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Kroon E, Cousijn J, Filbey F, Berchtold C, Binz TM, Kuhns L. Associations between hair-derived cannabinoid levels, self-reported use, and cannabis-related problems. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:1237-1244. [PMID: 38407636 PMCID: PMC11106191 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06558-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE As cannabis potency and cannabis use are increasing in newly legalized markets, it is increasingly important to measure and examine the effects of cannabinoid exposure. OBJECTIVES The current study aims to assess how hair-derived cannabinoid concentrations - offering insight into three-month cumulative exposure - are associated with common self-report measures of cannabis use and cannabis use-related problems. METHODS 74 near-daily dependent cannabis users self-reported their quantity of cannabis use, cannabis use-related problems, and estimated cannabis potency. Hair samples were provided to quantify Δ9-THC, CBD, and CBN using LC-MS/MS and THC-consumption was verified by analyzing THC-COOH in hair using GC-MS/MS. RESULTS Cannabinoids were detectable in 95.95% of the hair samples from individuals who tested positive on a urine screen for cannabis. Δ9-THC concentrations were positively associated with measures of self-reported potency (relative potency, potency category, and perceived 'high'), but Δ9-THC, CBD, CBN concentrations and THC/CBD ratio were not associated with self-reported quantity of use. Self-reported potency, but not hair-derived concentrations, were associated with withdrawal and craving. Self-reported quantity of cannabis use, but not cannabinoid concentrations, were associated with cannabis use-related problems. CONCLUSIONS The use of hair-derived cannabinoid quantification is supported for detecting cannabis use in near-daily users, but the lack of associations between hair-derived cannabinoid concentrations and self-report measures of use does not support the use of hair analyses alone for quantification of cannabinoid exposure. Further research comparing hair-derived cannabinoid concentrations with other biological matrices (e.g. plasma) and self-report is necessary to further evaluate the validity of hair analyses for this purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emese Kroon
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Neuroscience of Addiction (NofA) Lab, Center for Substance Use and Addiction Research (CESAR), Department of Psychology, Education & Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Janna Cousijn
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Neuroscience of Addiction (NofA) Lab, Center for Substance Use and Addiction Research (CESAR), Department of Psychology, Education & Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Francesca Filbey
- Department of Psychology, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Christian Berchtold
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tina M Binz
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lauren Kuhns
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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DeGregorio MW, Kao CJ, Wurz GT. Complexity of Translating Analytics to Recent Cannabis Use and Impairment. J AOAC Int 2024; 107:493-505. [PMID: 38410076 DOI: 10.1093/jaoacint/qsae015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
While current analytical methodologies can readily identify cannabis use, definitively establishing recent use within the impairment window has proven to be far more complex, requiring a new approach. Recent studies have shown no direct relationship between impairment and Δ9-tetra-hydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) concentrations in blood or saliva, making legal "per se" Δ9-THC limits scientifically unjustified. Current methods that focus on Δ9-THC and/or metabolite concentrations in blood, saliva, urine, or exhaled breath can lead to false-positive results for recent use due to the persistence of Δ9-THC well outside of the typical 3-4 h window of potential impairment following cannabis inhalation. There is also the issue of impairment due to other intoxicating substances-just because a subject exhibits signs of impairment and cannabis use is detected does not rule out the involvement of other drugs. Compounding the matter is the increasing popularity of hemp-derived cannabidiol (CBD) products following passage of the 2018 Farm Bill, which legalized industrial hemp in the United States. Many of these products contain varying levels of Δ9-THC, which can lead to false-positive tests for cannabis use. Furthermore, hemp-derived CBD is used to synthesize Δ8-THC, which possesses psychoactive properties similar to Δ9-THC and is surrounded by legal controversy. For accuracy, analytical methods must be able to distinguish the various THC isomers, which have identical masses and exhibit immunological cross-reactivity. A new testing approach has been developed based on exhaled breath and blood sampling that incorporates kinetic changes and the presence of key cannabinoids to detect recent cannabis use within the impairment window without the false-positive results seen with other methods. The complexity of determining recent cannabis use that may lead to impairment demands such a comprehensive method so that irresponsible users can be accurately detected without falsely accusing responsible users who may unjustly suffer harsh, life-changing consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W DeGregorio
