Reduction of food cravings through concurrent visuospatial processing

The effects of bilateral stimulation using eye movements on sexual fantasies with follow-up

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Sexual fantasies represent a common aspect of human sexuality that can support sexual well-being but also contribute to psychopathology. The latter warrants intervention and bilateral stimulation with eye movements (EMs) may be a suitable intervention for impairing mental imagery of sexual fantasies. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of multiple rounds of EMs on sexual fantasies, gauge the effect over time with a one-week follow-up, and assess how impaired sexual imagery may influence behaviour and behavioural intention.

METHODS

Twenty-eight participants (14 male, Mage = 44.10, SDage = 9.77) selected a favoured sexual fantasy and engaged in five repeated rounds of an EM task, either face-to-face or via telehealth. Baseline phenomenological characteristics of sexual fantasies were compared against repeated measures after each round of EMs and at one-week follow-up, as well as hypothetical behavioural intention and frequency of fantasy masturbation.

RESULTS

All sexual fantasy characteristics (e.g., vividness, sensations, arousal, believability) diminished progressively between each round of EMs. These characteristics increased from round five to follow-up. However, they remained significantly reduced compared to baseline. Participants' hypothetical behavioural intention and frequency of masturbation associated with their sexual fantasies also reduced post-EM task.

LIMITATIONS

Use of self-report measures; participants' mental imagery could not be measured directly; and no comparison groups were included.

CONCLUSIONS

As an imagery impairing task, bilateral stimulation with EMs is effective for diminishing the phenomenological properties of sexual fantasies, extending upon extant literature. Collectively, the progressive research regarding EMs and sexual fantasies encourages replication in specific populations (e.g., individuals with problematic or harmful sexual fantasies).

The effect of visualisation and mindfulness-based decentering on chocolate craving

According to the elaborated intrusion (EI) theory of desire, loading visual working memory should help prevent and reduce cravings because cravings occur when intrusive thoughts are elaborated upon in working memory, often as vivid mental images. Mindfulness-based decentering strategies may also help prevent and reduce cravings since they may divert attention away from craving-related thoughts and mental imagery. To compare the effects of visualisation versus decentering on cravings, participants (N = 108) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) decentering, (b) visualisation, (c) mind-wandering control. Participants in each condition received two audio exercises: (1) a 2-min exercise, preceding a craving induction but after initial deprivation and cue exposure, (2) a 4-min exercise, following a craving induction. The audios instructed participants to look at a plate of chocolate that was in front of them whilst either (a) decentering from their thoughts and feelings, (b) engaging in visualisation or (c) letting their mind wander. Participants were asked to rate the strength of their cravings at four time points (Time 1, baseline; Time 2, after the 2-min audio; Time 3, post-craving induction; Time 4, post-4 minute audio). Frequency of craving-related thoughts was also measured at Time 4. Compared to the control condition, results showed a significant reduction in strength of cravings for the decentering condition after both the 2-min audio and the 4-min audio. Decentering was superior to visualisation only after the 2-min audio. Participants in both the visualisation and decentering conditions also had significantly lower frequencies of craving-related thoughts compared to control participants. The findings support EI theory and suggest that mindfulness-based decentering strategies may be useful for both the prevention and reduction of cravings. Pre-registration: https://osf.io/jv3pq.

ImpulsePal: The systematic development of a smartphone app to manage food temptations using intervention mapping

BACKGROUND

Impulsive processes driving eating behaviour can often undermine peoples' attempts to change their behaviour, lose weight and maintain weight loss.

AIM

To develop an impulse management intervention to support weight loss in adults.

METHODS

Intervention Mapping (IM) was used to systematically develop the "ImpulsePal" intervention. The development involved: (1) a needs assessment including a qualitative study, Patient and Public advisory group and expert group consultations, and a systematic review of impulse management techniques; (2) specification of performance objectives, determinants, and change objectives; (3) selection of intervention strategies (mapping of change techniques to the determinants of change); (4) creation of programme materials; (5) specification of adoption and implementation plans; (6) devising an evaluation plan.

