1
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Saxu R, Yang Y, Gu HF. Asymmetries of Left and Right Adrenal Glands in Neural Innervation and Glucocorticoids Production. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17456. [PMID: 38139285 PMCID: PMC10743655 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The adrenal gland is paired peripheral end organs of the neuroendocrine system and is responsible for producing crucial stress hormones from its two functional compartments, the adrenal cortex, and the adrenal medulla under stimuli. Left-right asymmetry in vertebrates exists from the central nervous system to peripheral paired endocrine glands. The sided difference in the cerebral cortex is extensively investigated, while the knowledge of asymmetry of paired endocrine glands is still poor. The present study aims to investigate the asymmetries of bilateral adrenal glands, which play important roles in stress adaptation and energy homeostasis via steroid hormones produced from the distinct functional zones. Left and right adrenal glands from male C57BL/6J mice were initially histologically analyzed, and high-throughput RNA sequencing was then used to detect the gene transcriptional difference between left and right adrenal glands. Subsequently, the enrichment of functional pathways and ceRNA regulatory work was validated. The results demonstrated that the left adrenal gland had higher tissue mass and levels of energy expenditure, whereas the right adrenal gland appeared to be more potent in glucocorticoid secretion. Further analysis of adrenal stem/progenitor cell markers predicted that Shh signaling might play an important role in the left-right asymmetry of adrenal glands. Of the hub miRNAs, miRNA-466i-5p was identified in the left-right differential innervation of the adrenal glands. Therefore, the present study provides evidence that there are asymmetries between the left and right adrenal glands in glucocorticoid production and neural innervation, in which Shh signaling and miRNA-466i-5p play an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rengui Saxu
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China;
| | - Yong Yang
- Center for New Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Harvest F. Gu
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China;
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2
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Dilower I, Niloy AJ, Kumar V, Kothari A, Lee EB, Rumi MAK. Hedgehog Signaling in Gonadal Development and Function. Cells 2023; 12:cells12030358. [PMID: 36766700 PMCID: PMC9913308 DOI: 10.3390/cells12030358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Three distinct hedgehog (HH) molecules, (sonic, desert, and indian), two HH receptors (PTCH1 and PTCH2), a membrane bound activator (SMO), and downstream three transcription factors (GLI1, GLI2, and GLI3) are the major components of the HH signaling. These signaling molecules were initially identified in Drosophila melanogaster. Later, it has been found that the HH system is highly conserved across species and essential for organogenesis. HH signaling pathways play key roles in the development of the brain, face, skeleton, musculature, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. While the sonic HH (SHH) pathway plays a major role in the development of the central nervous system, the desert HH (DHH) regulates the development of the gonads, and the indian HH (IHH) acts on the development of bones and joints. There are also overlapping roles among the HH molecules. In addition to the developmental role of HH signaling in embryonic life, the pathways possess vital physiological roles in testes and ovaries during adult life. Disruption of DHH and/or IHH signaling results in ineffective gonadal steroidogenesis and gametogenesis. While DHH regulates the male gonadal functions, ovarian functions are regulated by both DHH and IHH. This review article focuses on the roles of HH signaling in gonadal development and reproductive functions with an emphasis on ovarian functions. We have acknowledged the original research work that initially reported the findings and discussed the subsequent studies that have further analyzed the role of HH signaling in testes and ovaries.
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3
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Ectopic localization of CYP11B1 and CYP11B2-expressing cells in the normal human adrenal gland. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0279682. [PMID: 36584094 PMCID: PMC9803228 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The sharp line of demarcation between zona glomerulosa (ZG) and zona fasciculata (ZF) has been recently challenged suggesting that this interface is no longer a compartment boundary. We have used immunohistochemical analyses to study the steroid 11β-hydroxylase (CYP11B1) and aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) pattern of expression and investigate the remodeling of the adrenal cortex in relation to aging. We analyzed human adrenal glands prepared from 47 kidney donors. No aldosterone-producing micronodules (APMs) were detectable in the younger donors aged between 22-39 but the functional ZG depicted by positive CYP11B2 staining demonstrated a lack of continuity. In contrast, the development of APMs was found in samples from individuals aged 40-70. Importantly, the progressive replacement of CYP11B2-expressing cells in the histological ZG by CYP11B1-expressing cells highlights the remodeling capacity of the adrenal cortex. In 70% of our samples, immunofluorescence studies revealed the presence of isolated or clusters of CYP11B2 positive cells in the ZF and zona reticularis. Our data emphasize that mineralocorticoid- and glucocorticoid-producing cells are distributed throughout the cortex and the medulla making the determination of the functional status of a cell or group of cells a unique tool in deciphering the changes occurring in adrenal gland particularly during aging. They also suggest that, in humans, steroidogenic cell phenotype defined by function is a stable feature and thus, the functional zonation might be not solely maintained by cell lineage conversion/migration.
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4
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Development of Human Adrenocortical Adenoma (HAA1) Cell Line from Zona Reticularis. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010584. [PMID: 36614027 PMCID: PMC9820690 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The human adrenal cortex is composed of distinct zones that are the main source of steroid hormone production. The mechanism of adrenocortical cell differentiation into several functionally organized populations with distinctive identities remains poorly understood. Human adrenal disease has been difficult to study, in part due to the absence of cultured cell lines that faithfully represent adrenal cell precursors in the early stages of transformation. Here, Human Adrenocortical Adenoma (HAA1) cell line derived from a patient's macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia and was treated with histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) and gene expression was examined. We describe a patient-derived HAA1 cell line derived from the zona reticularis, the innermost zone of the adrenal cortex. The HAA1 cell line is unique in its ability to exit a latent state and respond with steroidogenic gene expression upon treatment with histone deacetylase inhibitors. The gene expression pattern of differentiated HAA1 cells partially recreates the roster of genes in the adrenal layer that they have been derived from. Gene ontology analysis of whole genome RNA-seq corroborated increased expression of steroidogenic genes upon HDAC inhibition. Surprisingly, HDACi treatment induced broad activation of the Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) alpha pathway. This novel cell line we developed will hopefully be instrumental in understanding the molecular and biochemical mechanisms controlling adrenocortical differentiation and steroidogenesis.
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Lerario AM, Mohan DR, Hammer GD. Update on Biology and Genomics of Adrenocortical Carcinomas: Rationale for Emerging Therapies. Endocr Rev 2022; 43:1051-1073. [PMID: 35551369 PMCID: PMC9695111 DOI: 10.1210/endrev/bnac012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The adrenal glands are paired endocrine organs that produce steroid hormones and catecholamines required for life. Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare and often fatal cancer of the peripheral domain of the gland, the adrenal cortex. Recent research in adrenal development, homeostasis, and disease have refined our understanding of the cellular and molecular programs controlling cortical growth and renewal, uncovering crucial clues into how physiologic programs are hijacked in early and late stages of malignant neoplasia. Alongside these studies, genome-wide approaches to examine adrenocortical tumors have transformed our understanding of ACC biology, and revealed that ACC is composed of distinct molecular subtypes associated with favorable, intermediate, and dismal clinical outcomes. The homogeneous transcriptional and epigenetic programs prevailing in each ACC subtype suggest likely susceptibility to any of a plethora of existing and novel targeted agents, with the caveat that therapeutic response may ultimately be limited by cancer cell plasticity. Despite enormous biomedical research advances in the last decade, the only potentially curative therapy for ACC to date is primary surgical resection, and up to 75% of patients will develop metastatic disease refractory to standard-of-care adjuvant mitotane and cytotoxic chemotherapy. A comprehensive, integrated, and current bench-to-bedside understanding of our field's investigations into adrenocortical physiology and neoplasia is crucial to developing novel clinical tools and approaches to equip the one-in-a-million patient fighting this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Marcondes Lerario
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2200, USA
| | - Dipika R Mohan
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2200, USA
| | - Gary D Hammer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2200, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2200, USA
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2200, USA
- Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2200, USA
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6
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Transgenic Mouse Models to Study the Development and Maintenance of the Adrenal Cortex. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232214388. [PMID: 36430866 PMCID: PMC9693478 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The cortex of the adrenal gland is organized into concentric zones that produce distinct steroid hormones essential for body homeostasis in mammals. Mechanisms leading to the development, zonation and maintenance of the adrenal cortex are complex and have been studied since the 1800s. However, the advent of genetic manipulation and transgenic mouse models over the past 30 years has revolutionized our understanding of these mechanisms. This review lists and details the distinct Cre recombinase mouse strains available to study the adrenal cortex, and the remarkable progress total and conditional knockout mouse models have enabled us to make in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating the development and maintenance of the adrenal cortex.