- RCU Labs, Inc., 408 Sunrise Ave, Roseville, CA 95661-4123, United States
- Professor Emeritus, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, United States
| | - Chiao-Jung Kao
- RCU Labs, Inc., 408 Sunrise Ave, Roseville, CA 95661-4123, United States
| | - Gregory T Wurz
- RCU Labs, Inc., 408 Sunrise Ave, Roseville, CA 95661-4123, United States
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3
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Proença P, Teixeira HM, Martinho B, Monteiro C, Franco J, Corte-Real F. LC-MS-MS-MS3 for the determination and quantification of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites in blood samples. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:606-614. [PMID: 37494426 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the high prevalence of cannabinoids in forensic toxicology analysis, it is crucial to have an efficient method that allows the use of a small sample amount and that requires a minimal sample preparation for the determination and quantification of low concentrations. A simple, highly selective and high throughput liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methodology (LC-MS-MS-MS3) was developed for the determination and quantification of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-∆9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in blood samples. Chromatographic analysis of THC, THC-OH and THC-COOH and their deuterated internal standards was preceded by protein precipitation (PPT) of 0.1 mL of blood samples with acetonitrile. Chromatographic separation was achieved by use of an Acquity UPLC® HHS T3 (100 mm × 2.1 mm i.d., 1.8 μm) reversed-phase column, using a gradient elution of 2 mM aqueous ammonium formate, 0.1% formic acid and methanol at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min, with a run time of 10 min. For the MS-MS-MS3 analysis, a SCIEX QTRAP® 6500+ triple quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometer was used via electrospray ionization (ESI), operated in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) and linear ion trap mode (MS3). The method was validated in accordance with internationally accepted criteria and guidelines, and proved to be selective and linear between 0.5 and 100 ng/mL (r2 > 0.995). The lower limits of quantification (LLOQ) corresponded to the lowest concentrations used for the calibration curves. The coefficients of variation obtained for accuracy and precision were <15%. The mean recoveries were between 88.0% and 117.2% for the studied concentration levels (1 ng/mL, 5 ng/mL and 50 ng/mL). No significant interfering compounds, matrix effects or carryover were observed. The validated method provides a sensitive, efficient and robust procedure for the quantification of cannabinoids in blood, using LC-MS-MS-MS3 and a sample volume of 0.1 mL. This work is also a proof of concept for using LC-MS3 technique to determine drugs in biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Proença
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Helena M Teixeira
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Beatriz Martinho
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Carla Monteiro
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - João Franco
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Francisco Corte-Real
- Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Polo das Ciências da Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
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Hart ED, Vikingsson S, Winecker RE, Evans AL, Cone EJ, Mitchell JM, Hayes ED, Flegel RR. Performance of Hair Testing for Cocaine Use-Comparison of Five Laboratories Using Blind Reference Specimens. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:154-161. [PMID: 36039690 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkac066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare results from five commercial hair testing laboratories conducting workplace drug testing with regard to bias, precision, selectivity and decontamination efficiency. Nine blind hair specimens, including cocaine-positive drug user specimens (some contaminated with methamphetamine) and negative specimens contaminated with cocaine, were submitted in up to five replicates to five different laboratories. All laboratories correctly identified cocaine in all specimens from drug users. For an undamaged hair specimen from a cocaine user, within-laboratory Coefficients of Variation (CVs) of 5-22% (median 8%) were reported, showing that it is possible to produce a homogenous proficiency testing sample from drug user hair. Larger CVs were reported for specimens composed of blended hair (up to 29%) and curly/damaged hair (19-67%). Quantitative results appeared to be method-dependent, and the reported cocaine concentrations varied up to 5-fold between the laboratories, making interlaboratory comparisons difficult. All laboratories reported at least one positive result in specimens contaminated with cocaine powder, followed by sweat and shampoo treatments. Benzoylecgonine, norcocaine, cocaethylene and hydroxylated cocaine metabolites were all detected in cocaine powder-contaminated specimens. This indicates that current industry standards for analyzing and reporting positive cocaine results are not completely effective at identifying external contamination. Metabolite ratios between meta- or para-hydroxy-cocaine and cocaine were 6- and 10-fold lower in contaminated specimens compared to those observed in cocaine user specimens, supporting their potential use in distinguishing samples positive due to contamination and drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dale Hart
