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Zhang Y, Gao H, Cai Z, Zhang J, Müller C. Global patterns of soil available N production by mineralization-immobilization turnover in the tropical forest ecosystems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 908:168194. [PMID: 37918753 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Available N (Navail) is important to nurish plant-microbial system and sequestrate carbon (C) in terrestrial ecosystems. For forest ecosystem, Navail is usually calculated as the sum of N2 fixation (NN2-fixed), N deposition (Ndeposition) and soil available N production (Navail-soil), in which Navail-soil determined the Navail production and its temporal changes. While, there is still a lack of Navail-soil estimation at the global and regional level due to the temporal and spatial variability of influencing factors, such as climate and soil physicochemical properties. By assembling a dataset of gross rates of soil N mineralization (GRmin), immobilization of ammonium (NH4+) (GRac) and nitrate (NO3-) (GRnc), as well as their corresponding geographic information, climate and main soil physicochemical properties, the Navail-soil produced from organic N (Norg) mineralization and inorganic N (Ninorg) immobilization turnover (MIT) was calculated via building a random forest (RF) model in global tropical forests. The results revealed a good fit between the observed and predicted GRmin (R2 = 0.76), GRac (R2 = 0.77) and GRnc (R2 = 0.67). We further estimated that the total mineralized N, immobilized NH4+ and NO3- was 23.97 (10.48-37.46), 17.98 (5.81-30.15) and 4.86 (1.46-8.26) Pg N year-1, respectively, leading to the total Navail-soil of 1.13 (-0.95-3.21) Pg N year-1. Referring to the reported average density of NN2-fixed and Ndeposition, the total NN2-fixed and Ndeposition was 0.03-0.05 and 0.01 Pg N year-1, respectively, by producting density and square meter of global tropic forest. Then the total Navail of global tropic forest ecosystem was 1.18 (-0.91-3.27) Pg N year-1 (Navail-soil + NN2-fixed + Ndeposition). According to the tight stoichiometric relationship between C and N in the production of gross primary productivity (GPP) and soil respiration (Rs), C:N ratio of 31.8-41.9 and 22.7-48.2 was calculated, respectively, which all fall into the C:N ratio range of plants and litter (13.9-75.9) in tropical forest ecosystem. These results confirmed the prediction of Navail-soil production from MIT was in line with theoretic estimates by applying RF machine learning. To our knowledge, this is the first estimation of Navail-soil and the results provide the theoretical basis to evaluate soil C sequestration potential in tropical (e.g. southern America, southeast Asia and Africa) forest ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hong Gao
- Faculty of Geomatics, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Zucong Cai
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jinbo Zhang
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China; Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Germany.
| | - Christoph Müller
- Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Germany; Institute of Plant Ecology, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392 Giessen, Germany; School of Biology and Environmental Science and Earth Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
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2
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Elrys AS, Abo El-Maati MF, Dan X, Wen Y, Mou J, Abdelghany AE, Uwiragiye Y, Shuirong T, Yanzheng W, Meng L, Zhang J, Müller C. Aridity creates global thresholds in soil nitrogen retention and availability. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2024; 30:e17003. [PMID: 37943245 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.17003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Identifying tipping points in the relationship between aridity and gross nitrogen (N) cycling rates could show critical vulnerabilities of terrestrial ecosystems to climate change. Yet, the global pattern of gross N cycling response to aridity across terrestrial ecosystems remains unknown. Here, we collected 14,144 observations from 451 15 N-labeled studies and used segmented regression to identify the global threshold responses of soil gross N cycling rates and soil process-related variables to aridity index (AI), which decreases as aridity increases. We found on a global scale that increasing aridity reduced soil gross nitrate consumption but increased soil nitrification capacity, mainly due to reduced soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and N (MBN) and increased soil pH. Threshold response of gross N production and retention to aridity was observed across terrestrial ecosystems. In croplands, gross nitrification and extractable nitrate were inhibited with increasing aridity below the threshold AI ~0.8-0.9 due to inhibited ammonia-oxidizing archaea and bacteria, while the opposite was favored above this threshold. In grasslands, gross N mineralization and immobilization decreased with increasing aridity below the threshold AI ~0.5 due to decreased MBN, but the opposite was true above this threshold. In forests, increased aridity stimulated nitrate immobilization below the threshold AI ~1.0 due to increased soil C/N ratio, but inhibited ammonium immobilization above the threshold AI ~1.3 due to decreased soil total N and increased MBC/MBN ratio. Soil dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium decreased with increasing aridity globally and in forests when the threshold AI ~1.4 was passed. Overall, we suggest that any projected increase in aridity in response to climate change is likely to reduce plant N availability in arid regions while enhancing it in humid regions, affecting the provision of ecosystem services and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed S Elrys