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Yaglova NV, Obernikhin SS, Nazimova SV, Timokhina EP, Tsomartova DA, Yaglov VV. Development and Function of the Adrenal Zona Reticularis in Rats Prenatally and Postnatally Exposed to the Endocrine Disruptor DDT. BIOL BULL+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062359022030177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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8
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Глазова ОВ, Воронцова МВ, Шевкова ЛВ, Сакр Н, Онянов НА, Казиахмедова СА, Волчков ПЮ. [Adrenal glands stem cells: general signaling pathways]. PROBLEMY ENDOKRINOLOGII 2021; 67:90-97. [PMID: 35018765 PMCID: PMC9753809 DOI: 10.14341/probl12819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays stem cells of adult type are attractive in case of active development of cell and genome technologies. They are the target of new therapeutic approaches, which are based on correction of mutations or replenishment of organs, that were damaged by autoimmune reactions, aging or other pathological processes. Also stem cells, including patient-specific (induced Pluripotent Stem Cells, iPSCs), and obtained by differentiation from them tissue cultures and organoids are the closest models to in vivo researches on humans, which gives an opportunity to get more relevant data while testing different therapeutic approaches and pharmacological drugs. The main molecular pathways, that are essential for homeostasis of a cortex of a adrenal gland - compound, structurally and functionally heterogeneous organ, is described the presented review. The adrenal cortex is renewing during the organism's ontogenesis at the expense of the pool of stem and progenitors cells, which are in tight junctions with differentiated steroidogenic cells and which are under constant control of endocrine and paracrine signals. The understanding of signaling pathways and interactions of different cell types will give an opportunity to develop the most suitable protocols for obtaining cells of adrenal gland cortex in a different stages of differentiation to use them in scientific and medical purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- О. В. Глазова
- Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр эндокринологии;
Московский физико-технический институт (национальный исследовательский университет)
| | - М. В. Воронцова
- Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр эндокринологии
| | - Л. В. Шевкова
- Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр эндокринологии;
Московский физико-технический институт (национальный исследовательский университет)
| | - Н. Сакр
- Московский физико-технический институт (национальный исследовательский университет)
| | - Н. А. Онянов
- Московский физико-технический институт (национальный исследовательский университет)
| | - С. А. Казиахмедова
- Московский физико-технический институт (национальный исследовательский университет)
| | - П. Ю. Волчков
- Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр эндокринологии;
Московский физико-технический институт (национальный исследовательский университет)
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9
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Abou Nader N, Boyer A. Adrenal Cortex Development and Maintenance: Knowledge Acquired From Mouse Models. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6362524. [PMID: 34473283 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex is an endocrine organ organized into concentric zones that are specialized to produce specific steroid hormones essential for life. The development and maintenance of the adrenal cortex are complex, as a fetal adrenal is first formed from a common primordium with the gonads, followed by its separation in a distinct primordium, the invasion of the adrenal primordium by neural crest-derived cells to form the medulla, and finally its encapsulation. The fetal cortex is then replaced by a definitive cortex, which will establish zonation and be maintained throughout life by regeneration relying on the proliferation, centripetal migration, and differentiation of several stem/progenitor cell populations whose activities are sex-specific. Here, we highlight the advances made, using transgenic mouse models, to delineate the molecular mechanisms regulating these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour Abou Nader
- Centre de Recherche en Reproduction et Fertilité, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada
| | - Alexandre Boyer
- Centre de Recherche en Reproduction et Fertilité, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada
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10
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Abstract
Resident progenitor and/or stem cell populations in the adult adrenal cortex enable cortical cells to undergo homeostatic renewal and regeneration after injury. Renewal occurs predominantly in the outer layers of the adrenal gland but newly formed cells undergo centripetal migration, differentiation and lineage conversion in the process of forming the different functional steroidogenic zones. Over the past 10 years, advances in the genetic characterization of adrenal diseases and studies of mouse models with altered adrenal phenotypes have helped to elucidate the molecular pathways that regulate adrenal tissue renewal, several of which are fine-tuned via complex paracrine and endocrine influences. Moreover, the adrenal gland is a sexually dimorphic organ, and testicular androgens have inhibitory effects on cell proliferation and progenitor cell recruitment in the adrenal cortex. This Review integrates these advances, including the emerging role of sex hormones, into existing knowledge on adrenocortical cell renewal. An in-depth understanding of these mechanisms is expected to contribute to the development of novel therapies for severe endocrine diseases, for which current treatments are unsatisfactory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodanthi Lyraki
- Université Côte d'Azur, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Valrose, Nice, France
| | - Andreas Schedl
- Université Côte d'Azur, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Valrose, Nice, France.
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11
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Pignatti E, Flück CE. Adrenal cortex development and related disorders leading to adrenal insufficiency. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 527:111206. [PMID: 33607267 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The adult human adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones that are crucial for life, supporting immune response, glucose homeostasis, salt balance and sexual maturation. It consists of three histologically distinct and functionally specialized zones. The fetal adrenal forms from mesodermal material and produces predominantly adrenal C19 steroids from its fetal zone, which involutes after birth. Transition to the adult cortex occurs immediately after birth for the formation of the zona glomerulosa and fasciculata for aldosterone and cortisol production and continues through infancy until the zona reticularis for adrenal androgen production is formed with adrenarche. The development of this indispensable organ is complex and not fully understood. This article gives an overview of recent knowledge gained of adrenal biology from two perspectives: one, from basic science studying adrenal development, zonation and homeostasis; and two, from adrenal disorders identified in persons manifesting with various isolated or syndromic forms of primary adrenal insufficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Pignatti
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern and Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern and Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010, Bern, Switzerland.
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12
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Yaglova NV, Obernikhin SS, Yaglov VV, Nazimova SV, Timokhina EP, Tsomartova DA. Low-Dose Exposure to Endocrine Disruptor Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Affects Transcriptional Regulation of Adrenal Zona Reticularis in Male Rats. Bull Exp Biol Med 2021; 170:682-685. [PMID: 33788101 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-021-05132-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The study examined transcriptional regulation of adrenal zona reticularis development in male Wistar rats exposed to low doses of endocrine disruptor dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) prenatally and postnatally. At pubertal age, zona reticularis demonstrated a retarded growth with a low proliferative activity of its cells. At this age, zona reticularis was characterized with overexpression of β-catenin by steroid-producing cells; a high percentage of cells with membrane and cytoplasmic localization of β-catenin, and reduced number of cells with nuclear β-catenin attesting to insufficient activation of Wnt signaling. Expression of transcriptional factor Oct4 by reticularis cells was down-regulated indicating their diminished proliferative potency. No significant alterations in Sonic Hedgehog expression were observed. Thus, DDT-provoked disorders of transcriptional regulation result in abnormal development of zona reticularis thereby disturbing sexual maturation in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- N V Yaglova
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia.
| | | | - V V Yaglov
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
| | - S V Nazimova
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
| | - E P Timokhina
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
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13
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Oikonomakos I, Weerasinghe Arachchige LC, Schedl A. Developmental mechanisms of adrenal cortex formation and their links with adult progenitor populations. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 524:111172. [PMID: 33484742 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex is the main steroid producing organ of the human body. Studies on adrenal tissue renewal have been neglected for many years, but recent intensified research has seen tremendous progress in our understanding of the formation and homeostasis of this organ. However, cell turnover of the adrenal cortex appears to be complex and several cell populations have been identified that can differentiate into steroidogenic cells and contribute to adrenal cortex renewal. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of how the adrenal cortex develops and how stem cell populations relate to its developmental progenitors. Finally, we will summarize present and future approaches to harvest the potential of progenitor/stem cells for future cell replacement therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Oikonomakos
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inserm, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Valrose, 06108, Nice, France.
| | | | - Andreas Schedl
- Université Côte d'Azur, Inserm, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Valrose, 06108, Nice, France.