RESULTS

Application of the IM Protocol resulted in a smartphone app that could support reductions in unhealthy (energy dense) food consumption, overeating, and alcoholic and sugary drink consumption. ImpulsePal includes inhibition training, mindfulness techniques, implementation intentions (if-then planning), visuospatial loading, use of physical activity for craving management, and context-specific reminders. An "Emergency Button" was also included to provide access to in-the-moment support when temptation is strong.

CONCLUSIONS

ImpulsePal is a novel, theory- and evidence-informed, person-centred app that aims to support impulse management for healthier eating. Intervention Mapping facilitated the incorporation of app components that are practical operationalisations of change techniques targeting our specific change objectives and their associated theoretical determinants. Using IM enabled transparency and provided a clear framework for evaluation, and enhances replicability and the potential of the intervention to accomplish the desired outcome of facilitating weight loss through dietary change.

Laboratory-based interventions targeting food craving: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to quantify the effects of laboratory-based interventions targeting specific mechanisms of food craving, to identify moderators of effects, and to qualitatively summarize findings. The study was conducted and reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Sixty-nine studies were included in the quantitative synthesis, and separate meta-analyses were conducted for the outcomes self-reported craving and objective food intake. Results show small to medium positive effects across specific craving interventions on both outcomes. Effect sizes were partly moderated by intervention type. The most effective intervention regarding food intake was in sensu cue exposure. For subjective craving, the most robust evidence was found for beneficial effects of cognitive regulation strategies (ie, reappraisal, suppression, and distraction). Results further indicate that training inhibitory control through behavioral inhibition might be more effective than approach-avoidance training when considering its effect on subjective craving and food intake. People with external eating habits, overeating, or loss-of-control eating might benefit from these types of specific craving interventions. Future research should focus on long-term effects, transferability, and effectiveness in clinical samples.

Effects of working memory on naturally occurring cravings

Elaborated Intrusion (EI) theory posits a key role for visuospatial working memory (WM) in craving. In line with the predictions of EI theory, several studies have found that WM and craving show mutually interfering effects - for example, performance of visuospatial WM tasks has been found to attenuate naturally occurring cravings. However, the extent to which these effects are driven specifically by visuospatial processing remains unclear. We conducted two experiments to investigate the effects of WM on naturally occurring cravings in more detail. In experiment 1, we examined whether such effects are driven specifically by visuospatial WM processes or can also be induced by a verbal WM task. Subjective craving ratings were attenuated equally by performance of visuospatial and verbal WM tasks, suggesting that craving is not dependent specifically on visuospatial processing. In experiment 2, we examined whether effects of visuospatial WM on craving could be driven by simple distraction. Naturally occurring cravings were attenuated in a control condition with minimal WM demands (watching a video). However, the magnitude of attenuation was significantly greater in a visuospatial WM condition. Taken together, these findings highlight a key role for WM in the attenuation of naturally occurring craving, but do not support the hypothesis that such effects are dependent specifically on visuospatial processing.

A review of food craving measures

OBJECTIVE

Summarize and evaluate self-report measures of food craving, provide suggestions on future directions for the field of food craving measurement, and deliver guidance on how to select a food craving measure.

METHODS

Online bibliographical databases (PsycINFO and PubMed) were searched for peer-reviewed literature on self-report measures of food craving.

RESULTS

There is a wide selection of food craving measures that researchers and clinicians can use to assess state, past, and trait food cravings. Most questionnaires were tested on homogenous samples and their psychometric properties in older, male, and socioeconomically, racially, and ethnically diverse samples is largely unknown. Few questionnaires were tested in samples with overweight/obesity or eating disorders. Relatively few questionnaires adequately evaluate contextual factors that can trigger craving. There appears to be limited data on the predictive validity of food craving measures in regards to response to eating disorder treatment. A decision tree was provided to help researchers and clinicians select a food craving measure that is best suited to a particular clinical or research purpose.