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
- Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
- Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Mohamed F Abo El-Maati
- Agriculture Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Xiaoqian Dan
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - YuHong Wen
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Jinxia Mou
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Ahmed Elsayed Abdelghany
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semiarid, Areas of Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
- Water Relation and Field Irrigation Department, Agriculture and Biological Institute, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Yves Uwiragiye
- Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Environmental Management and Renewable Energy, University of Technology and Arts of Byumba, Byumba, Rwanda
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tang Shuirong
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Wu Yanzheng
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Lei Meng
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - JinBo Zhang
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
- Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Christoph Müller
- Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
- Institute of Plant Ecology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- School of Biology and Environmental Science and Earth Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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3
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Elrys AS, Zhu Q, Jiang C, Liu J, Sobhy HHH, Shen Q, Uwiragiye Y, Wu Y, El-Tarabily KA, Meng L, Müller C, Zhang J. Global soil nitrogen cycle pattern and nitrogen enrichment effects: Tropical versus subtropical forests. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2023; 29:1905-1921. [PMID: 36660889 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Tropical and subtropical forest biomes are a main hotspot for the global nitrogen (N) cycle. Yet, our understanding of global soil N cycle patterns and drivers and their response to N deposition in these biomes remains elusive. By a meta-analysis of 2426-single and 161-paired observations from 89 published 15 N pool dilution and tracing studies, we found that gross N mineralization (GNM), immobilization of ammonium ( I NH 4 ) and nitrate ( I NO 3 ), and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) were significantly higher in tropical forests than in subtropical forests. Soil N cycle was conservative in tropical forests with ratios of gross nitrification (GN) to I NH 4 (GN/ I NH 4 ) and of soil nitrate to ammonium (NO3 - /NH4 + ) less than one, but was leaky in subtropical forests with GN/ I NH 4 and NO3 - /NH4 + higher than one. Soil NH4 + dynamics were mainly controlled by soil substrate (e.g., total N), but climatic factors (e.g., precipitation and/or temperature) were more important in controlling soil NO3 - dynamics. Soil texture played a role, as GNM and I NH 4 were positively correlated with silt and clay contents, while I NO 3 and DNRA were positively correlated with sand and clay contents, respectively. The soil N cycle was more sensitive to N deposition in tropical forests than in subtropical forests. Nitrogen deposition leads to a leaky N cycle in tropical forests, as evidenced by the increase in GN/ I NH 4 , NO3 - /NH4 + , and nitrous oxide emissions and the decrease in I NO 3 and DNRA, mainly due to the decrease in soil microbial biomass and pH. Dominant tree species can also influence soil N cycle pattern, which has changed from conservative in deciduous forests to leaky in coniferous forests. We provide global evidence that tropical, but not subtropical, forests are characterized by soil N dynamics sustaining N availability and that N deposition inhibits soil N retention and stimulates N losses in these biomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed S Elrys
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
- Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
- Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - QiLin Zhu
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Chunlan Jiang
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Juan Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Hamida H H Sobhy
- Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Qunli Shen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Microbiome Engineering, Institute for Advanced Study, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yves Uwiragiye
- Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Environmental Management and Renewable Energy, University of Technology and Arts of Byumba, Byumba, Rwanda
| | - Yanzheng Wu
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Khaled A El-Tarabily
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
- Khalifa Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Australia
| | - Lei Meng
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Christoph Müller
- Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
- Institute of Plant Ecology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- School of Biology and Environmental Science and Earth Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Jinbo Zhang
- College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
- Liebig Centre for Agroecology and Climate Impact Research, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
- School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
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4
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Goll DS, Bauters M, Zhang H, Ciais P, Balkanski Y, Wang R, Verbeeck H. Atmospheric phosphorus deposition amplifies carbon sinks in simulations of a tropical forest in Central Africa. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 237:2054-2068. [PMID: 36226674 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Spatial redistribution of nutrients by atmospheric transport and deposition could theoretically act as a continental-scale mechanism which counteracts declines in soil fertility caused by nutrient lock-up in accumulating biomass in tropical forests in Central Africa. However, to what extent it affects carbon sinks in forests remains elusive. Here we use a terrestrial biosphere model to quantify the impact of changes in atmospheric nitrogen and phosphorus deposition on plant nutrition and biomass carbon sink at a typical lowland forest site in Central Africa. We find that the increase in nutrient deposition since the 1980s could have contributed to the carbon sink over the past four decades up to an extent which is similar to that from the combined effects of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and climate change. Furthermore, we find that the modelled carbon sink responds to changes in phosphorus deposition, but less so to nitrogen deposition. The pronounced response of ecosystem productivity to changes in nutrient deposition illustrates a potential mechanism that could control carbon sinks in Central Africa. Monitoring the quantity and quality of nutrient deposition is needed in this region, given the changes in nutrient deposition due to human land use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Goll
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives, CNRS, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin, Université Paris Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91190, France
| | - Marijn Bauters
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory-ISOFYS, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
- Department of Environment, Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology - CAVElab, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Haicheng Zhang
- Department Geoscience, Environment & Society, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, 1050, Belgium
| | - Philippe Ciais
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives, CNRS, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin, Université Paris Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91190, France
| | - Yves Balkanski
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives, CNRS, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin, Université Paris Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91190, France
| | - Rong Wang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Integrated Research on Disaster Risk International Center of Excellence on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Center for Urban Eco-Planning & Design, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Big Data Institute for Carbon Emission and Environmental Pollution, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Hans Verbeeck
- Department of Environment, Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology - CAVElab, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
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5
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Global distribution and climate sensitivity of the tropical montane forest nitrogen cycle. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7364. [PMID: 36450741 PMCID: PMC9712492 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35170-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Tropical forests are pivotal to global climate and biogeochemical cycles, yet the geographic distribution of nutrient limitation to plants and microbes across the biome is unresolved. One long-standing generalization is that tropical montane forests are nitrogen (N)-limited whereas lowland forests tend to be N-rich. However, empirical tests of this hypothesis have yielded equivocal results. Here we evaluate the topographic signature of the ecosystem-level tropical N cycle by examining climatic and geophysical controls of surface soil N content and stable isotopes (δ15N) from elevational gradients distributed across tropical mountains globally. We document steep increases in soil N concentration and declining δ15N with increasing elevation, consistent with decreased microbial N processing and lower gaseous N losses. Temperature explained much of the change in N, with an apparent temperature sensitivity (Q10) of ~1.9. Although montane forests make up 11% of forested tropical land area, we estimate they account for >17% of the global tropical forest soil N pool. Our findings support the existence of widespread microbial N limitation across tropical montane forest ecosystems and high sensitivity to climate warming.