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Ruth E Winecker
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Amy L Evans
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Edward J Cone
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - John M Mitchell
- Center for Forensic Science, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
| | - Ronald R Flegel
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
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THC and THC-COOH hair concentrations: Influence of age, gender, consumption habits, cosmetics treatment, and hair features. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 225:115237. [PMID: 36638568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Evaluation of Cannabis consumption is required for many purposes (i.e., workplace drug testing and driving license renewal). Hair analysis represents the most adopted and reliable approach for the investigation of repeated or chronic exposure to Cannabis. The main markers are the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its main metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), as stated by the Society of Hair Testing (SoHT) and the European Workplace Drug Testing Society (EWDTS). In this paper we presented an observational study on the hair concentrations of THC and THC-COOH and influences due to age, gender, consumption habits, and hair features. Data were collected from analysis of scalp hair samples (3-cm proximal segment) provided by subjects tested for THC consumption for personal purposes (i.e., workplace drug testing, personal use proving). The subjects provided an informed consent and a short questionnaire. A new analytical method was previously developed and then adopted. It consisted in a hydrolysis (1 mL of 1 M NaOH at 65 °C, 20 min) and a liquid-liquid extraction (with hexane/ethyl acetate,90/10, v/v in presence of 1.5 mL of H2SO4 1 M) of 25 mg of hair. A liquid chromatograph - tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) equipped with a C18 column was used. The acquisition was in multiple reaction monitoring for the following transitions: 315→259, 193 m/z, for THC; 318→196, 123 m/z, for THC-d3; 345→299, 193 m/z for THC-COOH; 348→196, 302 m/z for THC-COOH-d3. Correlation between THC and THC-COOH hair concentrations was analyzed by Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. In order to study the influences of several variables, a new value, Sqrt(THC*THCCOOH), was adopted. Its effectiveness and reliability were proved by the Principal Component Analysis. Relationships between the Sqrt(THC*THCCOOH) and the variables were studied through the Stepwise regression (p = 0.05). The normality of data distribution was tested by the Shapiro-Wilk test. The Lower limits of quantification were 10.0 (THC) and 0.2 (THC-COOH) pg/mg. Accuracy and precision always met the acceptable criteria. Recoveries were > 78% and ion suppression was observed for both the compounds. Data from 126 hair samples were included in this study: 54 subjects(42.9%) were positive both for THC and THC-COOH; none of the samples was positive for a single substance. Concentrations ranged from 0.18 to 1.75 ng/mg (median: 0.78 ng/mg) for THC and from 0.04 to 0.85 ng/mg (median: 0.31 ng/mg) for THC-COOH. Cannabinoids levels seemed to decrease with the age, with lower amounts in the subjects aged > 40 years (p < 0.05). Also years of consumption seemed to have a significant impact on hair concentrations, as higher levels were observed in consumers from > 10 years (p = 0.013). Moreover, this study further provided evidences of a significant reduction of THC and THC-COOH in bleached hair (p = 0.042).
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6
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Hehet P, Franz T, Kunert N, Musshoff F. Fast and highly sensitive determination of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) metabolites in hair using liquid chromatography-multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MS 3 ). Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1614-1622. [PMID: 35648798 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In hair analysis, identification of 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), one of the major endogenously formed metabolites of the psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is considered unambiguous proof of cannabis consumption. Due to the complex hair matrix and low target concentrations of THC-COOH in hair, this kind of investigation represents a great analytical challenge. The aim of this work was to establish a fast, simple, and reliable LC-MS3 routine method for sensitive detection of THC-COOH in hair samples. Furthermore, the LC-MS3 method developed also included the detection of derivatized 11-hydroxy-∆9 -THC (11-OH-THC) as an additional marker of cannabis use. Hair sample preparation prior to detection of the two THC metabolites was based on digestion of the hair matrix under alkaline conditions followed by an optimized liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) procedure. Sample preparation by LLE proved to be more suitable than solid-phase extraction (SPE) due to less laborious and time-consuming steps while still yielding satisfactory results. A significant improvement in analytical detection was introduced by multistage fragmentation (MS3 ), which led to enhanced sensitivity and selectivity and thus low limits of quantification (0.1 pg/mg hair). The MS3 method included two transitions for THC-COOH (m/z 343 → 299 → 245 and m/z 343 → 299 → 191) encompassing the quantifier (m/z 245) and the qualifier ion (m/z 191). The method was fully validated, and successful application to authentic toxicology case samples was demonstrated by the analysis of more than 2000 hair samples from cannabis users with THC-COOH concentrations determined ranging from 0.1 to >15 pg/mg hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Hehet