CONCLUSIONS

It is recommended that researchers adequately assess the contextual factors that may trigger craving and the multi-sensory nature of craving for food. It would be beneficial for researchers to evaluate the psychometrics of food craving measures in more diverse samples (in terms of sex, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, weight status, and eating disorder psychopathology). More longitudinal studies should be conducted to provide information on the predictive validity of food craving measures regarding response to eating disorder treatment. Furthermore, it is suggested that researchers assess which tactics people use to reduce the frequency and strength of food cravings and restrain their consumption of craved foods.

The effect of bilateral eye-movements versus no eye-movements on sexual fantasies

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Bilateral eye-movements (EMs) and visual mental imagery both require working memory resources. When performed together, they compete for these resources, which can cause various forms of mental imagery to become impaired (e.g., less vivid). This study aimed to examine whether EMs impair sexual fantasies (a form of mental imagery) in the same manner.

METHODS

Eighty undergraduates (40 males, 40 females) took part in four counterbalanced conditions: (1) EMs and an experience-based sexual fantasy; (2) EMs and an imagination-based sexual fantasy; (3) experience-based sexual fantasy only; and (4) imagination-based sexual fantasy only. In each condition, the vividness, emotionality, and arousability of the sexual fantasy were rated pre- and post-task. All three variables were predicted to decrease in the EM conditions.

RESULTS

Sexual fantasies were reported as less vivid, positive, and arousing after performing concurrent EMs relative to fantasising only, for both memory- and imagination-based sexual fantasies. There were no gender differences. Demand did not appear to account for the effects.

LIMITATIONS

Self-report measures were used rather than objective measures. Working memory taxation and capacity were not directly assessed. Also, negatively appraised sexual fantasies were not targeted and a 'no intervention' control was not included.

CONCLUSIONS

Bilateral EMs were effective at impairing the phenomenological properties of sexual mental imagery, extending the literature on EM effects. Given the potential clinical implications, future research should focus on validating and extending these results, for example, by targeting negatively appraised sexual fantasies (including problematic and offense-related) and incorporating a 'no intervention' condition.

Caffeine cravings impair memory and metacognition

Cravings for food and other substances can impair cognition. We extended previous research by testing the effects of caffeine cravings on cued-recall and recognition memory tasks, and on the accuracy of judgements of learning (JOLs; predicted future recall) and feeling-of-knowing (FOK; predicted future recognition for items that cannot be recalled). Participants (N = 55) studied word pairs (POND-BOOK) and completed a cued-recall test and a recognition test. Participants made JOLs prior to the cued-recall test and FOK judgements prior to the recognition test. Participants were randomly allocated to a craving or control condition; we manipulated caffeine cravings via a combination of abstinence, cue exposure, and imagery. Cravings impaired memory performance on the cued-recall and recognition tasks. Cravings also impaired resolution (the ability to distinguish items that would be remembered from those that would not) for FOK judgements but not JOLs, and reduced calibration (correspondence between predicted and actual accuracy) for JOLs but not FOK judgements. Additional analysis of the cued-recall data suggested that cravings also reduced participants' ability to monitor the likely accuracy of answers during the cued-recall test. These findings add to prior research demonstrating that memory strength manipulations have systematically different effects on different types of metacognitive judgements.

Modification of EEG functional connectivity and EEG power spectra in overweight and obese patients with food addiction: An eLORETA study