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6
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Harris E, Yu L, Wang YP, Mohn J, Henne S, Bai E, Barthel M, Bauters M, Boeckx P, Dorich C, Farrell M, Krummel PB, Loh ZM, Reichstein M, Six J, Steinbacher M, Wells NS, Bahn M, Rayner P. Warming and redistribution of nitrogen inputs drive an increase in terrestrial nitrous oxide emission factor. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4310. [PMID: 35879348 PMCID: PMC9314393 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32001-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic nitrogen inputs cause major negative environmental impacts, including emissions of the important greenhouse gas N2O. Despite their importance, shifts in terrestrial N loss pathways driven by global change are highly uncertain. Here we present a coupled soil-atmosphere isotope model (IsoTONE) to quantify terrestrial N losses and N2O emission factors from 1850-2020. We find that N inputs from atmospheric deposition caused 51% of anthropogenic N2O emissions from soils in 2020. The mean effective global emission factor for N2O was 4.3 ± 0.3% in 2020 (weighted by N inputs), much higher than the surface area-weighted mean (1.1 ± 0.1%). Climate change and spatial redistribution of fertilisation N inputs have driven an increase in global emission factor over the past century, which accounts for 18% of the anthropogenic soil flux in 2020. Predicted increases in fertilisation in emerging economies will accelerate N2O-driven climate warming in coming decades, unless targeted mitigation measures are introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Harris
- Swiss Data Science Centre, ETH Zurich, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Functional Ecology Research Group, Institute of Ecology, University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - L Yu
- Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School (SIGS), Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
- Laboratory for Air Pollution & Environmental Technology, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, 8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Y-P Wang
- Climate Science Centre, CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Aspendale, VIC, 3195, Australia
| | - J Mohn
- Laboratory for Air Pollution & Environmental Technology, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, 8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - S Henne
- Laboratory for Air Pollution & Environmental Technology, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, 8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - E Bai
- Key Laboratory of Geographical Processes and Ecological Security of Changbai Mountains, Ministry of Education, School of Geographical Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130024, China
| | - M Barthel
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - M Bauters
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory - ISOFYS, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - P Boeckx
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory - ISOFYS, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - C Dorich
- Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 80523, CO, USA
| | - M Farrell
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Locked bag 2, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - P B Krummel
- Climate Science Centre, CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Aspendale, VIC, 3195, Australia
| | - Z M Loh
- Climate Science Centre, CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, Aspendale, VIC, 3195, Australia
| | - M Reichstein
- Department of Biogeochemical Integration, Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany
| | - J Six
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - M Steinbacher
- Laboratory for Air Pollution & Environmental Technology, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, 8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - N S Wells
- Centre for Coastal Biogeochemistry, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, 2480, Australia
- Department of Soil and Physical Sciences, Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln, 7647, New Zealand
| | - M Bahn
- Functional Ecology Research Group, Institute of Ecology, University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - P Rayner
- School of Geography, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
- Melbourne Climate Futures Climate and Energy College, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
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7
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Substantial Organic and Particulate Nitrogen and Phosphorus Export from Geomorphologically Stable African Tropical Forest Landscapes. Ecosystems 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-022-00773-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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8
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Bauters M, Grau O, Doetterl S, Heineman KD, Dalling JW, Prada CM, Griepentrog M, Malhi Y, Riutta T, Scalon M, Oliveras I, Inagawa T, Majalap N, Beeckman H, Van den Bulcke J, Perring MP, Dourdain A, Hérault B, Vermeir P, Makelele IA, Fernández PR, Sardans J, Peñuelas J, Janssens IA. Tropical wood stores substantial amounts of nutrients, but we have limited understanding why. Biotropica 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.13069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marijn Bauters