- Bavarian State Criminal Police Office, Forensic Science Institute, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Franz
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich (FTC), Munich, Germany
| | - Natalie Kunert
- Bavarian State Criminal Police Office, Forensic Science Institute, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich (FTC), Munich, Germany
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7
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Risk Assessment of Over-the-Counter Cannabinoid-Based Cosmetics: Legal and Regulatory Issues Governing the Safety of Cannabinoid-Based Cosmetics in the UAE. COSMETICS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/cosmetics8030057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: The lack of scientific evidence of the safety and efficacy of over-the-counter topical cannabinoid-based cosmetics remains a concern. The current study attempted to assess the quality of cannabinoid-based cosmetic products available on the UAE market. In particular, the study attempted to quantify the presence of undeclared tetrahydrocannabinol, specifically delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), in these products. Methods: A total of 18 cannabinoid-based cosmetics were collected and analysed in this study. GC-MS analysis was used to determine the presence of total undeclared tetrahydrocannabinol. Results: The estimate for the average tetrahydrocannabinol content was 0.011% with a 95% CI (0.004−0.019). Leave-on cosmetics products are more likely to contain total tetrahydrocannabinol compared to rinse-off cosmetics (p = 0.041). Although there was no statistically significant difference in the total tetrahydrocannabinol according to cosmetic category, there was a tendency towards higher tetrahydrocannabinol content in the hand care products, baby products, and body care preparations. Conclusion: The current study reveals the need for producers of cannabinoid-based cosmetic products to issue quality certificates for each batch produced to inform users of the tested levels of tetrahydrocannabinol.
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Drummer OH, Gerostamoulos D, LeBeau MA, Pragst F. Concerns on the Misinterpretation of Very Low Drug Concentrations in Hair. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 44:e6-e8. [PMID: 32715308 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Olaf H Drummer
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia.,Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia
| | - Dimitri Gerostamoulos
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia.,Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia
| | - Marc A LeBeau
- FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22030, USA
| | - Fritz Pragst
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital Charité, Turmstraße 21, Building N, 10559 Berlin, Germany
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Findings of illicit drugs in hair of children at different ages. Int J Legal Med 2021; 135:465-471. [PMID: 33392654 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-020-02479-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Hair is a preferred material to detect exposure or use of illegal drugs in children. In the present study, we investigated a total of 387 hair samples for commonly applied illegal drugs of children up to 16 years. Analysis was by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry with LOQs of 0.01 ng/mg hair for all analytes except tetrahydrocannabinol carboxylic acid with an LOQ of 0.1 pg/mg hair. Results were firstly compared with our in-house statics on results from adults' hair, and secondly to literature data. We started from the assumption that drug concentrations decrease with increasing age.Results were assigned to 4 different age groups (< 1 year, 1-< 6 years, 6-< 14 years, 14-16 years). As expected, higher results were obtained in age groups 1 and 2. The lowest concentrations were present in age group 3, whereas an increase could be observed in group 4 except heroin. In babies, positive results may be due to in utero exposure, breast milk feeding, and a close physical contact. All drugs under investigation such as cannabinoids, cocaine, amphetamines, and opiates have been detected in breast milk as well as in skin excretions such as sebum, sweat and cutaneous cells. For most drugs, average concentrations in children hair were lower than in adult hair when compared with our in-house statistics. Interestingly, the increase of cannabinoids, cocaine, and amphetamines concentrations in adolescents' hair points to a deliberate use of these drugs possibly in addition to passive exposure. This observation shows that age groups 1 and 4 are most vulnerable if caregivers or parents are drug users, even if the sources of positive drug findings differ.