We evaluated the modifications of electroencephalographic (EEG) power spectra and EEG connectivity in overweight and obese patients with elevated food addiction (FA) symptoms. Fourteen overweight and obese patients (3 men and 11 women) with three or more FA symptoms and fourteen overweight and obese patients (3 men and 11 women) with two or less FA symptoms were included in the study. EEG was recorded during three different conditions: 1) five minutes resting state (RS), 2) five minutes resting state after a single taste of a chocolate milkshake (ML-RS), and 3) five minutes resting state after a single taste of control neutral solution (N-RS). EEG analyses were conducted by means of the exact Low Resolution Electric Tomography software (eLORETA). Significant modification was observed only in the ML-RS condition. Compared to controls, patients with three or more FA symptoms showed an increase of delta power in the right middle frontal gyrus (Brodmann Area [BA] 8) and in the right precentral gyrus (BA 9), and theta power in the right insula (BA 13) and in the right inferior frontal gyrus (BA 47). Furthermore, compared to controls, patients with three or more FA symptoms showed an increase of functional connectivity in fronto-parietal areas in both the theta and alpha band. The increase of functional connectivity was also positively associated with the number of FA symptoms. Taken together, our results show that FA has similar neurophysiological correlates of other forms of substance-related and addictive disorders suggesting similar psychopathological mechanisms.

Cognitive processing of food rewards

Cues associated with tasty foods, such as their smell or taste, are strong motivators of eating, but the power of food cues on behaviour varies from moment to moment and from person to person. Variation in the rewarding value of a food with metabolic state explains why food cues are more attractive when hungry. However, cognitive processes are also important determinants of our responses to food cues. An urge to consume a tempting food may be resisted if, for example, a person has a longer term goal of weight loss. There is also evidence that responses to food cues can be facilitated or inhibited by memory processes. The aim of this review is to add to the literature on cognitive control of eating by reviewing recent evidence on the influence of working memory and episodic memory processes on responses to food cues. It is argued that processing of food information in working memory affects how much attention is paid to food cues in the environment and promotes the motivation to seek out food in the absence of direct contact with food cues. It is further argued that memories of specific recent eating episodes play an important role in directing food choices and influencing when and how much we eat. However, these memory processes are prone to disruption. When this happens, eating behaviour may become more cue-driven and less flexible. In the modern food environment, disruption of cognitive processing of food reward cues may lead to overconsumption and obesity.

Delay discounting and the use of mindful attention versus distraction in the treatment of drug addiction: a conceptual review

In recent decades, researchers have integrated measurements of delay discounting, how the subjective valuation of a reward changes as a function of time, into their study of addiction. Research has begun to explore the idea that delay discounting may serve as both a marker for the effectiveness of existing treatments for addiction and a potential target for novel intervention strategies. As this work is in its infancy, many potentially significant connections between the construct of delay discounting and the treatment of addiction have yet to be explored. Here, we present a conceptual review highlighting novel points of intersection between delay discounting and two approaches to treating addiction that have become increasingly popular in recent years: those that focus on the development of mindfulness skills and those that emphasize the use of distraction techniques. Viewing these two techniques through the lens of delay discounting is particularly intriguing because of the very different way that they address the experience of drug cravings in the present moment (nonjudgmentally attending to vs. shifting attention away from subjective cravings, respectively). We propose that these opposing strategies for dealing with cravings may interact with delay discounting in ways that have important implications for treatment effectiveness.

Olfactory stimulation curbs food cravings

Based on the logic of mutual competition between cravings and odours for limited-capacity resources, this study investigated whether a simple olfactory task, involving a brief odour exposure, could reduce food cravings. In support, Experiment 1 showed that smelling a neutral unfamiliar odorant reduced cravings for highly desired food items, relative to a comparison auditory task and a no-task control condition. Experiment 2 replicated these findings specifically for chocolate cravings, which can be particularly problematic. Thus olfactory stimulation offers potential scope for curbing unwanted food cravings.

Key steps in developing a cognitive vaccine against traumatic flashbacks: visuospatial Tetris versus verbal Pub Quiz

BACKGROUND

Flashbacks (intrusive memories of a traumatic event) are the hallmark feature of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, however preventative interventions are lacking. Tetris may offer a 'cognitive vaccine' [1] against flashback development after trauma exposure. We previously reported that playing the computer game Tetris soon after viewing traumatic material reduced flashbacks compared to no-task [1]. However, two criticisms need to be addressed for clinical translation: (1) Would all games have this effect via distraction/enjoyment, or might some games even be harmful? (2) Would effects be found if administered several hours post-trauma? Accordingly, we tested Tetris versus an alternative computer game--Pub Quiz--which we hypothesized not to be helpful (Experiments 1 and 2), and extended the intervention interval to 4 hours (Experiment 2).