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory – ISOFYS Department of Green Chemistry and Technology Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent University Gent Belgium
- Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology – CAVElab Department of Environment Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent University Gent Belgium
- Research Group of Plants and Ecosystems (PLECO) Department of Biology University of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Oriol Grau
- CSIC Global Ecology Unit CREAF‐CSIC‐UAB Bellaterra Catalonia Spain
- CREAF Cerdanyola Catalonia Spain
| | - Sebastian Doetterl
- Soil Resources Department of Environmental Systems Science ETH Zurich Zurich Switzerland
| | - Katherine D. Heineman
- Center for Plant Conservation Escondido California USA
- San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research Escondido California USA
| | - James W. Dalling
- Department of Plant Biology and Program for Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Balboa Ancon Panama
| | - Cecilia M. Prada
- Department of Plant Biology and Program for Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
| | - Marco Griepentrog
- Soil Resources Department of Environmental Systems Science ETH Zurich Zurich Switzerland
- Biogeoscience Department of Earth Sciences ETH Zurich Zurich Switzerland
| | - Yadvinder Malhi
- Environmental Change Institute School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford UK
| | - Terhi Riutta
- Environmental Change Institute School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford UK
| | - Marina Scalon
- Environmental Change Institute School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford UK
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação Universidade Federal do Paraná Curitiba Brazil
| | - Imma Oliveras
- Environmental Change Institute School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford UK
| | - Takeshi Inagawa
- Environmental Change Institute School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford UK
| | - Noreen Majalap
- Sabah Forestry Department Forest Research Centre Sabah Malaysia
| | | | - Jan Van den Bulcke
- UGent‐Woodlab ‐ Laboratory of Wood Technology Department of Environment Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent University Gent Belgium
| | - Michael P. Perring
- Forest & Nature Lab Department of Environment Ghent University Melle‐Gontrode Belgium
- Ecosystem Restoration and Intervention Ecology Research Group School of Biological Sciences The University of Western Australia Crawley Western Australia Australia
- UKCEH (UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Environment Centre Wales Bangor Gwynedd UK
| | - Aurélie Dourdain
- CIRAD UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane Kourou French Guiana France
| | - Bruno Hérault
- CIRAD UPR Forêts et Sociétés Yamoussoukro Côte d’Ivoire
- Forêts et Sociétés Univ Montpellier, CIRAD Montpellier France
- Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët‐Boigny, INP‐HB Yamoussoukro Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Pieter Vermeir
- Laboratory for Chemical Analyses – LCA Department of Green Chemistry and Technology Ghent University Ghent Belgium
| | - Isaac A. Makelele
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory – ISOFYS Department of Green Chemistry and Technology Faculty of Bioscience Engineering Ghent University Gent Belgium
| | - Pere R. Fernández
- CSIC Global Ecology Unit CREAF‐CSIC‐UAB Bellaterra Catalonia Spain
- CREAF Cerdanyola Catalonia Spain
| | - Jordi Sardans
- CSIC Global Ecology Unit CREAF‐CSIC‐UAB Bellaterra Catalonia Spain
- CREAF Cerdanyola Catalonia Spain
| | - Josep Peñuelas
- CSIC Global Ecology Unit CREAF‐CSIC‐UAB Bellaterra Catalonia Spain
- CREAF Cerdanyola Catalonia Spain
| | - Ivan A. Janssens
- Research Group of Plants and Ecosystems (PLECO) Department of Biology University of Antwerp Wilrijk Belgium
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9
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Low N 2O and variable CH 4 fluxes from tropical forest soils of the Congo Basin. Nat Commun 2022; 13:330. [PMID: 35039512 PMCID: PMC8764088 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-27978-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Globally, tropical forests are assumed to be an important source of atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O) and sink for methane (CH4). Yet, although the Congo Basin comprises the second largest tropical forest and is considered the most pristine large basin left on Earth, in situ N2O and CH4 flux measurements are scarce. Here, we provide multi-year data derived from on-ground soil flux (n = 1558) and riverine dissolved gas concentration (n = 332) measurements spanning montane, swamp, and lowland forests. Each forest type core monitoring site was sampled at least for one hydrological year between 2016 - 2020 at a frequency of 7-14 days. We estimate a terrestrial CH4 uptake (in kg CH4-C ha−1 yr−1) for montane (−4.28) and lowland forests (−3.52) and a massive CH4 release from swamp forests (non-inundated 2.68; inundated 341). All investigated forest types were a N2O source (except for inundated swamp forest) with 0.93, 1.56, 3.5, and −0.19 kg N2O-N ha−1 yr−1 for montane, lowland, non-inundated swamp, and inundated swamp forests, respectively. The Congo Basin is home to the second largest stretch of continuous tropical forest, but the magnitude of greenhouse fluxes are poorly understood. Here the authors analyze gas samples and find the region is not actually a hotspot of N2O emissions.
