychoactive substances in seizures and oral fluid exploiting retention time prediction and LC-MS/MS analysis

BACKGROUND

Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are a group of substances, mainly of synthetic origin, characterized by toxicological properties extremely dangerous. The main difficulty in recognizing NPS in seizures and biological samples lies in their dynamic nature, related to the continuous synthesis and introduction on the market of new drugs, often with very similar structures to existing ones. The aim of this study was the creation of a robust and versatile method for the analysis of traditional drugs and NPS in different matrices.

RESULTS

Both target analysis and suspect screening methodologies were developed. The strategy used for suspect screening allowed to collect data through a scheduled multi reaction monitoring (sMRM) survey which triggered the collection of enhanced product ion (EPI) spectra when a compound met information dependent acquisition (IDA) criteria. The retention time of the different drugs, which was crucial to define the sMRM survey scan parameters, was predicted with a Quantitative Structure Retention (Chromatographic) Relationship (QSRR) model by Multiple Linear Regression. The model was validated through the evaluation of training set predictions, an external validation set and a leave-one out strategy; the results showed that the method fit for its purpose. The target method was validated in oral fluid as a testing matrix, with excellent results in term of recovery, accuracy, precision and matrix effect. Finally, the performances of the suspect method were evaluated by analysing a mixture containing 8 reference standards not included in the initial dataset, as well as seizures and real oral fluid samples. Four NPS were putatively identified in the analysed samples.

SIGNIFICANCE

The advantage of the proposed approach is the possibility of quantifying 65 classical drugs of abuse and NPS and, at the same time, detect and putatively identify 146 additional drugs in one single LC-MS/MS run. This is an innovative strategy for multi analyte detection and enables detection of low concentrations of drugs in complex biological matrices such as oral fluid. Considering the highly dynamic drug market, a strength of this strategy is that the analytical method can be kept up to date through the addition of new compounds based on the last drug monitoring bodies alerts without the need of authentic standards.

Solvent-free parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction for drugs of abuse in plasma samples using LC-MS/MS

BACKGROUND

Parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction (PALME) is a 96-well plate setup variant of liquid-phase microextraction. Basic or acidic analytes are extracted in neutral form from the sample, through a supported liquid membrane (SLM), and into aqueous acceptor. PALME is already considered a green extraction technique, but in the current conceptual work, we sought to make it even greener by replacing the use of organic solvents with essential oils (EO). PALME was combined with LC-MS/MS for analysis of plasma samples and multiple drugs of abuse with toxicological relevance (amphetamines, phenethylamines, synthetic cathinones, designer benzodiazepines, ayahuasca alkaloids, lysergic acid diethylamide, and ketamine).

RESULTS

Fourteen EO were compared to organic solvents frequently used in PALME. The EO termed smart & sassy yielded the best analyte recovery for all drugs studied and was thus selected as SLM. Then, factorial screening and Box-Behnken were employed to optimize the technique. The extraction time, concentration of base, sample volume, and percentage of trioctylamine significantly impacted analyte recovery. The optimum values were defined as 120 min, 10 mmol/L of NaOH, 150 μL, and 0%, respectively. Once optimized, validation parameters were 1-100 ng mL-1 as linear range, accuracy ±16.4%, precision >83%, 1 ng mL-1 as limit of quantitation, 0.1-0.75 ng mL-1 as limit of detection, matrix effect <20%, and recovery 20-106%. Additionally, EO purchased from different production batches were tested and achieved acceptable reproducibility. Data were in compliance with requirements set by internationally accepted validation guidelines and the applicability of the technique was proven using authentic samples.

SIGNIFICANCE

In this study, the use of an EO provided a solvent-free sample preparation technique suited to extract different classes of drugs of abuse from plasma samples, dismissing the use of hazardous organic solvents. The method also provided excellent sample clean-up, thus being a simple and efficient tool for toxicological applications that is in agreement with the principles of sustainable chemistry.

Plasma drug screening using paper spray mass spectrometry with integrated solid phase extraction

Drug overdoses have risen dramatically in recent years. We developed a simple nontargeted method using a disposable paper spray cartridge with an integrated solid phase extraction column. This method was used to screen for ~160 fentanyl analogs, synthetic cannabinoids, other synthetic drugs, and traditional drugs of abuse in over 300 authentic overdose samples collected at emergency departments in Indianapolis. A solid phase extraction step was implemented on the paper spray cartridge to enable subnanograms per milliliter synthetic drugs screening in plasma. Analysis was performed on a quadrupole orbitrap mass spectrometer using the sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion spectra approach in which tandem mass spectrometry was performed using 7 m/z isolation windows in the quadrupole. Calibration curves with isotopically labeled internal standards were constructed for 35 of the most frequently encountered synthetic and traditional illicit drugs by US toxicology labs. Additional qualitative-only drugs in a suspect screening list were also included. Limits of detection in plasma for synthetic cannabinoids ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 and 0.1 to 0.3 ng/mL for fentanyl and its analogs and between 1 and 5 ng/mL for most other drugs. Relative matrix effects were evaluated by determining the variation of the calibration slope in 10 different lots of biofluid and found to be between 3% and 20%. The method was validated on authentic overdose samples collected from two emergency departments in Indianapolis, Indiana, from suspected or known overdoses. Commonly detected synthetic drugs included fentanyl related substances, designer benzodiazepines such as flubromazolam, and the synthetic cannabinoid 5F-PB-22.

Recent advances in analysis of new psychoactive substances by means of liquid chromatography coupled with low-resolution tandem mass spectrometry

The number of methods for the analysis of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is continually increasing, and there is no indication that this trend will change in the near future. The constantly growing market of "designer drugs" makes it necessary to develop new methods of their analysis. The aim of this review is to present the multi-component methods of detection and identification of NPS using low-resolution tandem mass spectrometry coupled with liquid chromatography. For this purpose, 36 articles were selected by applying strictly defined search criteria. Due to the large differences in the matrices and physicochemical properties of the analytes, the described research methods are diverse. These differences are visible in sample preparation methods, chromatographic columns, mobile phases, gradients, or additives to mobile phases used. This work collects and organizes the existing information on the subject of NPS screening analysis methods and will be helpful to forensic scientists working on this topic.