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The trauma film paradigm was used as an experimental analog for flashback development in healthy volunteers. In both experiments, participants viewed traumatic film footage of death and injury before completing one of the following: (1) no-task control condition (2) Tetris or (3) Pub Quiz. Flashbacks were monitored for 1 week. Experiment 1: 30 min after the traumatic film, playing Tetris led to a significant reduction in flashbacks compared to no-task control, whereas Pub Quiz led to a significant increase in flashbacks. Experiment 2: 4 hours post-film, playing Tetris led to a significant reduction in flashbacks compared to no-task control, whereas Pub Quiz did not.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

First, computer games can have differential effects post-trauma, as predicted by a cognitive science formulation of trauma memory. In both Experiments, playing Tetris post-trauma film reduced flashbacks. Pub Quiz did not have this effect, even increasing flashbacks in Experiment 1. Thus not all computer games are beneficial or merely distracting post-trauma - some may be harmful. Second, the beneficial effects of Tetris are retained at 4 hours post-trauma. Clinically, this delivers a feasible time-window to administer a post-trauma "cognitive vaccine".

A Cognitive Experimental Approach to Understanding and Reducing Food Cravings

Food cravings are a common everyday experience. Yet, they can pose significant health risks for some people. Following initial investigations into the phenomenology, antecedents, and consequences of food cravings, recent scientific interest has turned to the underpinnings of the actual craving experience. In this article, we outline a conceptual framework for studying food cravings that is grounded in cognitive experimental psychology and describe our corresponding program of research. In particular, we present converging evidence from a number of seemingly disparate lines of research into the cognitive processes that underlie food cravings with a view to developing a craving-reduction technique.

Visuospatial tasks suppress craving for cigarettes

The Elaborated Intrusion (EI) theory of desire posits that visual imagery plays a key role in craving. We report a series of experiments testing this hypothesis in a drug addiction context. Experiment 1 showed that a mental visual imagery task with neutral content reduced cigarette craving in abstaining smokers, but that an equivalent auditory task did not. The effect of visual imagery was replicated in Experiment 2, which also showed comparable effects of non-imagery visual working memory interference. Experiment 3 showed that the benefit of visual over auditory interference was not dependent upon imagery being used to induce craving. Experiment 4 compared a visuomotor task, making shapes from modeling clay, with a verbal task (counting back from 100), and again showed a benefit of the visual over the non-visual task. We conclude that visual imagery supports craving for cigarettes. Competing imagery or visual working memory tasks may help tackle craving in smokers trying to quit.

Visuospatial working memory interference with recollections of trauma

OBJECTIVES

Laboratory research using a working memory framework has shown modality-specific reductions in image vividness and emotionality when concurrent tasks are performed while maintaining the image in consciousness. We extended this research to trauma images in a clinical population awaiting treatment for post-traumatic stress symptoms.

DESIGN

A within-subjects design was used, with each participant completing an imagery task under three concurrent task conditions: side-to-side eye-movements, counting, and exposure only (no concurrent task).

METHODS

Eighteen participants selected three images each, the images being those that were the most distressing from participants' trauma memories and most likely to intrude involuntarily. Participants gave baseline ratings of the vividness and emotionality of each of their trauma images. Each image was assigned to a condition. Each condition comprised 8 trials in which participants recollected the appropriate image for 8 s while performing eye-movements, counting or no concurrent task, and then rated its vividness and emotionality. Follow-up ratings were obtained by telephone 1 week later.

RESULTS

The eye-movement task reduced vividness and emotionality of the trauma images relative to the counting task and exposure only, but did so only during the imagery period and not at follow-up. The images were predominantly visual.

CONCLUSIONS

Concurrent tasks matched to the modality of trauma images may provide a useful treatment aid for temporarily dampening emotional responses to recollections of trauma.