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10
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Gallarotti N, Barthel M, Verhoeven E, Pereira EIP, Bauters M, Baumgartner S, Drake TW, Boeckx P, Mohn J, Longepierre M, Mugula JK, Makelele IA, Ntaboba LC, Six J. In-depth analysis of N 2O fluxes in tropical forest soils of the Congo Basin combining isotope and functional gene analysis. THE ISME JOURNAL 2021; 15:3357-3374. [PMID: 34035444 PMCID: PMC8528805 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-021-01004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Primary tropical forests generally exhibit large gaseous nitrogen (N) losses, occurring as nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) or elemental nitrogen (N2). The release of N2O is of particular concern due to its high global warming potential and destruction of stratospheric ozone. Tropical forest soils are predicted to be among the largest natural sources of N2O; however, despite being the world's second-largest rainforest, measurements of gaseous N-losses from forest soils of the Congo Basin are scarce. In addition, long-term studies investigating N2O fluxes from different forest ecosystem types (lowland and montane forests) are scarce. In this study we show that fluxes measured in the Congo Basin were lower than fluxes measured in the Neotropics, and in the tropical forests of Australia and South East Asia. In addition, we show that despite different climatic conditions, average annual N2O fluxes in the Congo Basin's lowland forests (0.97 ± 0.53 kg N ha-1 year-1) were comparable to those in its montane forest (0.88 ± 0.97 kg N ha-1 year-1). Measurements of soil pore air N2O isotope data at multiple depths suggests that a microbial reduction of N2O to N2 within the soil may account for the observed low surface N2O fluxes and low soil pore N2O concentrations. The potential for microbial reduction is corroborated by a significant abundance and expression of the gene nosZ in soil samples from both study sites. Although isotopic and functional gene analyses indicate an enzymatic potential for complete denitrification, combined gaseous N-losses (N2O, N2) are unlikely to account for the missing N-sink in these forests. Other N-losses such as NO, N2 via Feammox or hydrological particulate organic nitrogen export could play an important role in soils of the Congo Basin and should be the focus of future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Gallarotti
- grid.5801.c0000 0001 2156 2780Department of Environmental Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matti Barthel
- grid.5801.c0000 0001 2156 2780Department of Environmental Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Elizabeth Verhoeven
- grid.4391.f0000 0001 2112 1969College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR USA
| | - Engil Isadora Pujol Pereira
- grid.449717.80000 0004 5374 269XSchool of Earth, Environmental, and Marine Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX USA
| | - Marijn Bauters
- grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Isotope Bioscience Laboratory, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium ,grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology Lab, Department of Environment, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Simon Baumgartner
- grid.5801.c0000 0001 2156 2780Department of Environmental Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ,grid.7942.80000 0001 2294 713XEarth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain, Belgium
| | - Travis W. Drake
- grid.5801.c0000 0001 2156 2780Department of Environmental Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Boeckx
- grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Isotope Bioscience Laboratory, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Joachim Mohn
- grid.7354.50000 0001 2331 3059Laboratory for Air Pollution/Environmental Technology, Swiss Federal Laboratories of Materials Science and Technology, Empa Dubendorf, Switzerland
| | - Manon Longepierre
- grid.5801.c0000 0001 2156 2780Department of Environmental Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - John Kalume Mugula
- grid.442836.f0000 0004 7477 7760Département de Biologie, Université Officielle de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Isaac Ahanamungu Makelele
- grid.442836.f0000 0004 7477 7760Département de Biologie, Université Officielle de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo ,grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Landry Cizungu Ntaboba
- grid.442834.d0000 0004 6011 4325Département d’ Agronomie, Université Catholique de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Johan Six
- grid.5801.c0000 0001 2156 2780Department of Environmental Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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11
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Mapping Canopy Heights in Dense Tropical Forests Using Low-Cost UAV-Derived Photogrammetric Point Clouds and Machine Learning Approaches. REMOTE SENSING 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/rs13183777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Tropical forests are a key component of the global carbon cycle and climate change mitigation. Field- or LiDAR-based approaches enable reliable measurements of the structure and above-ground biomass (AGB) of tropical forests. Data derived from digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) on the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platform offer several advantages over field- and LiDAR-based approaches in terms of scale and efficiency, and DAP has been presented as a viable and economical alternative in boreal or deciduous forests. However, detecting with DAP the ground in dense tropical forests, which is required for the estimation of canopy height, is currently considered highly challenging. To address this issue, we present a generally applicable method that is based on machine learning methods to identify the forest floor in DAP-derived point clouds of dense tropical forests. We capitalize on the DAP-derived high-resolution vertical forest structure to inform ground detection. We conducted UAV-DAP surveys combined with field inventories in the tropical forest of the Congo Basin. Using airborne LiDAR (ALS) for ground truthing, we present a canopy height model (CHM) generation workflow that constitutes the detection, classification and interpolation of ground points using a combination of local minima filters, supervised machine learning algorithms and TIN densification for classifying ground points using spectral and geometrical features from the UAV-based 3D data. We demonstrate that our DAP-based method provides estimates of tree heights that are identical to LiDAR-based approaches (conservatively estimated NSE = 0.88, RMSE = 1.6 m). An external validation shows that our method is capable of providing accurate and precise estimates of tree heights and AGB in dense tropical forests (DAP vs. field inventories of old forest: r2 = 0.913, RMSE = 31.93 Mg ha−1). Overall, this study demonstrates that the application of cheap and easily deployable UAV-DAP platforms can be deployed without expert knowledge to generate biophysical information and advance the study and monitoring of dense tropical forests.