A new application of the switchable hydrophilicity solvent-based homogenous liquid-liquid microextraction to analyze synthetic cannabinoids in plasma by LC-MS/MS

Synthetic cannabinoids are still a growing trend among drug users and consist of a group of hundreds of highly potent compounds. To investigate the use of such substances, sample preparation of biological matrices is a crucial step prior to instrumental analysis. Although different efficient extraction techniques have been proposed for that aim, they usually do not fit eco-friendly guidelines that have been gaining popularity in recent years, such as Green Analytical Toxicology. This work uses describes for the first time the use of switchable hydrophilicity solvent-based homogenous liquid-liquid microextraction (SHS-HLLME) for synthetic cannabinoids. This is a green technique that replaces highly toxic organic reagents for switchable hydrophilicity solvents (SHS), substances that can be either water-miscible or immiscible depending on their protonation. Thus, by simply adjusting the pH of the system, these SHS can be used as extraction solvents. A full optimization study including type of SHS, volume of protonated SHS, volume of NaOH, salting-out effect, and extraction time was performed. The optimized procedure consisted of precipitating the proteins of 300 µL of plasma with 300 µL of acetonitrile followed by centrifugation; evaporation of the organic solvent under N2 stream; addition of 500 µL of the protonated DPA, DPA-HCl (6 M) (1:1, v/v); addition of 500 µL of NaOH (10 M); and finally centrifugation and evaporation. Validation results showed determination coefficients ≥ 0.99 for the 0.1-10 ng/mL linear range; 0.01-0.08 ng/mL as limit of detection; 0.1 ng/mL as limit of quantitation; accuracy and imprecision were within acceptable ranges; matrix effect, recovery, and process efficiency ranged from -55.6 to 185.9%, 36-56.7%, and 18.5-148.4%, respectively. The SHS-HLLME herein described was fully optimized providing satisfactory recoveries of 31 synthetic cannabinoids at low concentrations requiring only 300 µL of plasma. In addition, the validation results showed that the technique is a reliable eco-friendly alternative for clinical and toxicological analysis.

New Synthetic Cannabinoid ADB-BUTINACA-Related Death of a Police Dog

The popularity of synthetic cannabinoids puts police sniffer dogs at risk of accidental introduction of such substances into the body. The extreme efficacy and potency of many new synthetic cannabinoids are associated with a high risk of serious poisonings and even deaths. The paper presents the toxicological findings in an intoxication of a police dog, in which a new synthetic cannabinoid ADB-BUTINACA was detected and quantified in postmortem materials. The screening analyses were performed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) and liquid chromatography--quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). LC-MS-MS was also used for quantitative analyses, while LC-QTOF-MS for metabolite identification. Due to unusual matrices, the standard addition method was used for the quantitative determination of ADB-BUTINACA. The determined concentrations of ADB-BUTINACA in blood, lung, stomach, liver and kidney were 8.1 ng/mL, 6.4 ng/g, 1.5 ng/g, 1.8 ng/g and 0.4 ng/g, respectively. Apart from ADB-BUTINACA, the monohydroxylated metabolites and the dihydrodiol metabolite were detected and identified in all analyzed materials, and moreover the product of N-debutylation was found in blood and liver. The described case presents the identification and quantitation of a new synthetic cannabinoid ADB-BUTINACA in postmortem dog specimens. Although the cause of death was acute gastric dilatation, it cannot be ruled out that this process was the result of synthetic cannabinoid inhalation. Due to dogs' sensitivity to cannabinoids, ADB-BUTINACA poisoning cannot be excluded either. The described case suggests that ADB-BUTINACA elicits serious adverse effects in dogs. The article also indicates the dangers to which police dogs coming into contact with extremely potent drugs may be exposed.

Synthesis of emerging cathinones and validation of a SPE GC-MS method for their simultaneous quantification in blood

Over the past 15 years, synthetic cathinones have emerged as an important class of new psychoactive substances (NPS) worldwide. The proliferation of these psychostimulants and their sought-after effects among recreational drug users pose a serious threat to public health and enormous challenges to forensic laboratories. For forensic institutions, it is essential to be one step ahead of covert laboratories, foreseeing the structural changes possible to introduce in the core skeleton of cathinones while maintaining their stimulating activity. In this manner, it is feasible to equip themselves with standards of possible new cathinones and validated analytical methods for their qualitative and quantitative detection. Therefore, the aim of the work herein described was to synthesize emerging cathinones based on the evolving patterns in the illicit drug market, and to develop an analytical method for their accurate determination in forensic situations. Five so far unreported cathinones [4'-methyl-N-dimethylbuphedrone (4-MDMB), 4'-methyl-N-ethylbuphedrone (4-MNEB), 4'-methyl-N-dimethylpentedrone (4-MDMP), 4'-methyl-N-dimethylhexedrone (4-MDMH), and 4'-methyl-N-diethylbuphedrone (4-MDEB)] and a sixth one, 4'-methyl-N-ethylpentedrone, already reported to EMCDDA and also known as 4-MEAP, were synthesized and fully characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). An analytical method for the simultaneous quantification of these cathinones in blood, using solid phase extraction (SPE) combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was developed and validated. The results prove that this methodology is selective, linear, precise, and accurate. For all target cathinones, the extraction efficiency was higher than 73%, linearity was observed in the range of 10 (lower limit of quantification, LLOQ) to 800 ng/mL, with coefficients of determination higher than 0.99, and the limits of detection (LODs) were 5 ng/mL for all target cathinones. The stability of these cathinones in blood matrices is dependent on the storage conditions; 4-MNEB is the most stable compound and 4-MDMH is the least stable compound. The low limits obtained allow the detection of the compounds in situations where they are involved, even if present at low concentrations.