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14
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Little DW, Dumontet T, LaPensee CR, Hammer GD. β-catenin in adrenal zonation and disease. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 522:111120. [PMID: 33338548 PMCID: PMC8006471 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.111120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The Wnt signaling pathway is a critical mediator of the development and maintenance of several tissues. The adrenal cortex is highly dependent upon Wnt/β-catenin signaling for proper zonation and endocrine function. Adrenocortical cells emerge in the peripheral capsule and subcapsular cortex of the gland as progenitor cells that centripetally differentiate into steroid hormone-producing cells of three functionally distinct concentric zones that respond robustly to various endocrine stimuli. Wnt/β-catenin signaling mediates adrenocortical progenitor cell fate and tissue renewal to maintain the gland throughout life. Aberrant Wnt/β-catenin signaling contributes to various adrenal disorders of steroid production and growth that range from hypofunction and hypoplasia to hyperfunction, hyperplasia, benign adrenocortical adenomas, and malignant adrenocortical carcinomas. Great strides have been made in defining the molecular underpinnings of adrenocortical homeostasis and disease, including the interplay between the capsule and cortex, critical components involved in maintaining the adrenocortical Wnt/β-catenin signaling gradient, and new targets in adrenal cancer. This review seeks to examine these and other recent advancements in understanding adrenocortical Wnt/β-catenin signaling and how this knowledge can inform therapeutic options for adrenal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Typhanie Dumontet
- Training Program in Organogenesis, Center for Cell Plasticity and Organ Design, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, USA
| | - Christopher R LaPensee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, USA
| | - Gary D Hammer
- Doctoral Program in Cancer Biology, USA; Training Program in Organogenesis, Center for Cell Plasticity and Organ Design, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, USA; Endocrine Oncology Program, Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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15
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Hammer GD, Basham KJ. Stem cell function and plasticity in the normal physiology of the adrenal cortex. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 519:111043. [PMID: 33058950 PMCID: PMC7736543 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.111043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex functions to produce steroid hormones necessary for life. To maintain its functional capacity throughout life, the adrenal cortex must be continually replenished and rapidly repaired following injury. Moreover, the adrenal responds to endocrine-mediated organismal needs, which are highly dynamic and necessitate a precise steroidogenic response. To meet these diverse needs, the adrenal employs multiple cell populations with stem cell function. Here, we discuss the literature on adrenocortical stem cells using hematopoietic stem cells as a benchmark to examine the functional capacity of particular cell populations, including those located in the capsule and peripheral cortex. These populations are coordinately regulated by paracrine and endocrine signaling mechanisms, and display remarkable plasticity to adapt to different physiological and pathological conditions. Some populations also exhibit sex-specific activity, which contributes to highly divergent proliferation rates between sexes. Understanding mechanisms that govern adrenocortical renewal has broad implications for both regenerative medicine and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary D Hammer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Endocrine Oncology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Kaitlin J Basham
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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16
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Kim JH, Choi MH. Embryonic Development and Adult Regeneration of the Adrenal Gland. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2020; 35:765-773. [PMID: 33397037 PMCID: PMC7803617 DOI: 10.3803/enm.2020.403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The adrenal gland plays a pivotal role in an organism's health span by controlling the endocrine system. Decades of research on the adrenal gland have provided multiscale insights into the development and maintenance of this essential organ. A particularly interesting finding is that founder stem/progenitor cells participate in adrenocortical development and enable the adult adrenal cortex to regenerate itself in response to hormonal stress and injury. Since major advances have been made in understanding the dynamics of the developmental process and the remarkable regenerative capacity of the adrenal gland, understanding the mechanisms underlying adrenal development, maintenance, and regeneration will be of interest to basic and clinical researchers. Here, we introduce the developmental processes of the adrenal gland and discuss current knowledge regarding stem/progenitor cells that regulate adrenal cortex remodeling and regeneration. This review will provide insights into the fascinating ongoing research on the development and regeneration of the adrenal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hoon Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul,
Korea
| | - Man Ho Choi
- Molecular Recognition Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul,
Korea
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17
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Yaglova N, Obernikhin S, Nazimova S, Yaglov V. Developmental exposure to endocrine disrupter dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane alters transcriptional regulation of postnatal morphogenesis of adrenal zona fasciculata. Saudi J Biol Sci 2020; 27:3655-3659. [PMID: 33304177 PMCID: PMC7714961 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study is aimed to validate expression of transcriptional factors mediating postnatal development of adrenal zona fasciculata in rats exposed to low doses of endocrine disrupter dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane prenatally and postnatally. Histological and immunohistochemical examination of the adrenals was performed. Impaired blood circulation, dystrophy and cell death were found in zona fasciculata of pubertal rats after developmental exposure to low doses of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. Reparation of zona fasciculata was associated with increased number of Sonic hedgehog- and Oct4-expressing adrenal cortical cells but not in areas of regeneration. These data suggest that cell death may promote upregulation of factors inducing and maintaining pluripotent state in fasciculata cells for restoration of tissue homeostasis. Termination of growth of the adrenals after puberty was associated with upregulation of antiproliferative factor Hhex and decrease of cell proliferation. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane exposure disrupted transcriptional control of cell proliferation by downregulation of Hhex expression in fasciculata cells. Decrease of proliferation in the exposed rats was mediated by inhibition of Sonic hedgehog and Oct4 expression and suppression of canonical Wnt signaling. The present study elucidated an alternative mechanism of proliferation control activated by endocrine disrupter dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane through transition of fasciculata cells from pluripotent state and higher proliferative potential to differentiation. Activation of the alternative mechanism of growth control may probably affect maintenance of tissue homeostasis of zona fasciculata in postnatal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya Yaglova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Institution Research Institute of Human Morphology, 117418, Tsurupa st., 3, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey Obernikhin
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Institution Research Institute of Human Morphology, 117418, Tsurupa st., 3, Moscow, Russia
| | - Svetlana Nazimova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Institution Research Institute of Human Morphology, 117418, Tsurupa st., 3, Moscow, Russia
| | - Valentin Yaglov
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Institution Research Institute of Human Morphology, 117418, Tsurupa st., 3, Moscow, Russia
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18
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Mateska I, Nanda K, Dye NA, Alexaki VI, Eaton S. Range of SHH signaling in adrenal gland is limited by membrane contact to cells with primary cilia. J Biophys Biochem Cytol 2020; 219:211483. [PMID: 33090184 PMCID: PMC7588141 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201910087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The signaling protein Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) is crucial for the development and function of many vertebrate tissues. It remains largely unclear, however, what defines the range and specificity of pathway activation. The adrenal gland represents a useful model to address this question, where the SHH pathway is activated in a very specific subset of cells lying near the SHH-producing cells, even though there is an abundance of lipoproteins that would allow SHH to travel and signal long-range. We determine that, whereas adrenal cells can secrete SHH on lipoproteins, this form of SHH is inactive due to the presence of cosecreted inhibitors, potentially explaining the absence of long-range signaling. Instead, we find that SHH-producing cells signal at short range via membrane-bound SHH, only to receiving cells with primary cilia. Finally, our data from NCI-H295R adrenocortical carcinoma cells suggest that adrenocortical tumors may evade these regulatory control mechanisms by acquiring the ability to activate SHH target genes in response to TGF-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivona Mateska
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany,Biotechnologisches Zentrum, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany,Correspondence to Ivona Mateska:
| | - Kareena Nanda
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Natalie A. Dye
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Vasileia Ismini Alexaki
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Suzanne Eaton
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany,Biotechnologisches Zentrum, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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19
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Changes in Transcriptional Regulation of Postnatal Morphogenesis of the Adrenal Zona Fasciculata Caused by Endocrine Disruptor Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. Bull Exp Biol Med 2020; 168:797-801. [PMID: 32328948 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-020-04805-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We studied the expression of transcriptional factors regulating postnatal morphogenesis of the adrenal zona fasciculata in rats after developmental exposure to endocrine disruptor DDT. It was found that tissue reparation after trophic disorders and cell death triggered by prenatal and postnatal exposure to DDT was accompanied by an increase in the number of Oct4- and Shh-expressing cells forming a pool located outside the regeneration zones and involved in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis in the zona fasciculata. DDT exposure also disrupted the expression of antiproliferative factor Hhex. The data showed that proliferation of fasciculata cells after termination of adrenal cortex growth was downregulated by inhibition of the expression of Oct4 and Shh and suppression of canonical Wnt signaling, i.e. due to a decrease in the reserve cell pool essential for physiological regeneration, which can reduce the reactive potential of the zona fasciculata.
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20
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Abstract
The adrenal cortex is an endocrine organ comprised of three histological zones, the outermost zona glomerulosa, the intermediate zona fasciculata, and the innermost zona reticularis. High plasticity of the adrenal gland is supported by pools of stem and progenitor cells that are deployed to sustain physiological and homeostatic demands. In recent decades, exciting new discoveries elucidating the identity, function, and fate of these cell populations have emerged. In this review, we describe paracrine and endocrine signaling loops that are crucial for adrenal biology, focusing on recent studies unpacking the enigmatic nature of adrenal stem and progenitor cell populations.
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21
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Martinez AF, Kruszka PS, Muenke M. Extracephalic manifestations of nonchromosomal, nonsyndromic holoprosencephaly. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS PART C-SEMINARS IN MEDICAL GENETICS 2018; 178:246-257. [PMID: 29761634 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.c.31616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nonchromosomal, nonsyndromic holoprosencephaly (NCNS-HPE) has traditionally been considered as a condition of brain and craniofacial maldevelopment. In this review, we present the results of a comprehensive literature search supporting a wide spectrum of extracephalic manifestations identified in patients with NCNS-HPE. These manifestations have been described in case reports and in large cohorts of patients with "single-gene" mutations, suggesting that the NCNS-HPE phenotype can be more complex than traditionally thought. Likely, a complex network of interacting genetic variants and environmental factors is responsible for these systemic abnormalities that deviate from the usual brain and craniofacial findings in NCNS-HPE. In addition to the systemic consequences of pituitary dysfunction (as a direct result of brain midline defects), here we describe a number of extracephalic findings of NCNS-HPE affecting various organ systems. It is our goal to provide a guide of extracephalic features for clinicians given the important clinical implications of these manifestations for the management and care of patients with HPE and their mutation-positive relatives. The health risks associated with some manifestations (e.g., fatty liver disease) may have historically been neglected in affected families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel F Martinez
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Paul S Kruszka
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Maximilian Muenke
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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22
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Medwid S, Guan H, Yang K. Bisphenol A stimulates adrenal cortical cell proliferation via ERβ-mediated activation of the sonic hedgehog signalling pathway. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 178:254-262. [PMID: 29307715 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that prenatal exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) resulted in increased adrenal gland weight independent of changes in plasma ACTH levels in adult mouse offspring. This finding suggested that BPA exposure likely had a direct effect on adrenal development. Given that (1) sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling is essential for adrenal development; (2) deletion of the Shh gene in mice results in adrenal hypoplasia; (3) BPA is known to signal through estrogen receptor β (ERβ); and (4) ERβ is highly expressed in adrenal glands; we hypothesized that BPA stimulates adrenal cell proliferation via ERβ-mediated activation of the Shh pathway. To test this hypothesis, the human adrenal cell line, H295A cells, was used as an in vitro model system. Our main findings were: (1) BPA increased cell number and protein levels of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA; a universal marker of cell proliferation), cyclin D1 and D2 (key proliferation factors), as well as Shh and its key transcriptional regulator Gli1; (2) cyclopamine, a Shh pathway inhibitor, blocked these stimulatory effects of BPA on cell proliferation; (3) BPA increased the nuclear translocation of ERβ; and (4) the ERβ-specific agonist DPN mimicked while the ERβ-specific antagonist PHTPP abrogated the stimulatory effects of BPA on cell proliferation and Shh signaling. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that BPA stimulates adrenal cell proliferation likely through ERβ-mediated activation of the Shh signaling pathway. Thus, the present study provides novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying our previously reported BPA-induced aberrant adrenal phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Medwid
- Children's Health Research Institute & Lawson Health Research Institute, Departments of Obstetrics & Gynaecology and Physiology & Pharmacology, Western University, 800 Commissioners Rd. E., N6C 2V5, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Haiyan Guan
- Children's Health Research Institute & Lawson Health Research Institute, Departments of Obstetrics & Gynaecology and Physiology & Pharmacology, Western University, 800 Commissioners Rd. E., N6C 2V5, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kaiping Yang
- Children's Health Research Institute & Lawson Health Research Institute, Departments of Obstetrics & Gynaecology and Physiology & Pharmacology, Western University, 800 Commissioners Rd. E., N6C 2V5, London, Ontario, Canada.