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12
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Bauters M, Meeus S, Barthel M, Stoffelen P, De Deurwaerder HPT, Meunier F, Drake TW, Ponette Q, Ebuy J, Vermeir P, Beeckman H, Wyffels F, Bodé S, Verbeeck H, Vandelook F, Boeckx P. Century-long apparent decrease in intrinsic water-use efficiency with no evidence of progressive nutrient limitation in African tropical forests. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2020; 26:4449-4461. [PMID: 32364642 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Forests exhibit leaf- and ecosystem-level responses to environmental changes. Specifically, rising carbon dioxide (CO2 ) levels over the past century are expected to have increased the intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) of tropical trees while the ecosystem is gradually pushed into progressive nutrient limitation. Due to the long-term character of these changes, however, observational datasets to validate both paradigms are limited in space and time. In this study, we used a unique herbarium record to go back nearly a century and show that despite the rise in CO2 concentrations, iWUE has decreased in central African tropical trees in the Congo Basin. Although we find evidence that points to leaf-level adaptation to increasing CO2 -that is, increasing photosynthesis-related nutrients and decreasing maximum stomatal conductance, a decrease in leaf δ13 C clearly indicates a decreasing iWUE over time. Additionally, the stoichiometric carbon to nitrogen and nitrogen to phosphorus ratios in the leaves show no sign of progressive nutrient limitation as they have remained constant since 1938, which suggests that nutrients have not increasingly limited productivity in this biome. Altogether, the data suggest that other environmental factors, such as increasing temperature, might have negatively affected net photosynthesis and consequently downregulated the iWUE. Results from this study reveal that the second largest tropical forest on Earth has responded differently to recent environmental changes than expected, highlighting the need for further on-ground monitoring in the Congo Basin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marijn Bauters
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory - ISOFYS, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
- Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology - CAVElab, Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | | | - Matti Barthel
- Sustainable Agroecosystems, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Hannes P T De Deurwaerder
- Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology - CAVElab, Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Félicien Meunier
- Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology - CAVElab, Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Travis W Drake
- Sustainable Agroecosystems, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Quentin Ponette
- UCL-ELI, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Jerôme Ebuy
- UCL-ELI, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Université de Kisangani (UNIKIS/FGRNR), Kisangani, République Démocratique du Congo
| | - Pieter Vermeir
- Laboratory for Chemical Analyses - LCA, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Francis Wyffels
- AIRO, Electronics and Information Systems Department, Ghent University-Imec, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Samuel Bodé
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory - ISOFYS, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Hans Verbeeck
- Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology - CAVElab, Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | | | - Pascal Boeckx
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory - ISOFYS, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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13
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Mumbanza FM, Bauters M, Kearsley E, Boeckx P, Lubini CA, Verbeeck H. Liana communities exhibit different species composition, diversity and community structure across forest types in the Congo Basin. Biotropica 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francis M. Mumbanza
- Department of Environment, Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology CAVElab Ghent University Gent Belgium
- Laboratoire de Systémique, Biodiversité, Conservation de la Nature et Savoirs Endogènes Département des Sciences de l'Environnement Université de Kinshasa Kinshasa Congo
| | - Marijn Bauters
- Department of Environment, Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology CAVElab Ghent University Gent Belgium
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory ISOFYS Department of Green Chemistry and Technology Ghent University Gent Belgium
| | - Elizabeth Kearsley
- Department of Environment, Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology CAVElab Ghent University Gent Belgium
| | - Pascal Boeckx
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory ISOFYS Department of Green Chemistry and Technology Ghent University Gent Belgium
| | - Constantin A. Lubini
- Laboratoire de Systémique, Biodiversité, Conservation de la Nature et Savoirs Endogènes Département des Sciences de l'Environnement Université de Kinshasa Kinshasa Congo