Identification of seven psychedelic 2,5-dimethoxy-phenylethyl-amine-based designer drugs via benchtop 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

The dissemination of spectral information of new psychoactive substances (NPS) acquired on benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometers is of high importance considering the emerging application of such portable and accessible instruments in forensic analyses. Seven members of the 2C-X series (2C-B, 2C-C, 2C-D, 2C-E, 2C-P, 2C-T2, and 2C-T7) of NPS were analyzed via 60 MHz ¹ H benchtop NMR spectroscopy and their molecular structural relations are discussed with respect to the observed proton NMR spectra.

Analysis of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and 2,5-dimethoxy-phenethylamines aiming their determination in biological matrices: a review

PURPOSE

The present review aims to provide an overview of methods for the quantification of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and -phenethylamines in different biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones.

METHODS

A complete literature search was carried out with PubMed, Scopus and the World Wide Web using relevant keywords, e.g., designer drugs, amphetamines, phenethylamines, and biological matrices.

RESULTS

Synthetic phenethylamines represent one of the largest classes of "designer drugs", obtained through chemical structure modifications of psychoactive substances to increase their pharmacological activities. This practice is also favored by the fact that every new synthetic compound is not considered illegal by existing legislation. Generally, in a toxicological laboratory, the first monitoring of drugs of abuse is made by rapid screening tests that sometimes can occur in false positive or false negative results. To reduce evaluation errors, it is mandatory to submit the positive samples to confirmatory methods, such as gas chromatography or liquid chromatography combined to mass spectrometry, for a more specific qualitative and quantitative analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights the great need for updated comprehensive analytical methods, particularly when analyzing biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones, for the search of newly emerging designer drugs.

New Psychoactive Substances: Which Biological Matrix Is the Best for Clinical Toxicology Screening?

BACKGROUND

Every year, more new psychoactive substances (NPSs) emerge in the market of the drugs of abuse. NPSs belong to various chemical classes, such as synthetic cannabinoids, phenethylamines, opioids, and benzodiazepines. The detection of NPSs intake using different types of biological matrices is challenging for clinical toxicologists because of their structural diversity and the lack of information on their toxicokinetics, including their metabolic fate.

METHODS

PubMed-listed articles reporting mass spectrometry-based bioanalytical approaches for NPSs detection published during the past 5 years were identified and discussed. Furthermore, the pros and cons of using common biological matrices in clinical toxicology (CT) settings to screen for NPSs are highlighted in this review article.

RESULTS

Twenty-six articles presenting multianalyte screening methods for use in the field of CT were considered. The advantages and disadvantages of different biological matrices are discussed with a particular view of the different analytical tasks in CT, especially emergency toxicology. Finally, an outlook introduces the emerging trends in biosamples used in CT, such as the exhaled breath.

CONCLUSIONS

Blood and urine represent the most common biological matrices used in a CT setting; however, reports concerning NPSs detection in alternative matrices are also available. Noteworthy, the selection of the biological matrix must depend on the clinician's enquiry because the individual advantages and disadvantages must be considered.

Screening of new psychoactive substances in human plasma by magnetic solid phase extraction and LC-QTOF-MS

The emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) is an increasing challenge in forensic toxicology. There are many extraction methods in use to isolate NPSs in biological fluids, including protein precipitation (PPT), liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), and solid phase extraction (SPE). However, there is a need to develop an effective extraction method with a short extraction time and low consumption of solvent. To meet these requirements, magnetic solid phase extraction (m-SPE) was attempted to isolate 40 NPSs in human plasma in this study. Forty NPSs (13 synthetic cannabinoids, 13 phenethylamines, 4 tryptamines, 4 other substances, 3 aminoindanes, 2 piperazines, 1 phencyclidine-type substance) were spiked in plasma and analyzed by m-SPE using COOH-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes with magnetic nanoparticles (COOH-mMWCNTs). A liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) method was used for screening and identification of 40 target compounds. Method validation including limits of detection, recovery, matrix effect, and precision was performed for all 40 -target compounds. The limits of detection (LOD) of the 40 analytes were between 0.002 and 0.084 mg/L. Extraction recovery ranged from 36.9% to 110.6% (average 87%). Matrix effects ranged from -29.0% (ion suppression) to 9.8% (ion enhancement). Both intra- and inter-day precision values were less than 27.5% (RSD%). The accurate mass of QTOF-MS enabled the identification of analytes by exact monoisotopic mass and isotopic pattern. m-SPE was applied to extract 40 NPSs, and revealed less time-consuming and laborious than conventional SPE. This method proved to be an advantageous procedure to extract NPSs from biological fluids.

Overview of analytical methods for determining novel psychoactive substances, drugs and their metabolites in biological samples

Recent years have witnessed a growing in interest in psychoactive substances, particularly those available in e-commerce. These have led to an increase in the number of drug-related poisonings, deaths, and road accidents. Illegal drugs are available on an unprecedented scale and cause previously unknown adverse effects, which creates a challenge for analysts to find rapid methods for identifying these substances and taking appropriate action in the shortest possible time. New psychoactive substances (NPSs) can be lethal at very low concentrations, which give particularly serious cause for concern. These drugs are easily accessible and often regarded (or claimed) to be safe, which encourages many people, in particular young people, to try them. The widespread use of these substances is compounded by the awareness that they are difficult to detect with the existing rapid screening tests. Simple, fast, sensitive, and specific methods for determining the largest possible number of black-market psychoactive substances and their metabolites are therefore essential. Such methods will facilitate treatment and increase the effectiveness of measures aiming to reduce drug addiction. The objective of this review article was to critically compare the most commonly used analytical methods for determining NPS and their metabolites in biological material, with special emphasis on the sample preparation process, and to highlight the possibilities offered by the existing analytical methods.

Development of an analytical method to detect simultaneously 219 new psychoactive substances and 65 other substances in urine specimens using LC-QqQ MS/MS with CriticalPairFinder and TransitionFinder

Emerging new psychoactive substances (NPS) poses a great risk to public health. Analyzing these large numbers of NPS and other associated substances often relies on liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-QqQ-MS) with multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. However, the differentiation of critical pairs, coeluted isobaric and/or isomeric species, is one of the challenges for this analytical platform. MRM transitions with poor selectivity can jeopardize accurate quantification and lead to biased interpretation. Herein, we refined a novel workflow for developing an MRM-based method with in-house CriticalPairFinder and TransitionFinder tools for the effective identification of unique and selective MRM transitions. Transitions selected by TransitionFinder showed much better accuracies than those selected only by fragment abundance in some mixtures of critical pairs. Using the proposed analytical strategy, a method that can simultaneously determine 219 NPS and 65 other substances across a variety of NPS classes in urine samples was developed, validated and applied to analyze clinical urine samples. This automated workflow is anticipated to facilitate method development for analyzing complex analytes while considering selectivity.