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23
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Finco I, Lerario AM, Hammer GD. Sonic Hedgehog and WNT Signaling Promote Adrenal Gland Regeneration in Male Mice. Endocrinology 2018; 159:579-596. [PMID: 29211850 PMCID: PMC5774245 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-03061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The atrophy and hypofunction of the adrenal cortex following long-term pharmacologic glucocorticoid therapy is a major health problem necessitating chronic glucocorticoid replacement that often prolongs the ultimate return of endogenous adrenocortical function. Underlying this functional recovery is anatomic regeneration, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of which are poorly understood. Investigating the lineage contribution of cortical Sonic hedgehog (Shh)+ progenitor cells and the SHH-responsive capsular Gli1+ cells to the regenerating adrenal cortex, we observed a spatially and temporally bimodal contribution of both cell types to adrenocortical regeneration following cessation of glucocorticoid treatment. First, an early repopulation of the cortex is defined by a marked delamination and expansion of capsular Gli1+ cells, recapitulating the establishment of the capsular-cortical homeostatic niche during embryonic development. This rapid repopulation is promptly cleared from the cortical compartment only to be supplanted by repopulating cortical cells derived from the resident long-term-retained zona glomerulosa Shh+ progenitors. Pharmacologic and genetic dissection of SHH signaling further defines an SHH-dependent activation of WNT signaling that supports regeneration of the cortex following long-term glucocorticoid therapy. We define the signaling and lineage relationships that underlie the regeneration process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Finco
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Antonio M. Lerario
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Gary D. Hammer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Endocrine Oncology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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24
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Levasseur A, St-Jean G, Paquet M, Boerboom D, Boyer A. Targeted Disruption of YAP and TAZ Impairs the Maintenance of the Adrenal Cortex. Endocrinology 2017; 158:3738-3753. [PMID: 28938438 PMCID: PMC5695830 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) are functionally redundant transcriptional regulators that are downstream effectors of the Hippo signaling pathway. They act as major regulators of stem cell maintenance, cell growth, and differentiation. To characterize their roles in the adrenal cortex, we generated a mouse model in which Yap and Taz were conditionally deleted in steroidogenic cells (Yapflox/flox;Tazflox/flox;Nr5a1cre/+). Male Yapflox/flox;Tazflox/flox;Nr5a1cre/+ mice were characterized by an age-dependent degeneration of the adrenal cortex associated with an increase in apoptosis and a progressive reduction in the expression levels of steroidogenic genes. Evaluation of the expression levels of stem and progenitor cell population markers in the adrenal glands of Yapflox/flox;Tazflox/flox;Nr5a1cre/+ mice also showed the downregulation of sonic hedgehog (Shh), a marker of the subcapsular progenitor cell population. Gross degenerative changes were not observed in the adrenal glands of Yapflox/flox;Tazflox/flox;Nr5a1cre/+ females, although steroidogenic capacity and Shh expression were reduced, suggesting that mechanisms of adrenocortical maintenance are sex specific. These results define a crucial role for YAP and TAZ in the maintenance of the postnatal adrenal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Levasseur
- Centre de Recherche en Reproduction et Fertilité, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec J2S 7C6, Canada
| | - Guillaume St-Jean
- Centre de Recherche en Reproduction et Fertilité, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec J2S 7C6, Canada
| | - Marilène Paquet
- Centre de Recherche en Reproduction et Fertilité, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec J2S 7C6, Canada
| | - Derek Boerboom
- Centre de Recherche en Reproduction et Fertilité, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec J2S 7C6, Canada
| | - Alexandre Boyer
- Centre de Recherche en Reproduction et Fertilité, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec J2S 7C6, Canada
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25
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Penny MK, Finco I, Hammer GD. Cell signaling pathways in the adrenal cortex: Links to stem/progenitor biology and neoplasia. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 445:42-54. [PMID: 27940298 PMCID: PMC5508551 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex is a dynamic tissue responsible for the synthesis of steroid hormones, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens in humans. Advances have been made in understanding the role of adrenocortical stem/progenitor cell populations in cortex homeostasis and self-renewal. Recently, large molecular profiling studies of adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) have given insights into proteins and signaling pathways involved in normal tissue homeostasis that become dysregulated in cancer. These data provide an impetus to examine the cellular pathways implicated in adrenocortical disease and study connections, or lack thereof, between adrenal homeostasis and tumorigenesis, with a particular focus on stem and progenitor cell pathways. In this review, we discuss evidence for stem/progenitor cells in the adrenal cortex, proteins and signaling pathways that may regulate these cells, and the role these proteins play in pathologic and neoplastic conditions. In turn, we also examine common perturbations in adrenocortical tumors (ACT) and how these proteins and pathways may be involved in adrenal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan K Penny
- Cancer Biology Graduate Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Isabella Finco
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Gary D Hammer
- Cancer Biology Graduate Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Endocrine Oncology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan Health System, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, 1528 BSRB, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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26
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Gan EH, Pearce SH. MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Regenerative therapies in autoimmune Addison's disease. Eur J Endocrinol 2017; 176:R123-R135. [PMID: 27810905 DOI: 10.1530/eje-16-0581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The treatment for autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD) has remained virtually unchanged in the last 60 years. Most patients have symptoms that are relatively well controlled with exogenous steroid replacement, but there may be persistent symptoms, recurrent adrenal crisis and poor quality of life, despite good compliance with optimal current treatments. Treatment with conventional exogenous steroid therapy is also associated with premature mortality, increased cardiovascular risk and complications related to excessive steroid replacement. Hence, novel therapeutic approaches have emerged in the last decade attempting to improve the long-term outcome and quality of life of patients with AAD. This review discusses the recent developments in treatment innovations for AAD, including the novel exogenous steroid formulations with the intention of mimicking the physiological biorhythm of cortisol secretion. Our group has also carried out a few studies attempting to restore endogenous glucocorticoid production via immunomodulatory and regenerative medicine approaches. The recent advances in the understanding of adrenocortical stem cell biology, and adrenal plasticity will also be discussed to help comprehend the science behind the therapeutic approaches adopted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Earn H Gan
- Institute of Genetic MedicineInternational Centre for Life, Centre Parkway, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Simon H Pearce
- Institute of Genetic MedicineInternational Centre for Life, Centre Parkway, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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27
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Pignatti E, Leng S, Carlone DL, Breault DT. Regulation of zonation and homeostasis in the adrenal cortex. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 441:146-155. [PMID: 27619404 PMCID: PMC5235909 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The adult adrenal cortex is organized into concentric zones, each specialized to produce distinct steroid hormones. Cellular composition of the cortex is highly dynamic and subject to diverse signaling controls. Cortical homeostasis and regeneration rely on centripetal migration of steroidogenic cells from the outer to the inner cortex, which is accompanied by direct conversion of zona glomerulosa (zG) into zona fasciculata (zF) cells. Given the important impact of tissue structure and growth on steroidogenic function, it is essential to understand the mechanisms governing adrenal zonation and homeostasis. Towards this end, we review the distinctions between each zone by highlighting their morphological and ultra-structural features, discuss key signaling pathways influencing zonal identity, and evaluate current evidence for long-term self-renewing stem cells in the adult cortex. Finally, we review data supporting zG-to-zF transdifferentiation/direct conversion as a major mechanism of adult cortical renewal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Pignatti
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sining Leng
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Division of Medical Sciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Diana L Carlone
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - David T Breault
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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28
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Lerario AM, Finco I, LaPensee C, Hammer GD. Molecular Mechanisms of Stem/Progenitor Cell Maintenance in the Adrenal Cortex. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:52. [PMID: 28386245 PMCID: PMC5362593 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The adrenal cortex is characterized by three histologically and functionally distinct zones: the outermost zona glomerulosa (zG), the intermediate zona fasciculata, and the innermost zona reticularis. Important aspects of the physiology and maintenance of the adrenocortical stem/progenitor cells have emerged in the last few years. Studies have shown that the adrenocortical cells descend from a pool of progenitors that are localized in the subcapsular region of the zG. These cells continually undergo a process of centripetal displacement and differentiation, which is orchestrated by several paracrine and endocrine cues, including the pituitary-derived adrenocorticotrophic hormone, and angiotensin II. However, while several roles of the endocrine axes on adrenocortical function are well established, the mechanisms coordinating the maintenance of an undifferentiated progenitor cell pool with self-renewal capacity are poorly understood. Local factors, such as the composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM) with embedded signaling molecules, and the activity of major paracrine effectors, including ligands of the sonic hedgehog and Wnt signaling pathways, are thought to play a major role. Particularly, the composition of the ECM, which exhibits substantial differences within each of the three histologically distinct concentric zones, has been shown to influence the differentiation status of adrenocortical cells. New data from other organ systems and different experimental paradigms strongly support the conclusion that the interactions of ECM components with cell-surface receptors and secreted factors are key determinants of cell fate. In this review, we summarize established and emerging data on the paracrine and autocrine regulatory loops that regulate the biology of the progenitor cell niche and propose a role for bioengineered ECM models in further elucidating this biology in the adrenal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Marcondes Lerario