Can playing the computer game "Tetris" reduce the build-up of flashbacks for trauma? A proposal from cognitive science

BACKGROUND

Flashbacks are the hallmark symptom of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Although we have successful treatments for full-blown PTSD, early interventions are lacking. We propose the utility of developing a 'cognitive vaccine' to prevent PTSD flashback development following exposure to trauma. Our theory is based on two key findings: 1) Cognitive science suggests that the brain has selective resources with limited capacity; 2) The neurobiology of memory suggests a 6-hr window to disrupt memory consolidation. The rationale for a 'cognitive vaccine' approach is as follows: Trauma flashbacks are sensory-perceptual, visuospatial mental images. Visuospatial cognitive tasks selectively compete for resources required to generate mental images. Thus, a visuospatial computer game (e.g. "Tetris") will interfere with flashbacks. Visuospatial tasks post-trauma, performed within the time window for memory consolidation, will reduce subsequent flashbacks. We predicted that playing "Tetris" half an hour after viewing trauma would reduce flashback frequency over 1-week.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The Trauma Film paradigm was used as a well-established experimental analog for Post-traumatic Stress. All participants viewed a traumatic film consisting of scenes of real injury and death followed by a 30-min structured break. Participants were then randomly allocated to either a no-task or visuospatial ("Tetris") condition which they undertook for 10-min. Flashbacks were monitored for 1-week. Results indicated that compared to the no-task condition, the "Tetris" condition produced a significant reduction in flashback frequency over 1-week. Convergent results were found on a clinical measure of PTSD symptomatology at 1-week. Recognition memory between groups did not differ significantly.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Playing "Tetris" after viewing traumatic material reduces unwanted, involuntary memory flashbacks to that traumatic film, leaving deliberate memory recall of the event intact. Pathological aspects of human memory in the aftermath of trauma may be malleable using non-invasive, cognitive interventions. This has implications for a novel avenue of preventative treatment development, much-needed as a crisis intervention for the aftermath of traumatic events.

Concurrent visuo-spatial processing reduces food cravings in prescribed weight-loss dieters

The study investigated the relative effectiveness of thought suppression and the working memory-based method of dynamic visual noise as techniques for reducing food cravings. Twenty dieting women on the weight-loss programme prescribed by weight watchers and 20 non-dieting controls formed images of their most craved food and then suppressed thoughts of the food or watched a flickering pattern of black and white dots (dynamic visual noise). Both thought suppression and dynamic visual noise reduced cravings for weight watchers and non-dieters. However, their relative effectiveness varied according to participant dieting status. Specifically, while both techniques reduced cravings equally well for non-dieters, dynamic visual noise was clearly the more effective technique for weight watchers. Thus, dynamic visual noise may provide a useful tool for controlling problematic cravings in clinically overweight or obese individuals who are actively trying to lose weight.

Inducing and modulating intrusive emotional memories: a review of the trauma film paradigm

Highly affect-laden memory intrusions are a feature of several psychological disorders with intrusive images of trauma especially associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The trauma film paradigm provides a prospective experimental tool for investigating analogue peri-traumatic cognitive mechanisms underlying intrusion development. We review several historical papers and some more recent key studies that have used the trauma film paradigm. A heuristic diagram is presented, designed to simplify predictions about analogue peri-traumatic processing and intrusion development, which can also be related to the processing elements of recent cognitive models of PTSD. Results show intrusions can be induced in the laboratory and their frequency amplified/attenuated in line with predictions. Successful manipulations include competing task type (visuospatial vs. verbal) and use of a cognitive coping strategy. Studies show that spontaneous peri-traumatic dissociation also affects intrusion frequency although attempts to manipulate dissociation have failed. It is hoped that further use of this paradigm may lead to prophylactic training for at risk groups and an improved understanding of intrusions across psychopathologies.