Fatal intoxication with new synthetic cannabinoids 5F-MDMB-PICA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA-parent compounds and metabolite identification in blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid

Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) remain one of the largest groups of new psychoactive substances. Recently, new synthetic cannabinoids 5F-MDMB-PICA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA are increasing in popularity. A 33-year-old man lost consciousness after smoking an unknown substance. A glass pipe and two lumps of substance that turned out to contain 5F-MDMB-PICA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA were found at the scene. Blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid were collected during the examination of the body. The synthetic cannabinoids were isolated from autopsy materials by precipitation with acetonitrile and extraction with ethyl acetate. The screening and quantitative analyses were performed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q/TOF) technique was used for metabolite identification. 5F-MDMB-PICA was detected and quantified in all analysed materials, whereas 4F-MDMB-BINACA was found only in cerebrospinal fluid. The determined concentrations of 5F-MDMB-PICA were 0.9 (blood), 0.1 (urine) and 3.2 ng/mL (cerebrospinal fluid). The concentration of 4F-MDMB-BINACA in cerebrospinal fluid was 0.1 ng/mL. The main metabolites of both compounds (hydrolysis and oxidative defluorination) were found in all analysed body fluids. Cerebrospinal fluid may be important alternative material in autopsy cases. Rapid elimination of 5F-MDMB-PICA and 4F-MDMB-BINACA compounds also means that the metabolite analysis can be crucial for the investigation. Laboratories must be made aware of their presence and incorporate these SCs and their metabolites into workflows for detection and confirmation. Ester hydrolysis and oxidative defluorination products can be found in blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid making them useful biomarkers of intake.

Optimized and Validated DBS/MAE/LC–MS Method for Rapid Determination of Date-Rape Drugs and Cocaine in Human Blood Samples—A New Tool in Forensic Analysis

The aim of this work was to develop a new method for the determination of selected substances from the date-rape drugs group: ketamine, benzodiazepines and cocaine. The method is based on the dried blood spot method which seems to be a suitable tool in the analysis of tested substances. The extraction process based on microwave-assisted extraction was optimized to enable optimal conditions for the isolation of a wide range of analytes from blood samples collected on DBS cards. The extraction with ethyl acetate with a buffer of pH = 9 carried out at a temperature of 50 °C for 15 min ensured high extraction efficiency of the tested analytes. The optimized method was validated. Limits of detection (LOD = 4.38–21.1 ng/mL) and quantification (LOQ = 14.6–70.4 ng/mL), inter- and intra-day precision (CV = 1.37–13.4% and 3.39–14.8%, respectively), recovery (RE = 93.0–112.4%) and matrix effect (ME = 98.4–101.6%) were determined. The validation results indicate the possibility of using the proposed method in the analysis of real blood samples collected from victims of sexual assault.

Application of a UPLC-MS/MS method for quantitative analysis of 29 synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites, such as ADB-BUTINACA and MDMB-4en-PINACA in human hair in real cases

In recent years, an increasing number of new synthetic cannabinoids have appeared on the drug trade market. Many of the new synthetic cannabinoids have not previously been reported. At present, there are relatively few methods available for detecting synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites in hair matrices. Therefore, we established a simple and fast method to simultaneously identify 29 synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites in human hair by UPLC-MS/MS. Twenty milligrams of hair was used and processed by cryo-grinding and extraction with methanol. A Waters Acquity UPLC HSS T₃ column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 µm) was used for chromatographic separation. Mobile phase A was comprised of 20 mmol/L ammonium acetate, 0.1% formic acid, and 5% acetonitrile and water, and mobile phase B was acetonitrile. The method was fully validated and proved to have good selectivity, accuracy, precision, and satisfactory linearity within the calibrated range. The limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 0.5 to 5 pg/mg, and the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) ranged from 1 to 10 pg/mg. The extraction recovery was 36.1-93.3%, and the matrix effect was 19.1-110.0%. The validated method was successfully used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze 29 synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites in 59 actual hair samples. MDMB-4en-PINACA had the highest positive detection rate followed by ADB-BUTINACA, and there are multiple synthetic cannabinoid mixed ingestions. This methodology has great potential for the detection of 29 synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites in forensic cases.

Novel extraction method using an ISOLUTE PLD+ protein and phospholipid removal column for liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of 20 psychoactive drugs in postmortem whole blood samples

A novel sample extraction method using an ISOLUTE PLD+ protein and phospholipid removal column was developed for simultaneous quantification of 20 psychoactive drugs, including antidepressants, antipsychotics, sedative-hypnotics, and amphetamines, in postmortem whole blood samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The method showed improvement in extract cleanliness compared with traditional protein precipitation and the QuEChERS extraction method. The method was validated for all analytes; the calibration curves showed good linearity, with r² values exceeding 0.991. The intra- and interday accuracies and precisions were 87.6-117.5% and 1.0-18.6%, respectively. The recovery efficiencies were in the range of 64.6-96.8%. Matrix effects were observed in the range of 82.6-116.0%. All analytes were stable under different storage conditions. This method was successfully applied in postmortem forensic sample analysis to quantify psychoactive drugs. The method described in the current study will be useful for forensic toxicological investigations.