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Isabella Finco
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Christopher LaPensee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Gary Douglas Hammer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Endocrine Oncology Program, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Center for Organogenesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- *Correspondence: Gary Douglas Hammer,
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29
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Vidal V, Sacco S, Rocha AS, da Silva F, Panzolini C, Dumontet T, Doan TMP, Shan J, Rak-Raszewska A, Bird T, Vainio S, Martinez A, Schedl A. The adrenal capsule is a signaling center controlling cell renewal and zonation through Rspo3. Genes Dev 2016; 30:1389-94. [PMID: 27313319 PMCID: PMC4926862 DOI: 10.1101/gad.277756.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Vidal et al. show that capsular RSPO3 signals to the underlying steroidogenic compartment to induce β-catenin signaling and imprint glomerulosa cell fate. Rspo3 function remains essential in adult life to ensure replenishment of lost cells and maintain the properties of the zona glomerulosa. Adrenal glands are zonated endocrine organs that are essential in controlling body homeostasis. How zonation is induced and maintained and how renewal of the adrenal cortex is ensured remain a mystery. Here we show that capsular RSPO3 signals to the underlying steroidogenic compartment to induce β-catenin signaling and imprint glomerulosa cell fate. Deletion of RSPO3 leads to loss of SHH signaling and impaired organ growth. Importantly, Rspo3 function remains essential in adult life to ensure replenishment of lost cells and maintain the properties of the zona glomerulosa. Thus, the adrenal capsule acts as a central signaling center that ensures replacement of damaged cells and is required to maintain zonation throughout life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Vidal
- Institute of Biology Valrose, Université de Nice-Sophia, F-06108 Nice, France; UMR1091, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, F-06108 Nice, France; CNRS, UMR7277, F-06108 Nice, France
| | - Sonia Sacco
- Institute of Biology Valrose, Université de Nice-Sophia, F-06108 Nice, France; UMR1091, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, F-06108 Nice, France; CNRS, UMR7277, F-06108 Nice, France
| | - Ana Sofia Rocha
- Institute of Biology Valrose, Université de Nice-Sophia, F-06108 Nice, France; UMR1091, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, F-06108 Nice, France; CNRS, UMR7277, F-06108 Nice, France
| | - Fabio da Silva
- Institute of Biology Valrose, Université de Nice-Sophia, F-06108 Nice, France; UMR1091, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, F-06108 Nice, France; CNRS, UMR7277, F-06108 Nice, France
| | - Clara Panzolini
- Institute of Biology Valrose, Université de Nice-Sophia, F-06108 Nice, France; UMR1091, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, F-06108 Nice, France; CNRS, UMR7277, F-06108 Nice, France
| | - Typhanie Dumontet
- UMR6293, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Clermont Université, F-63178 Aubière, France; U1103, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Clermont Université, F-63178 Aubière, France
| | - Thi Mai Phuong Doan
- Institute of Biology Valrose, Université de Nice-Sophia, F-06108 Nice, France; UMR1091, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, F-06108 Nice, France; CNRS, UMR7277, F-06108 Nice, France
| | | | | | - Tom Bird
- Beatson Institute, Glasgow G61 1BD, United Kingdom
| | | | - Antoine Martinez
- UMR6293, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Clermont Université, F-63178 Aubière, France; U1103, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Clermont Université, F-63178 Aubière, France
| | - Andreas Schedl
- Institute of Biology Valrose, Université de Nice-Sophia, F-06108 Nice, France; UMR1091, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, F-06108 Nice, France; CNRS, UMR7277, F-06108 Nice, France
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30
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Abstract
Since its discovery nearly 30 years ago, the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway has been shown to be pivotal in many developmental and pathophysiological processes in several steroidogenic tissues, including the testis, ovary, adrenal cortex, and placenta. New evidence links the evolutionarily conserved Hh pathway to the steroidogenic organs, demonstrating how Hh signaling can influence their development and homeostasis and can act in concert with steroids to mediate physiological functions. In this review, we highlight the role of the components of the Hh signaling pathway in steroidogenesis of endocrine tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Finco
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; , ,
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31
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Häfner R, Bohnenpoll T, Rudat C, Schultheiss TM, Kispert A. Fgfr2 is required for the expansion of the early adrenocortical primordium. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 413:168-77. [PMID: 26141512 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2015] [Revised: 06/21/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex is a critical steroidogenic endocrine tissue, generated at least in part from intermediate mesoderm of the anterior urogenital ridge. Previous work has pinpointed a minor role of the FGFR2IIIb isoform in expansion and differentiation of the fetal adrenal cortex in mice but did not address the complete role of FGFR2 and FGFR1 signaling in adrenocortical development. Here, we show that a Tbx18(cre) line mediates specific recombination in the coelomic epithelium of the anterior urogenital ridge which gives rise by a delamination process to the adrenocortical primordium. Mice with conditional (Tbx18(cre)-mediated) deletion of all isoforms of Fgfr2 exhibited severely hypoplastic adrenal glands around birth. Cortical cells were dramatically reduced in number but showed steroidogenic differentiation and zonation. Neuroendocrine chromaffin cells were also reduced and formed a cell cluster adjacent to but not encapsulated by steroidogenic cells. Analysis of earlier time points revealed that the adrenocortical primordium was established in the intermediate mesoderm at E10.5 but that it failed to expand at subsequent stages. Our further experiments show that FGFR2 signaling acts as early as E11.5 to prevent apoptosis and enhance proliferation in adrenocortical progenitor cells. FGFR1 signaling does not contribute to early adrenocortical development. Our work suggests that FGFR2IIIb and IIIc isoforms largely act redundantly to promote expansion of the adrenocortical primordium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regine Häfner
- Institut für Molekularbiologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Tobias Bohnenpoll
- Institut für Molekularbiologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Carsten Rudat
- Institut für Molekularbiologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas M Schultheiss
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Rappaport-Technion Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Andreas Kispert
- Institut für Molekularbiologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany.
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32
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Röhrig T, Pihlajoki M, Ziegler R, Cochran RS, Schrade A, Schillebeeckx M, Mitra RD, Heikinheimo M, Wilson DB. Toying with fate: Redirecting the differentiation of adrenocortical progenitor cells into gonadal-like tissue. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 408:165-77. [PMID: 25498963 PMCID: PMC4417465 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cell fate decisions are integral to zonation and remodeling of the adrenal cortex. Animal models exhibiting ectopic differentiation of gonadal-like cells in the adrenal cortex can shed light on the molecular mechanisms regulating steroidogenic cell fate. In one such model, prepubertal gonadectomy (GDX) of mice triggers the formation of adrenocortical neoplasms that resemble luteinized ovarian stroma. Transcriptomic analysis and genome-wide DNA methylation mapping have identified genetic and epigenetic markers of GDX-induced adrenocortical neoplasia. Members of the GATA transcription factor family have emerged as key regulators of cell fate in this model. Expression of Gata4 is pivotal for the accumulation of gonadal-like cells in the adrenal glands of gonadectomized mice, whereas expression of Gata6 limits the spontaneous and GDX-induced differentiation of gonadal-like cells in the adrenal cortex. Additionally, Gata6 is essential for proper development of the adrenal X-zone, a layer analogous to the fetal zone of the human adrenal cortex. The relevance of these observations to developmental signaling pathways in the adrenal cortex, to other animal models of altered adrenocortical cell fate, and to human diseases is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Röhrig
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Hochschule Mannheim - University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim 68163, Germany
| | - Marjut Pihlajoki
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki 00290, Finland
| | - Ricarda Ziegler
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Hochschule Mannheim - University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim 68163, Germany
| | - Rebecca S Cochran
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Anja Schrade
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki 00290, Finland
| | - Maximiliaan Schillebeeckx
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Robi D Mitra
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Markku Heikinheimo
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki 00290, Finland
| | - David B Wilson
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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33
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Drelon C, Berthon A, Mathieu M, Martinez A, Val P. Adrenal cortex tissue homeostasis and zonation: A WNT perspective. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 408:156-64. [PMID: 25542843 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex plays essential roles in the control of sodium and water homeostasis, stress response, inflammation and metabolism, through secretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Coordinated production of these hormones relies on functional zonation of the cortex, characterised by expression of Cyp11b2 under the control of angiotensin II and plasma potassium level in zona glomerulosa (ZG) and Cyp11b1 under the control of ACTH in zona fasciculata (ZF). The mechanisms involved in the establishment of functional zonation and its maintenance during centripetal cortex cell renewal are still poorly understood. Here, we hypothesise that the hormonal and signalling pathways that control adrenal cortex function are also involved in cortical zonation. In particular, we summarise evidence on the role of WNT/β-catenin signalling in ZG differentiation and how tight control of its activity is required to shape the adult cortex. In this context, we discuss the potential role of known WNT regulators and the possibility of a reciprocal cross-talk between PKA and WNT signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coralie Drelon
- Laboratoire Génétique Reproduction et Développement -GReD- CNRS UMR 6293, Inserm U1103, Clermont Université, 24 Avenue des Landais, Aubière Cedex 63171, France
| | - Annabel Berthon
- Laboratoire Génétique Reproduction et Développement -GReD- CNRS UMR 6293, Inserm U1103, Clermont Université, 24 Avenue des Landais, Aubière Cedex 63171, France; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1103, USA
| | - Mickael Mathieu
- Laboratoire Génétique Reproduction et Développement -GReD- CNRS UMR 6293, Inserm U1103, Clermont Université, 24 Avenue des Landais, Aubière Cedex 63171, France
| | - Antoine Martinez
- Laboratoire Génétique Reproduction et Développement -GReD- CNRS UMR 6293, Inserm U1103, Clermont Université, 24 Avenue des Landais, Aubière Cedex 63171, France
| | - Pierre Val
- Laboratoire Génétique Reproduction et Développement -GReD- CNRS UMR 6293, Inserm U1103, Clermont Université, 24 Avenue des Landais, Aubière Cedex 63171, France.