| | - Hans Verbeeck
- Department of Environment, Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology CAVElab Ghent University Gent Belgium
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14
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Geng S, Chen Z, Ma S, Feng Y, Zhang L, Zhang J, Han S. Throughfall reduction diminished the enhancing effect of N addition on soil N leaching loss in an old, temperate forest. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 261:114090. [PMID: 32062460 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Soil nitrogen (N) leaching is recognized to have negative effects on the environment. There is a lack of studies on different simultaneously occurring drivers of environmental change, including changing rainfall and N deposition, on soil N leaching. In this study, a two factorial field experiment was conducted in a Korean pine forest with the following four treatments: 30% of throughfall reduction (TR), 50 kg N ha-1 yr-1 of N addition (N+), throughfall reduction plus N addition (TRN+) and natural forest (CK). The zero-tension pan lysimeter method was used to assess the response of soil N leaching loss to manipulated N addition and throughfall reduction. The results showed that the soil N leaching loss in natural forest was 5.0 ± 0.4 kg N ha-1yr-1, of which dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) accounted for 48%. Compared to natural forest, six years of N addition (NH4NO3, 50 kg N ha-1 year-1) significantly (P < 0.05) increased soil N leaching losses by 122%, especially in the form of NO3-; a 30% reduction in throughfall slightly decreased N leaching losses by 23%; in combination, N addition and throughfall reduction increased N leaching losses by 48%. There was a strong interaction between N addition and throughfall reduction, which decreased N leaching loss by approximately 2.5 kg N ha-1 yr-1. Our results indicated that drought would diminish the enhancing effect of N deposition on soil N leaching. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating both N deposition and precipitation and their impacts on soil N leaching into future N budget assessments of forest ecosystems under global environmental change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shicong Geng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Zhijie Chen
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Global Change Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Shanshan Ma
- The Key Laboratory of Clean Combustion for Electricity Generation and Heat-Supply Technology, College of Energy and Power, Shenyang Institute of Engineering, Shenyang, 110136, China
| | - Yue Feng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Junhui Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China.
| | - Shijie Han
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Global Change Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, 475004, China
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15
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Bauters M, Vercleyen O, Vanlauwe B, Six J, Bonyoma B, Badjoko H, Hubau W, Hoyt A, Boudin M, Verbeeck H, Boeckx P. Long‐term recovery of the functional community assembly and carbon pools in an African tropical forest succession. Biotropica 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marijn Bauters
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory—ISOFYSDepartment of Green Chemistry and TechnologyFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent University Gent Belgium
- Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology—CAVElabDepartment of EnvironmentFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent University Gent Belgium
- Meise Botanic Garden, Domein Bouchout Meise Belgium
| | - Oscar Vercleyen
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory—ISOFYSDepartment of Green Chemistry and TechnologyFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent University Gent Belgium
| | - Bernard Vanlauwe
- Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research—CGIAR, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture–IITA Nairobi Kenya
| | - Johan Six
- Sustainable Agroecosystems GroupDepartment of Environmental Systems ScienceETH Zürich Zürich Switzerland
| | - Bernard Bonyoma
- Institut National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agronomique—INERA Yangambi Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Henri Badjoko
- Institut National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agronomique—INERA Yangambi Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Wannes Hubau
- Service of Wood BiologyRoyal Museum for Central Africa Tervuren Belgium
| | - Alison Hoyt
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry Jena Germany
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley California
| | | | - Hans Verbeeck
- Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology—CAVElabDepartment of EnvironmentFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent University Gent Belgium
| | - Pascal Boeckx
- Isotope Bioscience Laboratory—ISOFYSDepartment of Green Chemistry and TechnologyFaculty of Bioscience EngineeringGhent University Gent Belgium
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