Development of a New LC-MS/MS Screening Method for Detection of 120 NPS and 43 Drugs in Blood

In the last few years, liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC/MS) has been increasingly used for screening purposes in forensic toxicology. These techniques have the advantages of low time/resource-consuming and high versatility and have been applied in numerous new multi-analytes methods. The new psychoactive substance (NPS) phenomenon provided a great impulse to this wide-range approach, but it is also important to keep the attention on “classical” psychoactive substances, such as benzodiazepines (BDZ). In this paper, a fully validated screening method in blood for the simultaneous detection of 163 substances (120 NPS and 43 other drugs) by a dynamic multiple reaction monitoring analysis through LC-MS/MS is described. The method consists of a deproteinization of 200 µL of blood with acetonitrile. The LC separation is achieved with a 100 mm long C18 column in 35 min. The method was very sensitive, with limits of quantification from 0.02 to 1.5 ng/mL. Matrix effects did not negatively affect the analytical sensitivity. This method proved to be reliable and was successfully applied to our routinary analytical activity in several forensic caseworks, allowing the identification and quantification of many BDZs and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV).

Development and validation of a rapid LC-MS/MS method for the detection of 182 novel psychoactive substances in whole blood

Introduction

The analysis of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) represents a challenge in forensic toxicology, due to the high number of compounds characterized by different structures and physicochemical properties both among different subclasses and within a single subclass of NPS. The aim of the present work is the development and validation of a targeted liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) method for the detection of NPS in whole blood.

Materials and methods

A protein‐precipitation based LC‐MS/MS method for the detection of more than 180 NPS was developed and validated by assessing the following parameters: selectivity, linearity, accuracy, precision, limit of detection (LOD) and of quantification (LOQ) recovery, and matrix effect. Then, the method was applied to real forensic samples.

Results

The method allowed the identification of 132 synthetic cannabinoids, 22 synthetic opioids, and 28 substances among synthetic cathinones, stimulants, and other drugs. Validation was successfully achieved for most of the compounds. Linearity was in the range of 0.25–10 ng/ml for synthetic cannabinoids and 0.25–25 ng/ml for other drugs. Accuracy and precision were acceptable according to international guidelines. Three cases tested positive for fentanyl and ketamine, in the setting of emergency room administration.

Conclusions

The present methodology represents a fast, not expensive, wide‐panel method for the analysis of more than 180 NPS by LC‐MS/MS, which can be profitably applied both in a clinical context and in postmortem toxicology.

Sensitive Screening of New Psychoactive Substances in Serum Using Liquid-Chromatography Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry

Analysis of new psychoactive substances (NPS) still pose a challenge for many institutions due to the number of available substances and the constantly changing drug market. Both new and well-known substances keep appearing and disappearing on the market, making it hard to adapt analytical methods in a timely manner. In this study we developed a qualitative screening approach for serum samples by means of liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). Samples were measured in data-dependent auto-MS/MS mode and identified by fragment spectra comparison, retention time and accurate mass. Approximately 500 NPS, including 195 synthetic cannabinoids, 180 stimulants, 86 hallucinogens, 26 benzodiazepines and 7 others were investigated. Serum samples were fortified to 1 ng/mL and 10 ng/mL concentrations to estimate approximate limits of identification. Samples were extracted using solid-phase extraction with non-endcapped C18 material and elution in two consecutive steps. Benzodiazepines were eluted in the first step, while substances of other NPS subclasses were distributed among both extracts. To determine limits of identification, both extracts were combined. 96 % (470/492) of investigated NPS were detected in 10 ng/mL samples and 88 % (432/492) were detected in 1 ng/mL samples. Stimulants stood out with higher limits of identification, possibly due to instability of certain methcathinone derivatives. However, considering relevant blood concentrations, the method provided sufficient sensitivity for stimulants as well as other NPS subclasses. Data-dependent acquisition was proven to provide high sensitivity and reliability when combined with an information-dependent preferred list, without losing its untargeted operation principle. Summarizing, the developed method fulfilled its purpose as a sensitive untargeted screening for serum samples and allows uncomplicated expansion of the spectral library to include thousands of targets.

Determination of 19 Psychoactive Substances in Premortem and Postmortem Whole Blood Samples Using Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry

An ever-increasing need exists within the forensic laboratories to develop analytical processes for the qualitative and quantitative determination of a broad spectrum of new psychoactive substances. Phenylethylamine derivatives are among the major classes of psychoactive substances available on the global market and include both amphetamine analogues and synthetic cathinones. In this work, an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-positive ion electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometric method (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) has been developed and fully validated for the determination of 19 psychoactive substances, including nine amphetamine-type stimulants and 10 synthetic cathinone derivatives, in premortem and postmortem whole blood. The assay was based on the use of 1 mL premortem or postmortem whole blood, following solid phase extraction prior to the analysis. The separation was achieved on a Poroshell 120 EC-C18 analytical column with a gradient mobile phase of 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid in water in 9 min. The dynamic multiple reaction monitoring used in this work allowed for limit of detection (LOD) and lower limit of quantitation (LOQ) values of 0.5 and 2 ng mL−1, respectively, for all analytes both in premortem and postmortem whole blood samples. A quadratic calibration model was used for the 12 quantitative analytes over the concentration range of 20–2000 ng mL−1, and the method was shown to be precise and accurate both in premortem and postmortem whole blood. The method was applied to the analysis of real cases and proved to be a valuable tool in forensic and clinical toxicology.

Metabolism study and toxicological determination of mephtetramine in biological samples by liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry

The emerging market of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) is a global‐scale phenomenon, and their identification in biological samples is challenging because of the lack of information about their metabolism and pharmacokinetic. In this study, we performed in silico metabolic pathway prediction and in vivo metabolism experiments, in order to identify the main metabolites of mephtetramine (MTTA), an NPS found in seizures since 2013. MetaSite™ software was used for in silico metabolism predictions and subsequently the presence of metabolites in the blood, urine, and hair of mice after MTTA administration was verified. The biological samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with high‐resolution mass spectrometry (LC–HRMS) using a benchtop Orbitrap instrument. This confirmed the concordance between software prediction and experimental results in biological samples. The metabolites were identified by their accurate masses and fragmentation patterns. LC–HRMS analysis identified the dehydrogenated and demethylated‐dehydrogenated metabolites, together with unmodified MTTA in the blood samples. Besides unmodified MTTA, 10 main metabolites were detected in urine. In hair samples, only demethyl MTTA was detected along with MTTA. The combination of Metasite™ prediction and in vivo experiment was a powerful tool for studying MTTA metabolism. This approach enabled the development of the analytical method for the detection of MTTA and its main metabolites in biological samples. The development of analytical methods for the identification of new drugs and their main metabolites is extremely useful for the detection of NPS in biological specimens. Indeed, high throughput methods are precious to uncover the actual extent of use of NPS and their toxicity.