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34
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Abstract
The human adult adrenal cortex is composed of the zona glomerulosa (zG), zona fasciculata (zF), and zona reticularis (zR), which are responsible for production of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens, respectively. The final completion of cortical zonation in humans does not occur until puberty with the establishment of the zR and its production of adrenal androgens; a process called adrenarche. The maintenance of the adrenal cortex involves the centripetal displacement and differentiation of peripheral Sonic hedgehog-positive progenitors cells into zG cells that later transition to zF cells and subsequently zR cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yewei Xing
- Internal Medicine, Medical School, University of Michigan, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, 1860 BSRB, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Antonio M Lerario
- Internal Medicine, Medical School, University of Michigan, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, 1860 BSRB, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - William Rainey
- Internal Medicine, Medical School, University of Michigan, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, 1860 BSRB, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, 2560D MSRB II, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5622, USA
| | - Gary D Hammer
- Endocrine Oncology Program, Center for Organogenesis, University of Michigan, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, 1528 BSRB, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA.
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35
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Abstract
The purpose of this article is to review fundamentals in adrenal gland histophysiology. Key findings regarding the important signaling pathways involved in the regulation of steroidogenesis and adrenal growth are summarized. We illustrate how adrenal gland morphology and function are deeply interconnected in which novel signaling pathways (Wnt, Sonic hedgehog, Notch, β-catenin) or ionic channels are required for their integrity. Emphasis is given to exploring the mechanisms and challenges underlying the regulation of proliferation, growth, and functionality. Also addressed is the fact that while it is now well-accepted that steroidogenesis results from an enzymatic shuttle between mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, key questions still remain on the various aspects related to cellular uptake and delivery of free cholesterol. The significant progress achieved over the past decade regarding the precise molecular mechanisms by which the two main regulators of adrenal cortex, adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) and angiotensin II act on their receptors is reviewed, including structure-activity relationships and their potential applications. Particular attention has been given to crucial second messengers and how various kinases, phosphatases, and cytoskeleton-associated proteins interact to ensure homeostasis and/or meet physiological demands. References to animal studies are also made in an attempt to unravel associated clinical conditions. Many of the aspects addressed in this article still represent a challenge for future studies, their outcome aimed at providing evidence that the adrenal gland, through its steroid hormones, occupies a central position in many situations where homeostasis is disrupted, thus highlighting the relevance of exploring and understanding how this key organ is regulated. © 2014 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 4:889-964, 2014.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Gallo-Payet
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, and Centre de Recherche Clinique Étienne-Le Bel of the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke (CHUS), Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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36
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Abstract
The adrenal gland consists of two distinct parts, the cortex and the medulla. Molecular mechanisms controlling differentiation and growth of the adrenal gland have been studied in detail using mouse models. Knowledge also came from investigations of genetic disorders altering adrenal development and/or function. During embryonic development, the adrenal cortex acquires a structural and functional zonation in which the adrenal cortex is divided into three different steroidogenic zones. Significant progress has been made in understanding adrenal zonation. Recent lineage tracing experiments have accumulated evidence for a centripetal differentiation of adrenocortical cells from the subcapsular area to the inner part of the adrenal cortex. Understanding of the mechanism of adrenocortical cancer (ACC) development was stimulated by knowledge of adrenal gland development. ACC is a rare cancer with a very poor overall prognosis. Abnormal activation of the Wnt/β-catenin as well as the IGF2 signaling plays an important role in ACC development. Studies examining rare genetic syndromes responsible for familial ACT have played an important role in identifying genetic alterations in these tumors (like TP53 or CTNNB1 mutations as well as IGF2 overexpression). Recently, genomic analyses of ACT have shown gene expression profiles associated with malignancy as well as chromosomal and methylation alterations in ACT and exome sequencing allowed to describe the mutational landscape of these tumors. This progress leads to a new classification of these tumors, opening new perspectives for the diagnosis and prognostication of ACT. This review summarizes current knowledge of adrenocortical development, growth, and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Lefèvre
- Inserm, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France Cnrs, UMR8104, Paris, France Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France Department of Endocrinology, Referral Center for Rare Adrenal Diseases, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Cochin, Paris, France
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37
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Abstract
Stem cells are endowed with the potential for self-renewal and multipotency. Pluripotent embryonic stem cells have an early role in the formation of the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm), whereas adult tissue stem cells and progenitor cells are critical mediators of organ homeostasis. The adrenal cortex is an exceptionally dynamic endocrine organ that is homeostatically maintained by paracrine and endocrine signals throughout postnatal life. In the past decade, much has been learned about the stem and progenitor cells of the adrenal cortex and the multiple roles that these cell populations have in normal development and homeostasis of the adrenal gland and in adrenal diseases. In this Review, we discuss the evidence for the presence of adrenocortical stem cells, as well as the various signalling molecules and transcriptional networks that are critical for the embryological establishment and postnatal maintenance of this vital population of cells. The implications of these pathways and cells in the pathophysiology of disease are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth M Walczak
- Division of Nephrology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Gary D Hammer
- Center for Organogenesis, Alfred Taubman Biomedical Sciences Research Building, Room 1528, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, USA
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Pihlajoki M, Dörner J, Cochran RS, Heikinheimo M, Wilson DB. Adrenocortical zonation, renewal, and remodeling. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2015; 6:27. [PMID: 25798129 PMCID: PMC4350438 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2015.00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The adrenal cortex is divided into concentric zones. In humans the major cortical zones are the zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis. The adrenal cortex is a dynamic organ in which senescent cells are replaced by newly differentiated ones. This constant renewal facilitates organ remodeling in response to physiological demand for steroids. Cortical zones can reversibly expand, contract, or alter their biochemical profiles to accommodate needs. Pools of stem/progenitor cells in the adrenal capsule, subcapsular region, and juxtamedullary region can differentiate to repopulate or expand zones. Some of these pools appear to be activated only during specific developmental windows or in response to extreme physiological demand. Senescent cells can also be replenished through direct lineage conversion; for example, cells in the zona glomerulosa can transform into cells of the zona fasciculata. Adrenocortical cell differentiation, renewal, and function are regulated by a variety of endocrine/paracrine factors including adrenocorticotropin, angiotensin II, insulin-related growth hormones, luteinizing hormone, activin, and inhibin. Additionally, zonation and regeneration of the adrenal cortex are controlled by developmental signaling pathways, such as the sonic hedgehog, delta-like homolog 1, fibroblast growth factor, and WNT/β-catenin pathways. The mechanisms involved in adrenocortical remodeling are complex and redundant so as to fulfill the offsetting goals of organ homeostasis and stress adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjut Pihlajoki
- Helsinki University Central Hospital, Children’s Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Julia Dörner
- Hochschule Mannheim – University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
- St. Louis Children’s Hospital, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rebecca S. Cochran