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Karschner EL, Swortwood-Gates MJ, Huestis MA. Identifying and Quantifying Cannabinoids in Biological Matrices in the Medical and Legal Cannabis Era. Clin Chem 2020; 66:888-914. [DOI: 10.1093/clinchem/hvaa113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundCannabinoid analyses generally included, until recently, the primary psychoactive cannabis compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and/or its inactive metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, in blood, plasma, and urine. Technological advances revolutionized the analyses of major and minor phytocannabinoids in diverse biological fluids and tissues. An extensive literature search was conducted in PubMed for articles on cannabinoid analyses from 2000 through 2019. References in acquired manuscripts were also searched for additional articles.ContentThis article summarizes analytical methodologies for identification and quantification of multiple phytocannabinoids (including THC, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, and cannabichromene) and their precursors and/or metabolites in blood, plasma, serum, urine, oral fluid, hair, breath, sweat, dried blood spots, postmortem matrices, breast milk, meconium, and umbilical cord since the year 2000. Tables of nearly 200 studies outline parameters including analytes, specimen volume, instrumentation, and limits of quantification. Important diagnostic and interpretative challenges of cannabinoid analyses are also described. Medicalization and legalization of cannabis and the 2018 Agricultural Improvement Act increased demand for cannabinoid analyses for therapeutic drug monitoring, emergency toxicology, workplace and pain-management drug testing programs, and clinical and forensic toxicology applications. This demand is expected to intensify in the near future, with advances in instrumentation performance, increasing LC-MS/MS availability in clinical and forensic toxicology laboratories, and the ever-expanding knowledge of the potential therapeutic use and toxicity of phytocannabinoids.SummaryCannabinoid analyses and data interpretation are complex; however, major and minor phytocannabinoid detection windows and expected concentration ranges in diverse biological matrices improve the interpretation of cannabinoid test results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Karschner
- Armed Forces Medical Examiner System, Division of Forensic Toxicology, Dover Air Force Base, Dover, DE
| | | | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA
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11
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Concentration distribution of more than 100 drugs and metabolites in forensic hair samples. Int J Legal Med 2020; 134:989-995. [DOI: 10.1007/s00414-020-02259-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Kintz P, Ameline A, Raul JS. Disappearance of Tramadol and THC-COOH in Hair After Discontinuation of Abuse. Two Different Profiles. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:65-68. [PMID: 30715334 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The retrospective calendar of an individual's drug use requires a multisectional analysis in which the length of hair, corresponding to the full temporal window available, is cut into shorter sections to measure drug use during shorter periods of time (generally 1 cm corresponds to ~1 month). Segmental hair analysis is used to verify both previous drug history and recent enforced abstinence. However, after drug discontinuation, the fresh new hair growth segment cannot be immediately negative, due to the contribution of dormant hair. The objective of the study was to test hair samples from chronic tramadol and cannabis users after the discontinuation of both drugs and to evaluate the delay to wait until the hair will become negative. Hair specimens were obtained from eight subjects with a known history of tramadol abuse. Hair was collected 3-6 months after tramadol discontinuation. Tramadol was tested by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) with a LOQ at 5 pg/mg. A second set of hair specimens were obtained from 15 subjects with a known history of cannabis abuse. Hair was collected 6-9 months after cannabis discontinuation. THC-COOH was tested by LC-MS-MS with a LOQ at 0.2 pg/mg. The hair stands were cut into L × 1 cm segments, according to their length (L), and tested for the respective drug. It was asked to each subject to clearly indicate the date of drug discontinuation. Assuming a rate of hair growth of 1 cm/month, the segment corresponding to the time of last drug use was calculated. The older segment just before this one was considered as the 100% of the response. THC-COOH and tramadol concentrations in this segment ranged from 2.3 to 8.9 and 895 to 21,010 pg/mg, respectively. After cessation of drug consumption, the presence of both drugs in new growing hair segments continued for a certain period with a more or less broad transition zone. Negative hair results were obtained ~3-4 and 6-7 months after cessation of tramadol and cannabis abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- X-Pertise Consulting, 42 rue Principale, Mittelhausbergen, France.,Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, Strasbourg, France
| | - Alice Ameline
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, Strasbourg, France
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Walter C, Oertel BG, Felden L, Nöth U, Deichmann R, Lötsch J. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol reduces the performance in sensory delayed discrimination tasks. A pharmacological-fMRI study in healthy volunteers. IBRO Rep 2019; 7:117-128. [PMID: 31828232 PMCID: PMC6889084 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibror.2019.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabis proofed to be effective in pain relief, but one major side effect is its influence on memory in humans. Therefore, the role of memory on central processing of nociceptive information was investigated in healthy volunteers. METHODS In a placebo-controlled cross-over study including 22 healthy subjects, the effect of 20 mg oral Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on memory involving nociceptive sensations was studied, using a delayed stimulus discrimination task (DSDT). To control for nociceptive specificity, a similar DSDT-based study was performed in a subgroup of thirteen subjects, using visual stimuli. RESULTS For each nociceptive stimulus pair, the second stimulus was associated with stronger and more extended brain activations than the first stimulus. These differences disappeared after THC administration. The THC effects were mainly located in two clusters comprising the insula and inferior frontal cortex in the right hemisphere, and the caudate nucleus and putamen bilaterally. These cerebral effects were accompanied in the DSDT by a significant reduction of correct ratings from 41.61% to 37.05% after THC administration (rm-ANOVA interaction "drug" by "measurement": F (1,21) = 4.685, p = 0.042). Rating performance was also reduced for the visual DSDT (69.87% to 54.35%; rm-ANOVA interaction of "drug" by "measurement": F (1,12) = 13.478, p = 0.003) and reflected in a reduction of stimulus-related brain deactivations in the bilateral angular gyrus. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that part of the effect of THC on pain may be related to memory effects. THC reduced the performance in DSDT of nociceptive and visual stimuli, which was accompanied by significant effects on brain activations. However, a pain specificity of these effects cannot be deduced from the data presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Walter
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe – University, Theodor - Stern - Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute of Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology – Project Group Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (IME-TMP), Theodor – Stern – Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Bruno G. Oertel
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe – University, Theodor - Stern - Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute of Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology – Project Group Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (IME-TMP), Theodor – Stern – Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Lisa Felden
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe – University, Theodor - Stern - Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Ulrike Nöth
- Brain Imaging Center, Goethe – University, Schleusenweg 2 – 16, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Ralf Deichmann
- Brain Imaging Center, Goethe – University, Schleusenweg 2 – 16, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jörn Lötsch
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe – University, Theodor - Stern - Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute of Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology – Project Group Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (IME-TMP), Theodor – Stern – Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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Musshoff F, Skopp G, Franz T. Positive THC‐COOH findings in hair samples negative for THC. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:156-158. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gisela Skopp
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich Munich Germany
| | - Thomas Franz
- Forensic Toxicological Centre Munich Munich Germany
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Aktuelles zur forensisch-toxikologischen Haaranalytik. Rechtsmedizin (Berl) 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00194-019-0309-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Detection of cannabinoids in hair after cosmetic application of hemp oil. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2582. [PMID: 30796346 PMCID: PMC6385314 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39609-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The detection of cannabis constituents and metabolites in hair is an established procedure to provide evidence of exposure to cannabis. We present the first known evidence to suggest that applying hemp oil to hair, as cosmetic treatment, may result in the incorporation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD) and in one instance, the metabolite 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH). 10 volunteers treated their head hair daily with commercially available hemp oil for a period of 6 weeks. Head hair samples were collected before and after the application period. Hair samples were washed with methanol and subjected to clean up via liquid/liquid and solid phase extraction procedures, and then GC-MS/MS for the analysis of THC, CBN, CBD, THC-OH and THC-COOH. Application of hemp oil to hair resulted in the incorporation of one or more cannabis constituents in 89% of volunteers, and 33% of the group tested positive for the three major constituents, THC, CBN and CBD. One volunteer showed low levels of the metabolite THC-OH. We suggest that cosmetic use of hemp oil should be recorded when sampling head hair for analysis, and that the interpretative value of cannabinoid hair measurements from people reporting application of hemp oil is treated with caution in both criminology and public health.
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Cho HS, Cho B, Sim J, Baeck SK, In S, Kim E. Detection of 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol in the hair of drug abusers by LC–MS/MS analysis. Forensic Sci Int 2019; 295:219-225. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Zinka B, Epple S, Schick S, Skopp G, Graw M, Musshoff F. Can a threshold for 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9
-tetrahydrocannabinol in hair be derived when its respective concentration in blood serum indicates regular use? Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:325-330. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Zinka
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; Nußbaumstr. 26 80336 Munich Germany
| | - Sabine Epple
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; Nußbaumstr. 26 80336 Munich Germany
| | - Sylvia Schick
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; Nußbaumstr. 26 80336 Munich Germany
| | - Gisela Skopp
- Forensic Toxicological Centre GmbH; Bayerstr. 53 80335 Munich Germany
| | - Matthias Graw
- Institute of Forensic Medicine; Nußbaumstr. 26 80336 Munich Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Forensic Toxicological Centre GmbH; Bayerstr. 53 80335 Munich Germany
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Kieliba T, Lerch O, Andresen-Streichert H, Rothschild MA, Beike J. Simultaneous quantification of THC-COOH, OH-THC, and further cannabinoids in human hair by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electron ionization applying automated sample preparation. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:267-278. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Kieliba
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | | | | | - Markus A. Rothschild
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | - Justus Beike
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
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