Reduction of vividness and associated craving in personalized food imagery

This study aimed to extend recent experimental work on the efficacy of visuo-spatial working memory-based techniques for reducing food cravings by adopting a more naturalistic methodology. Fifty undergraduate women formed images of their favorite foods while performing a visuo-spatial task across six successive trials. Vividness and craving intensity were rated for each food image. Concurrent visuo-spatial processing reduced the vividness of, and craving reactivity to, personally relevant food images. Forehead tracking, a novel self-administered task, proved to be as effective in reducing vividness and craving ratings as the established visuo-spatial working memory laboratory tasks of eye movements, dynamic visual noise, and spatial tapping, and thus presents a simple, accessible technique potentially applicable in the home environment. All four tasks maintained their reducing effect over multiple trials. Individual differences in imaging ability and habitual food craving did not impact upon their effectiveness, indicating that visuo-spatial tasks can be successfully used to reduce food cravings across a range of people.

Effects of hunger and visuo-spatial interference on imagery-induced food cravings

The present study investigated the effects of hunger and visuo-spatial interference on imagery-induced food cravings. Forty-two women were randomly assigned to a hungry (no food for prior 4h) or not hungry condition. Participants were asked to form and maintain images of desired foods while looking at a blank computer screen (control condition) or performing a task designed to load the visuo-spatial sketchpad of working memory (dynamic visual noise). They then rated the vividness of their images and their craving intensity. Although hungry participants reported stronger food cravings, dynamic visual noise made images less vivid and cravings less intense, irrespective of participant hunger status. Thus concurrent visuo-spatial processing may offer a useful technique for treating problematic food cravings that are predominantly psychological in origin, as well as those that are hunger-driven.

The phenomenology of food cravings: The role of mental imagery

The study aimed to investigate the role of mental imagery in the experience of food cravings. A sample of 130 undergraduate students was first asked to recall and rate a previous food craving experience. Second, they were asked to imagine themselves eating their favourite food and to rate the involvement of different sensory modalities. It was found that mental imagery was a key element in both the retrospective craving experience and the current food induction. In particular, craving intensity was related to the vividness of the food image (r = .46). The specific sensory modalities most involved were visual (39.7%) and gustatory (30.6%), followed by olfactory (15.8%). There was little involvement of auditory or tactile modalities. It was concluded that cognitive experimental techniques aimed at reducing the vividness of visual, gustatory or olfactory imagery, might usefully be deployed to reduce unwanted food cravings.

Chocolate cravings are susceptible to visuo-spatial interference

The study investigated the specificity of visuo-spatial working memory-based techniques as a means to reduce chocolate cravings. Twenty-four self-identified chocolate cravers and 24 non-cravers formed and maintained images of chocolate-containing foods elicited by pictures, while performing a visuo-spatial task (loading the visuo-spatial sketch pad) or an auditory task (loading the phonological loop). Vividness and craving intensity were rated for each image. Concurrent visuo-spatial processing was found to render chocolate images significantly less vivid and cravings less intense compared to concurrent verbal processing, for both cravers and non-cravers. Chocolate cravers did, however, report higher levels of chocolate craving and intake than non-cravers. It was concluded that visuo-spatial tasks provide an effective craving reduction mechanism for the management of chocolate cravings. Such techniques may be particularly useful in populations for whom eating problems are triggered by chocolate craving.

Imaginary Relish and Exquisite Torture: The Elaborated Intrusion Theory of Desire

The authors argue that human desire involves conscious cognition that has strong affective connotation and is potentially involved in the determination of appetitive behavior rather than being epiphenomenal to it. Intrusive thoughts about appetitive targets are triggered automatically by external or physiological cues and by cognitive associates. When intrusions elicit significant pleasure or relief, cognitive elaboration usually ensues. Elaboration competes with concurrent cognitive tasks through retrieval of target-related information and its retention in working memory. Sensory images are especially important products of intrusion and elaboration because they simulate the sensory and emotional qualities of target acquisition. Desire images are momentarily rewarding but amplify awareness of somatic and emotional deficits. Effects of desires on behavior are moderated by competing incentives, target availability, and skills. The theory provides a coherent account of existing data and suggests new directions for research and treatment.