- St. Louis Children’s Hospital, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Markku Heikinheimo
- Helsinki University Central Hospital, Children’s Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- St. Louis Children’s Hospital, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - David B. Wilson
- St. Louis Children’s Hospital, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- *Correspondence: David B. Wilson, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8208, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA e-mail:
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Boulkroun S, Fernandes-Rosa FL, Zennaro MC. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Aldosterone Producing Adenoma Development. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2015; 6:95. [PMID: 26124749 PMCID: PMC4464054 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2015.00095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary aldosteronism (PA) is the most common form of secondary hypertension with an estimated prevalence of ~10% in referred patients. PA occurs as a result of a dysregulation of the normal mechanisms controlling adrenal aldosterone production. It is characterized by hypertension with low plasma renin and elevated aldosterone and often associated with hypokalemia. The two major causes of PA are unilateral aldosterone producing adenoma (APA) and bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, accounting together for ~95% of cases. In addition to the well-characterized effect of excess mineralocorticoids on blood pressure, high levels of aldosterone also have cardiovascular, renal, and metabolic consequences. Hence, long-term consequences of PA include increased risk of coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and atrial fibrillation. Despite recent progress in the management of patients with PA, critical issues related to diagnosis, subtype differentiation, and treatment of non-surgically correctable forms still persist. A better understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms of the disease should lead to the identification of more reliable diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for a more sensitive and specific screening and new therapeutic options. In this review, we will summarize our current knowledge on the molecular and cellular mechanisms of APA development. On one hand, we will discuss how various animal models have improved our understanding of the pathophysiology of excess aldosterone production. On the other hand, we will summarize the major advances made during the last few years in the genetics of APA due to transcriptomic studies and whole exome sequencing. The identification of recurrent and somatic mutations in genes coding for ion channels (KCNJ5 and CACNA1D) and ATPases (ATP1A1 and ATP2B3) allowed highlighting the central role of calcium signaling in autonomous aldosterone production by the adrenal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheerazed Boulkroun
- UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Paris, France
- University Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Sheerazed Boulkroun, UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center (PARCC), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), 56 rue Leblanc, Paris 75015, France,
| | - Fabio Luiz Fernandes-Rosa
- UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Paris, France
- University Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France
| | - Maria-Christina Zennaro
- UMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Paris, France
- University Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France
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40
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Antonini SR, Leal LF, Cavalcanti MM. Pediatric adrenocortical tumors: diagnosis, management and advancements in the understanding of the genetic basis and therapeutic implications. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2014; 9:445-464. [PMID: 30736208 DOI: 10.1586/17446651.2014.941813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) may be sporadic or related to inherited genetic syndromes. Uncovering the molecular defects underlying these genetic syndromes has revealed key signaling pathways involved in adrenocortical tumorigenesis. Although the understanding of ACT biology has improved, to date, very few potential prognostic molecular markers of childhood ACTs have been identified. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment options for pediatric patients with ACTs. A review of the genetic basis of adrenocortical tumorigenesis is presented, focusing on the main molecular abnormalities involved in the tumorigenic process and potential novel therapy targets that have been generated, or are being generated, with the discovery of these molecular defects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Letícia F Leal
- a Department of Pediatrics, Ribeirao Preto Medical-School - University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcelo M Cavalcanti
- a Department of Pediatrics, Ribeirao Preto Medical-School - University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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41
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Gomes DC, Leal LF, Mermejo LM, Scrideli CA, Martinelli CE, Fragoso MCBV, Latronico AC, Tone LG, Tucci S, Yunes JA, Cardinalli IA, Mastellaro MJ, Brandalise SR, Ramalho F, Moreira AC, Ramalho LN, de Castro M, Antonini SRR. Sonic hedgehog signaling is active in human adrenal cortex development and deregulated in adrenocortical tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99:E1209-16. [PMID: 24712566 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2013-4098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The sonic hedgehog (SHH) pathway plays a key role in rodent adrenal cortex development and is involved in tumorigenesis in several human tissues, but data in human adrenal glands are limited. OBJECTIVES The objectives of the study were to analyze the involvement of the SHH pathway in human adrenal development and tumorigenesis and the effects of SHH inhibition on an adrenocortical tumor (ACT) cell line. PATIENTS AND METHODS Expression of SHH pathway components was evaluated by immunohistochemistry in 51 normal adrenals (33 fetal) and 34 ACTs (23 pediatric) and by quantitative PCR in 81 ACTs (61 pediatric) and 19 controls (10 pediatric). The effects of SHH pathway inhibition on gene expression and cell viability in the NCI-H295A adrenocortical tumor cell line after cyclopamine treatment were analyzed. RESULTS SHH pathway proteins were present in fetal and postnatal normal adrenals and showed distinct patterns of spatiotemporal expression throughout development. Adult adrenocortical carcinomas presented with higher expression of PTCH1, SMO, GLI3, and SUFU compared with normal adult adrenal cortices. Conversely, pediatric ACTs showed lower mRNA expression of SHH, PTCH1, SMO, GLI1, and GLI3 compared with normal pediatric adrenal cortices. In vitro treatment with cyclopamine resulted in decreased GLI3, SFRP1, and CTNNB1 mRNA expression and β-catenin staining as well as decreased cell viability. CONCLUSIONS The SHH pathway is active in human fetal and postnatal adrenals, up-regulated in adult adrenocortical carcinomas, and down-regulated in pediatric ACTs. SHH pathway antagonism impaired cell viability. The SHH pathway is deregulated in ACTs and might provide a new target therapy to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora C Gomes
- School of Medicine (D.C.G., L.F.L., L.M.M., C.A.S., C.E.M., L.G.T., S.T., F.R., A.C.M., L.N.R., M.C., S.R.R.A.), Ribeirao Preto Medical School-University of Sao Paulo, 14090-900 Ribeirao Preto, Brazil; School of Medicine (M.C.B.V.F., A.C.L.), University of Sao Paulo, 01246-903 Sao Paulo, Brazil; and Boldrini Children's Center (J.A.Y., S.R.B., I.A.C., M.J.M.), 13083-210 Campinas, Brazil
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42
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Changes in morphology and function of adrenal cortex in mice fed a high-fat diet. Int J Obes (Lond) 2014; 39:321-30. [PMID: 24919565 DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2014.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES Obesity is a major risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes and other debilitating diseases. Obesity and diabetes are intimately linked with altered levels of adrenal steroids. Elevated levels of these hormones induce insulin resistance and cause cardiovascular diseases. The mechanisms underlying obesity-related alterations in adrenal steroids are still not well understood. Here, we investigated how diet-induced obesity affects the morphology and function of the mouse adrenal cortex. METHODS We fed animals either a high-fat diet (HFD) or a normal diet (60% kcal from fat or 10% kcal from fat, respectively) for 18 weeks. We then assessed various aspects of adrenal gland morphology and function, as well as basal plasma concentrations of steroid hormones and ACTH. RESULTS We show that adrenal glands of mice fed a HFD release more corticosterone and aldosterone, resulting in higher plasma levels. This increase is driven by adrenal cortical hyperplasia, and by increased expression of multiple genes involved in steroidogenesis. We demonstrate that diet-induced obesity elevates Sonic hedgehog signaling in Gli1-positive progenitors, which populate the adrenal capsule and give rise to the steroidogenic cells of the adrenal cortex. Feeding animals with a HFD depletes Gli1-positive progenitors, as the adrenal cortex expands. CONCLUSIONS This work provides insight into how diet-induced obesity changes the biology of the adrenal gland. The association of these changes with increased Shh signaling suggests possible therapeutic strategies for obesity-related steroid hormone dysfunction.