High Throughput Detection of 327 Drugs in Blood by LC-MS-MS with Automated Data Processing

The described procedure provides a rapid technique for the detection and semi-quantitation of a large number of drugs in blood. This procedure uses a minimal sample volume and employs a one-step liquid extraction and automated data processing to yield rapid turnaround times. A total of 327 of the most commonly used medicinal and illicit drugs in Australia were selected including various amphetamines, anesthetics, antidepressants, antipsychotics, anticonvulsants, benzodiazepines, beta blockers, opioid and nonopioid analgesics, stimulants, THC and a large number of synthetic cannabinoids and other novel psychoactive substances. The extracts were subject to 5-minute chromatography using a Kinetex C18 50 × 4.6 mm 2.6 μm solid-core analytical column and analyzed using a Sciex 3200 Q-TRAP MS-MS (+ ESI, MRM mode, two transitions per analyte). The method was fully validated in accordance with international guidelines. Matrix effects and extraction efficiencies were acceptable with most analytes showing > 80% response and low variation (within 25%RSD). Cannabinoids were most affected by the matrix and yielded poorest recovery values but were still detectable. Precision, accuracy, repeatability and multipoint linearity were assessed for all analytes. The method has been used in routine practice in the forensic toxicology service at the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine in over 6000 coronial investigations using both postmortem and clinical blood specimens. This technique has greatly increased throughput, reduced turnaround times and allowed for rapid same-day analysis of results when needed. The method is routinely used in routine overnight testing with results reported to pathologists within 4 h of data acquisition. This rapid toxicological technique is used in conjunction with other investigative processes such as full-body CT imaging, review of case circumstances and medical histories to provide an efficient death investigation process.

The emergency department care of the cannabis and synthetic cannabinoid patient: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

Cannabis is the most prevalent illegal drug used and the second most common cause of ED drug-related complaints in the USA. Recently, newer more potent strains, concentrated THC products, and consumption methods have become available.

OBJECTIVE

Our first objective was to define cannabis use in the USA and provide a summary background on its current preparations, pharmacokinetics, vital sign and physical exam findings, adverse effects, and laboratory testing. Our second objective, using the aforementioned summary as relevant background information, was to present and summarize the care and treatment of the most commonly reported cannabis-related topics relevant to ED physicians.

METHODS

We first performed an extensive literature search of peer-reviewed publications using New PubMed and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials to identify the most commonly reported cannabis-related topics in emergency care. Once the six topic areas were identified, we undertook an extensive narrative literature review for each section of this paper using New PubMed and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials from the inception of the databases to September 30, 2020.

RESULTS

The six subject areas that were most frequently reported in the medical literature relevant to cannabis-related ED care were acute intoxication/overdose, pediatric exposure, cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, cannabis withdrawal, e-cigarette or vaping product use-associated lung injury (EVALI), and synthetic cannabinoids.

CONCLUSION

As cannabis becomes more widely available with the adoption of state medical cannabis laws, ED-related cannabis visits will likely rise. While cannabis has historically been considered a relatively safe drug, increased legal and illegal access to newer formulations of higher potency products and consumption methods have altered the management and approach to ED patient care and forced physicians to become more vigilant about recognizing and treating some new cannabis-related life-threatening conditions.

Prevalence of Stimulant, Hallucinogen, and Dissociative Substances Detected in Biological Samples of NPS-Intoxicated Patients in Italy

A number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) have been released in the last decade, and the list of NPS continues to grow. This paper reports a retrospective evaluation of the toxicological analyses in 1,445 suspected intoxication cases by psychostimulant, hallucinogen, and dissociative NPS occurring in hospitals across Italy from 2011 to 2019. The objectives of the study were to contribute to the monitoring of the NPS diffusion based on analytically confirmed intoxications, and to evaluate the importance of the clinical toxicological laboratory in the diagnosis of NPS intoxication. For at least one NPS of the considered classes, 246 patients (17.0%) tested positive. Forty-four different NPS were detected and a consistent turnover was observed during the nine-year period, especially regarding cathinones. Among the positive cases, 47.2% tested positive for dissociative NPS, with particular regard to ketamine. Hallucinogens (30.9%) was the second most frequent NPS involved. Stimulants were found in 20% of the positive cases with a considerable presence of cathinones. Findings confirm the dynamism of the NPS phenomenon, underline the importance of awareness of this new public health threat among health care professionals, and highlight the need for analytical confirmation for the identification of the drugs in forensic contexts.

Simultaneous determination of 10 new psychoactive piperazine derivatives in urine using ultrasound-assisted low-density solvent dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction combined with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

With the rapid development of synthetic drugs, novel piperazine derivatives, as an increasingly important class of new psychoactive substances (NPS), have attracted global attention owing to their increasing demand in the illicit drug market. In this study, ten piperazine derivatives were analyzed in urine samples after pre-treatment with ultrasound-assisted low-density solvent dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (UA-LDS-DLLME) combined with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). This simple approach involved the use of urine samples (1 mL) adjusted to pH 12, which was added to 100 µL of n-hexane and subjected to ultrasonication for 3 min to completely disperse the sample in the n-hexane solution. The resulting turbid suspension was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 3 min, and the supernatant was extracted and analyzed using GC-MS/MS. Under the optimized conditions presented in this study, the linear relationship between the analytes was good within 10-1500 ng/mL, and the correlation coefficient (r) was between .9914 and .9983. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.3-2 ng/mL (S/N = 3), and the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 10 ng/mL (S/N = 10) with the recovery of the analytes of interest from the spiked samples being 76.3%-93.3%. This method has been used to analyze real-world samples; our study shows that the UA-LDS-DLLME approach can be used for rapid analysis while consuming minimal solvent for the simultaneous determination of a range of analytes. This method has the potential for use in clinical analyses and forensic toxicology.