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43
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Nishimoto K, Harris RBS, Rainey WE, Seki T. Sodium deficiency regulates rat adrenal zona glomerulosa gene expression. Endocrinology 2014; 155:1363-72. [PMID: 24422541 PMCID: PMC3959598 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Aldosterone is the primary adrenocortical hormone regulating sodium retention, and its production is under the control of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). In vitro, angiotensin II can induce aldosterone production in adrenocortical cells without causing cell proliferation. In vivo, a low-sodium diet activates the RAAS and aldosterone production, at least in part, through an expansion of the adrenal zona glomerulosa (zG) layer. Although these mechanisms have been investigated, RAAS effects on zG gene expression have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we took an unbiased approach to define the complete list of zG transcripts involved in RAAS activation. Adrenal glands were collected from 11-week old Sprague-Dawley rats fed either sodium-deficient (SDef), normal sodium (NS), or high-sodium (HS) diet for 72 hours, and laser-captured zG RNA was analyzed on microarrays containing 27 342 probe sets. When the SDef transcriptome was compared with NS transcriptome (SDef/NS comparison), only 79 and 10 probe sets were found to be up- and down-regulated more than two-fold in SDef, respectively. In SDef/HS comparison, 201 and 68 probe sets were up- and down-regulated in SDef, respectively. Upon gene ontology (GO) analysis of these gene sets, we identified three groups of functionally related GO terms: cell proliferation-associated (group 1), response to stimulus-associated (group 2), and cholesterol/steroid metabolism-associated (group 3) GO terms. Although genes in group 1 may play a critical role in zG layer expansion, those in groups 2 and 3 may have important functions in aldosterone production, and further investigations on these genes are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koshiro Nishimoto
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology (K.N., W.E.R.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Department of Physiology (R.B.S.H., T.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; and Department of Urology (K.N.), Tachikawa Hospital, Tachikawa, 190-0022 Tokyo, Japan
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Zou S, Wang Y, Chen T, Song P, Xin D, Ping P, Huang Y, Li Z, Hu H. Ectopic expression of Sonic Hedgehog in a cryptorchid man with azoospermia: A case report. J Int Med Res 2014; 42:589-97. [PMID: 24567355 DOI: 10.1177/0300060513503919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A 30-year-old man presented with a left undescended testis, right testicular deficiency and azoospermia. Testicular biopsy revealed an absence of spermatocytes and increased numbers of Leydig cells in the undescended testis. Additional comparative analyses were undertaken to explore Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) immunostaining in the testis of juvenile and adult mice, in the testis of the patient with cryptorchidism, and in archival testicular tissue from a patient with obstructive azoospermia and a patient with prostate cancer. Shh immunostaining was demonstrated in spermatocytes in juvenile and adult mouse testis and in the patients with obstructive azoospermia and prostate cancer, suggesting that Shh signalling is involved in normal spermatogenesis. In the patient with cryptorchidism, Shh immunostaining was localized to the Leydig cells, which suggests that Shh might be involved in the abnormal expansion of the Leydig cell population in the testis. These preliminary data on the appearance of Shh protein during normal spermatogenesis might provide the basis for further investigations to clarify the role of Shh signalling in spermatogenesis during normal and pathogenic testis development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shasha Zou
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanan Wang
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tingting Chen
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Pingping Song
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Daiying Xin
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Ping
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiran Huang
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zheng Li
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongliang Hu
- Sperm Development and Genetics Laboratory, Shanghai Human Sperm Bank, Shanghai Institute of Andrology, Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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MITANI F. Functional zonation of the rat adrenal cortex: the development and maintenance. PROCEEDINGS OF THE JAPAN ACADEMY. SERIES B, PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2014; 90:163-183. [PMID: 24814991 PMCID: PMC4104512 DOI: 10.2183/pjab.90.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex of mammals consists of three concentric zones, i.e., the zona glomerulosa (zG), the zona fasciculata (zF), and the zona reticularis (zR), which secrete mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens, respectively. In 1994, we identified immunohistochemically a new zone between zG and zF of the rat adrenal gland. The zone appeared to be devoid of any significant endocrine functions specific to adrenocortical zones, therefore, we designated the zone as "undifferentiated cell zone (zU)". Further, BrdU (5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine)-incorporating cells (cells in S-phase) were concentrated at the outer region and the inner region of zU, and these cells proliferated and migrated bidirectionally: toward zG centrifugally and toward zF centripetally. We proposed that cells in and around zU are stem/progenitor cells of the rat adrenal cortex, maintaining functional zonation of the adrenal cortex. The view is consistent with observations reported recently that Sonic hedgehog (Shh), an important factor in embryonic development and adult stem cell maintenance, exists in zU of the rat adrenal gland and the Shh-containing cells seem to migrate bidirectionally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumiko MITANI
- Former Senior Lecturer, School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
- Former Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
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Werminghaus P, Haase M, Hornsby PJ, Schinner S, Schott M, Malendowicz LK, Lammers BJ, Goretzki PE, Müller-Mattheis V, Willenberg HS. Hedgehog-signaling is upregulated in non-producing human adrenal adenomas and antagonism of hedgehog-signaling inhibits proliferation of NCI-H295R cells and an immortalized primary human adrenal cell line. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 139:7-15. [PMID: 24063979 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Revised: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Hedgehog (Hh)-signaling pathway is important in embryonic development. Activation of Hh-signaling is associated with tumorigenesis. Recent studies demonstrate that Hh-signaling is involved in the development of the adrenal gland in mice and is important in regulating adrenal proliferation. We studied the expression of Sonic hedgehog (SHH), Smoothened (SMO), Patched1 (PTCH1) and GLI family zinc finger 1 (GLI1) in human adrenal and in adrenocortical tumors using immunohistochemistry and semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Modulation of GLI1 and SMO messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression was investigated with forskolin. The role of Hh-signaling was studied in NCI-H295R cells and in an immortalized primary cell line using the Hh-agonist smoothened agonist (SAG) and the Hh-antagonist cyclopamine. The Hh-pathway components SHH, GLI1, PTCH1 and SMO were detectable in all adrenal glands. While in cortisol-producing adenomas (CPA), Hh-signaling expression levels were comparable to that in normal adrenal cortex, a much higher mRNA expression of GLI1, SMO and SHH was observed in non-producing adenomas (NPA). Interestingly, stimulation of cultured adrenal cells with forskolin led to a decrease in expression of GLI1 and SMO mRNAs. Antagonism of Hh-signaling resulted in a lower proliferation rate of adrenocortical cells, while Hh-agonism had no significant effect on adrenal cell proliferation. Our data show Hh-signaling activity in adult adrenal glands. Activation of the PKA pathway results in lower expression of Hh-signaling proteins. This might explain the lower expression of the Hh components GLI1 and SMO in CPA in comparison to the higher expression in NPA. Hh-signaling might be involved in the tumorigenesis of NPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Werminghaus
- Department of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical Faculty, University of Dusseldorf, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany; Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Medical Faculty, University of Dusseldorf, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
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Guasti L, Cavlan D, Cogger K, Banu Z, Shakur A, Latif S, King PJ. Dlk1 up-regulates Gli1 expression in male rat adrenal capsule cells through the activation of β1 integrin and ERK1/2. Endocrinology 2013; 154:4675-84. [PMID: 24064361 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The development and maintenance of the zones of the adrenal cortex and their steroidal output are extremely important in the control of gluconeogenesis, the stress response, and blood volume. Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) is expressed in the adrenal cortex and signals to capsular cells, which can respond by migrating into the cortex and converting into a steroidogenic phenotype. Delta-like homologue 1 (Dlk1), a member of the Notch/Delta/Serrate family of epidermal growth factor-like repeat-containing proteins, has a well-established role in inhibiting adipocyte differentiation. We demonstrate that Shh and Dlk1 are coexpressed in the outer undifferentiated zone of the male rat adrenal and that Dlk1 signals to the adrenal capsule, activating glioma-associated oncogene homolog 1 transcription in a β1 integrin- and Erk1/2-dependent fashion. Moreover, Shh and Dlk1 expression inversely correlates with the size of the zona glomerulosa in rats after manipulation of the renin-angiotensin system, suggesting a role in the homeostatic maintenance of the gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Guasti
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M 6BQ, United Kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjut Pihlajoki
- Box 8208, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63110.
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Wood MA, Acharya A, Finco I, Swonger JM, Elston MJ, Tallquist MD, Hammer GD. Fetal adrenal capsular cells serve as progenitor cells for steroidogenic and stromal adrenocortical cell lineages in M. musculus. Development 2013; 140:4522-32. [PMID: 24131628 PMCID: PMC3817941 DOI: 10.1242/dev.092775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The lineage relationships of fetal adrenal cells and adrenal capsular cells to the differentiated adrenal cortex are not fully understood. Existing data support a role for each cell type as a progenitor for cells of the adult cortex. This report reveals that subsets of capsular cells are descendants of fetal adrenocortical cells that once expressed Nr5a1. These fetal adrenocortical cell descendants within the adrenal capsule express Gli1, a known marker of progenitors of steroidogenic adrenal cells. The capsule is also populated by cells that express Tcf21, a known inhibitor of Nr5a1 gene expression. We demonstrate that Tcf21-expressing cells give rise to Nr5a1-expressing cells but only before capsular formation. After the capsule has formed, capsular Tcf21-expressing cells give rise only to non-steroidogenic stromal adrenocortical cells, which also express collagen 1a1, desmin and platelet-derived growth factor (alpha polypeptide) but not Nr5a1. These observations integrate prior observations that define two separate origins of adult adrenocortical steroidogenic cells (fetal adrenal cortex and/or the adrenal capsule). Thus, these observations predict a unique temporal and/or spatial role of adult cortical cells that arise directly from either fetal cortical cells or from fetal cortex-derived capsular cells. Last, the data uncover the mechanism by which two populations of fetal cells (fetal cortex derived Gli1-expressing cells and mesenchymal Tcf21-expressing mesenchymal cells) participate in the establishment of the homeostatic capsular progenitor cell niche of the adult cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A. Wood
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Asha Acharya
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Isabella Finco
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jessica M. Swonger
- Molecular and Cell Biology Program, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
| | - Marlee J. Elston
- Molecular and Cell Biology Program, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
| | - Michelle D. Tallquist
- Center for Cardiovascular Research, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
| | - Gary D. Hammer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA., University of Michigan Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA., Author for correspondence ()
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Swierczynska MM, Lamounier-Zepter V, Bornstein SR, Eaton S. Lipoproteins and Hedgehog signalling--possible implications for the adrenal gland function. Eur J Clin Invest 2013; 43:1178-83. [PMID: 23992253 DOI: 10.1111/eci.12145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metabolic syndrome is a common metabolic disorder that is associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Disturbances in adrenal steroid hormone production significantly contribute to the development of this disorder. Therefore, it is extremely important to fully understand the mechanisms governing adrenal gland function, both in physiological and pathological conditions. RESULTS Recently, Sonic hedgehog has emerged as an important regulator of adrenal development, with a possible role in adult gland homeostasis. Recent work of our group shows that lipoproteins are important regulators of Hedgehog signaling; they act as carriers for the spread of Hedgehog proteins, but also contain lipid(s) that inhibit the pathway. CONCLUSIONS We propose that lipoproteins may affect Sonic hedgehog signaling in the adult adrenal gland at multiple levels. Understanding the interplay between lipoprotein metabolism and adrenal Hedgehog signaling may improve our understanding of how adrenal gland disorders contribute to the metabolic syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta M Swierczynska
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Dresden, Germany; Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
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