A Comprehensive HPLC-MS-MS Screening Method for 77 New Psychoactive Substances, 24 Classic Drugs and 18 Related Metabolites in Blood, Urine and Oral Fluid

To date, more than 800 molecules are classified as New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), and it is reported that this number increases every year. Whereas several cases of polydrug consumption that led to acute intoxication and death are reported, a lack of effective analytical screening method to detect NPS and classical drug of abuse in human matrices affects the prompt identification of the probable cause of intoxication in emergency department of hospitals. In this concern, a fast, simple and comprehensive high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS-MS) screening method to detect and quantify 77 NPS, 24 classic drugs and 18 related metabolites has been successfully developed and validated in blood, urine and oral fluid. A small volume (100 µL) of whole blood samples spiked with internal standard deuterated mixture was added to 70 µL of M3® buffer, and after precipitation of blood proteins, the supernatant was evaporated to dryness and reconstituted in 1 mL of mobile phase. Same volume (100 µL) of urine and oral fluid samples spiked with internal standard deuterated mix were only diluted with 500 µL of M3® reagent. One microliter of samples of each matrix was injected into HPLC-MS-MS equipment. The run time lasted 10 min with a gradient mobile phase. Mass spectrometric analysis was performed in positive ion multiple reaction monitoring mode. The method was linear for all analytes under investigation with a determination coefficient always better than 0.99. The calibration range for blood and oral fluid was from limits of quantification (LOQs) to 200 ng/mL, whereas that for urine was LOQs to 1000 ng/mL. Recovery and matrix effect were always higher than 80%, whereas intra-assay and inter-assay precision were always better than 19% and accuracy was always within 19% of target in every matrix. Applicability of the method was verified by analysis of samples from real cases.

Toxicology and Analysis of Psychoactive Tryptamines

Our understanding of tryptamines is poor due to the lack of data globally. Tryptamines currently are not part of typical toxicology testing regimens and their contribution to drug overdoses may be underestimated. Although their prevalence was low, it is increasing. There are few published data on the many new compounds, their mechanisms of action, onset and duration of action, toxicity, signs and symptoms of intoxication and analytical methods to identify tryptamines and their metabolites. We review the published literature and worldwide databases to describe the newest tryptamines, their toxicology, chemical structures and reported overdose cases. Tryptamines are 5-HT2A receptor agonists that produce altered perceptions of reality. Currently, the most prevalent tryptamines are 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DiPT), 5-methoxy-N,N- diallyltryptamine (5-MeO-DALT) and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). From 2015 to 2020, 22 new analytical methods were developed to identify/quantify tryptamines and metabolites in biological samples, primarily by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The morbidity accompanying tryptamine intake is considerable and it is critical for clinicians and laboratorians to be informed of the latest data on this public health threat.

Spectral trends in GC-EI-MS data obtained from the SWGDRUG mass spectral library and literature: A resource for the identification of unknown compounds

Rapid identification of new or emerging psychoactive substances remains a critical challenge in forensic drug chemistry laboratories. Current analytical protocols are well-designed for confirmation of known substances yet struggle when new compounds are encountered. Many laboratories initially attempt to classify new compounds using gas chromatography-electron ionization-mass spectrometry (GC-EI-MS). Though there is a large body of research focused on the analysis of illicit substances with GC-EI-MS, there is little high-level discussion of mass spectral trends for different classes of drugs. This manuscript compiles literature information and performs simple exploratory analyses on evaluated GC-EI-MS data to investigate mass spectral trends for illicit substance classes. Additionally, this work offers other important aspects: brief discussions of how each class of drugs is used; illustrations of EI mass spectra with proposed structures of commonly observed ions; and summaries of mass spectral trends that can help an analyst classify new illicit compounds.

Recent bionalytical methods for the determination of new psychoactive substances in biological specimens

One of the problems associated with the consumption of new psychoactive substances is that in most scenarios of acute toxicity the possibility of quick clinical action may be impaired because many screening methods are not responsive to them, and laboratories are not able to keep pace with the appearance of new substances. For these reasons, developing and validating new analytical methods is mandatory in order to efficiently face those problems, allowing laboratories to be one step ahead. The goal of this work is to perform a critical review regarding bionalytical methods that can be used for the determination of new psychoactive substances (phenylethylamines, cathinones, synthetic cannabinoids, opioids, benzodiazepines, etc), particularly concerning sample preparation techniques and associated analytical methods.

High-Throughput Qualitative and Quantitative Drug Checking by MALDI HRMS

Illicit drugs are a global health problem, since both their acute and chronic consumption have negative impacts on the drug user's health. Drug checking facilities are receiving growing interest as they allow drug users to chemically analyze their product prior to consumption to assess the presence of adulterants or other non-expected substances. Such harm reduction programs allow the reduction of the risks associated with drug consumption without encouraging it. In particular, the emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) emphasizes the risk for the population increasing the diversity and the lability of illicit drugs on the market. Analytical developments are required to catch up with this rapid evolution and reduce the potential harm caused by such consumption. In this study, we developed a matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) strategy for the high-throughput qualitative and quantitative analysis of drug checking samples. The use of online-based m/z cloud library for untargeted compound search improved the ability to identify unknown compounds. Sixty-seven drug checking samples were analyzed using this analytical strategy, allowing the detection of 10 designer drugs and several classical drugs of abuse (mainly cocaine and MDMA) as well as adulterants and contaminants. The results were then compared with routine analyses of the same samples using conventional approaches showing similar performance while removing the use of chromatographic separation thus resulting in a significant reduction of the time required for sample preparation and analysis. This study enlightens the potential of MALDI-HRMS as a high-throughput approach allowing to speed-up up to six times the identification and quantification of substances enabling to catch the fast changes on the drug of abuse market. This strategy could be an interesting alternative analytical approach, allowing better prevention and harm reduction for drug users.

A LC-MS/MS method for determination of 73 synthetic cathinones and related metabolites in urine

Synthetic cathinones, which are a group of β-keto analogs of phenethylamine, have been reported as the most emerging new psychoactive substances in the past decade. The quantity and variety of synthetic cathinones have continued to increase, which poses considerable risks to public health and social security. In this study, an analytical method based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS) was established for the simultaneous determination of 73 synthetic cathinones and related metabolites in urine. The chromatographic analysis was performed using a Kinetex® Biphenyl column (10 cm ×2.1 mm, 1.7 μm), applying a gradient mobile phase, comprising 0.1 % formic acid aqueous solution with 5 mM ammonium acetate and 0.1 % formic acid methanolic solution; the entire run time of the analysis was within 8 min. The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was employed to collect the monitoring and quantitative ion pairs. Intra-day/inter-day precision and accuracy were less than 10 % for all the studied analytes. The limits of detection and quantification for all the analytes were 0.1-0.5 ng/mL and 0.5-1.0 ng/mL, respectively. The matrix effect was satisfactory for all the analytes, with a deviation lower than 20 %. The present method was further applied to 67 authentic urine samples in which 13 different synthetic cathinones were detected from 32 positive samples. The abuse of poly-synthetic cathinones was examined that up to seven items was detected in one case from authentic samples in this study.

Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.

Screening Analysis for Designer Stimulants by LC-MS/MS

The increase in the number of new substances appearing on the drug market has been observed in the 1980s and 1990s of the last century, when many phenethylamine and tryptamine derivatives entered the market. However, the phenomenon of mass marketing of new designer stimulants (being the components of so-called "legal highs") began to develop since 2006 in Europe, and it was something new. Since then, the number of stimulants introduced on the drug market is growing regularly, rapidly, and intensively. Such a situation creates a need for comprehensive screening methods for detection of these drugs in biological specimens. The fast and simple liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry qualitative screening procedure presented here is designed to detect and identify a wide range of designer stimulants in the blood. The assay has wide applicability for rapid screening of new stimulants in forensic or clinical samples. The procedure can be easily modified for additional novel psychoactive substances.

Fatal intoxication with new synthetic cannabinoids AMB-FUBINACA and EMB-FUBINACA

Introduction: Synthetic cannabinoids are currently the largest group of new psychoactive substances. Those that have been subjected to legal control are replaced by newer uncontrolled substances, which causes constant and dynamic changes to the drug market. Some of the most recent synthetic cannabinoids that have appeared on the "legal highs" market are AMB-FUBINACA and EMB-FUBINACA. Case history: A 27-year-old man was found dead on a bed in an apartment. At autopsy, congestion of internal organs, pulmonary oedema and left-sided pleural adhesions were found. The medical examiner concluded that the man died due to acute respiratory failure. The autopsy materials (blood, urine, liver, kidney, stomach, intestine, lung and brain) were collected for further toxicological analyses. Methods: The synthetic cannabinoids AMB-FUBINACA and EMB-FUBINACA were isolated from autopsy materials by precipitation with acetonitrile. The quantitative analyses were carried out by LC-MS/MS. Results: AMB-FUBINACA and EMB-FUBINACA were detected and quantified in all post-mortem materials except the blood. The determined concentrations of these compounds in solid tissues were in the range of 0.2-0.9 ng/g and 0.2-3.5 ng/g. The highest concentrations of AMB-FUBINACA and EMB-FUBINACA were revealed in the stomach content (5.8 and 36.2 ng/mL, respectively). Discussion: The presented case demonstrates that even in cases of fatalities, it is possible that the parent substance will not be present in the blood, while being present in other autopsy materials. The determined concentrations of the compounds may indicate oral administration of synthetic cannabinoids. It can also be assumed that AMB-FUBINACA and EMB-FUBINACA probably contributed to death. Conclusion: The presented case shows that synthetic cannabinoids can be undetected in the blood of even seriously or fatally intoxicated people. This situation means that the analysis of only blood samples may not confirm poisoning. The presented case also suggests that AMB-FUBINACA and EMB-FUBINACA use is dangerous to health and may lead to fatal intoxication.

Liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry for broad-spectrum drug screening of dried blood spot as microsampling procedure

BACKGROUND

Hyphenation of liquid chromatography (LC) with high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) offers the potential to develop broad-spectrum screening procedures from low volumes of biological matrices. In parallel, dried blood spot (DBS) has become a valuable tool in the bioanalysis landscape to overcome conventional blood collection issues. Herein, we demonstrated the applicability of DBS as micro-sampling procedure for broad-spectrum toxicological screening.

METHODS

A method was developed on a HRMS system in data dependant acquisition (DDA) mode using an extensive inclusion list to promote collection of relevant data. 104 real toxicology cases were analysed, and the results were cross-validated with one published and one commercial screening procedures. Quantitative MRM analyses were also performed on identified substances on a triple quadrupole instrument as a complementary confirmation procedure.

RESULTS

The method showed limits of identification (LOIs) in appropriateness with therapeutic ranges for all the classes of interest. Applying the three screening approaches on 104 real cases, 271 identifications were performed including 14 and 6 classes of prescribed and illicit drugs, respectively. Among the detected substances, 23% were only detected by the proposed method. Based on confirmatory analyses, we demonstrated that the use of blood micro-samples did not impair the sensitivity allowing more identifications in the low concentration ranges.

CONCLUSION

A LC-HRMS assay was successfully developed for toxicological screening of blood microsamples demonstrating a high identification power at low concentration ranges. The validation procedure and the analysis of real cases demonstrated the potential of this assay by supplementing screening approaches of reference.

Green sample preparations for the bioanalysis of drugs of abuse in complex matrices

The sample preparation is the most critical step involved in the bioanalytical process. When dealing with green analytical chemistry, sample preparation can be even more challenging. To fit the green analytical chemistry principles, efforts should be made toward the elimination or reduction of the use of toxic reagents and solvents, minimization of energy consumption and increased operator safety. The simplest sample preparations are more appropriate for liquid biological matrices with little interfering compounds such as urine, plasma and oral fluid. The same does not usually occur with complex matrices that require more laborious procedures. The present review discusses green analytical approaches for the analyses of drugs of abuse in complex biological matrices, such as whole blood, breast milk, meconium and hair.