1
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Mair KH, Stadler M, Razavi MA, Saalmüller A, Gerner W. Porcine Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Are Unique in Their Expression of a Functional NKp46 Receptor. Front Immunol 2022; 13:822258. [PMID: 35371050 PMCID: PMC8970115 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.822258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The activating receptor NKp46 shows a unique expression pattern on porcine leukocytes. We showed already that in swine not all NK cells express NKp46 and that CD3+NKp46+ lymphocytes form a T-cell subset with unique functional properties. Here we demonstrate the expression of NKp46 on CD4highCD14-CD172a+ porcine plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). Multicolor flow cytometry analyses revealed that the vast majority of porcine pDCs (94.2% ± 4) express NKp46 ex vivo and have an increased expression on the single-cell level compared to NK cells. FSC/SSChighCD4highNKp46+ cells produced high levels of IFN-α after CpG ODN 2216 stimulation, a hallmark of pDC function. Following receptor triggering with plate-bound monoclonal antibodies against NKp46, phosphorylation of signaling molecules downstream of NKp46 was analyzed in pDCs and NK cells. Comparable to NK cells, NKp46 triggering led to an upregulation of the phosphorylated ribosomal protein S6 (pS6) in pDCs, indicating an active signaling pathway of NKp46 in porcine pDCs. Nevertheless, a defined effector function of the NK-associated receptor on porcine pDCs could not be demonstrated yet. NKp46-mediated cytotoxicity, as shown for NK cells, does not seem to occur, as NKp46+ pDCs did not express perforin. Yet, NKp46 triggering seems to contribute to cytokine production in porcine pDCs, as induction of TNF-α was observed in a small pDC subset after NKp46 cross-linking. To our knowledge, this is the first report on NKp46 expression on pDCs in a mammalian species, showing that this receptor contributes to pDC activation and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin H. Mair
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Christian Doppler (CD) Laboratory for Optimized Prediction of Vaccination Success in Pigs, Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Kerstin H. Mair,
| | - Maria Stadler
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mahsa Adib Razavi
- Christian Doppler (CD) Laboratory for Optimized Prediction of Vaccination Success in Pigs, Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Armin Saalmüller
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wilhelm Gerner
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Christian Doppler (CD) Laboratory for Optimized Prediction of Vaccination Success in Pigs, Institute of Immunology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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2
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Delva JL, Van Waesberghe C, Klupp BG, Mettenleiter TC, Favoreel HW. Alphaherpesvirus-induced activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells depends on the viral glycoprotein gD and is inhibited by non-infectious light particles. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1010117. [PMID: 34843605 PMCID: PMC8659615 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are important innate immune cells during the onset of viral infections as they are specialized in the production of massive amounts of antiviral type I interferon (IFN). Alphaherpesviruses such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) or pseudorabies virus (PRV) are double stranded DNA viruses and potent stimulators of pDC. Detailed information on how PRV activates porcine pDC is lacking. Using PRV and porcine primary pDC, we report here that PRV virions, so-called heavy (H-)particles, trigger IFNα production by pDC, whereas light (L-) particles that lack viral DNA and capsid do not. Activation of pDC requires endosomal acidification and, importantly, depends on the PRV gD envelope glycoprotein and O-glycosylations. Intriguingly, both for PRV and HSV-1, we found that L-particles suppress H-particle-mediated activation of pDC, a process which again depends on viral gD. This is the first report describing that gD plays a critical role in alphaherpesvirus-induced pDC activation and that L-particles directly interfere with alphaherpesvirus-induced IFNα production by pDC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas L Delva
- Department of Virology, Parasitology, Immunology-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine-Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Cliff Van Waesberghe
- Department of Virology, Parasitology, Immunology-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine-Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Barbara G Klupp
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Herman W Favoreel
- Department of Virology, Parasitology, Immunology-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine-Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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3
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Li K, Wang C, Yang F, Cao W, Zhu Z, Zheng H. Virus-Host Interactions in Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Infection. Front Immunol 2021; 12:571509. [PMID: 33717061 PMCID: PMC7952751 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.571509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals, which has been regarded as a persistent challenge for the livestock industry in many countries. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the etiological agent of FMD that can spread rapidly by direct and indirect transmission. FMDV is internalized into host cell by the interaction between FMDV capsid proteins and cellular receptors. When the virus invades into the cells, the host antiviral system is quickly activated to suppress the replication of the virus and remove the virus. To retain fitness and host adaptation, various viruses have evolved multiple elegant strategies to manipulate host machine and circumvent the host antiviral responses. Therefore, identification of virus-host interactions is critical for understanding the host defense against virus infections and the pathogenesis of the viral infectious diseases. This review elaborates on the virus-host interactions during FMDV infection to summarize the pathogenic mechanisms of FMD, and we hope it can provide insights for designing effective vaccines or drugs to prevent and control the spread of FMD and other diseases caused by picornaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangli Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Congcong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Fan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Weijun Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Zixiang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Haixue Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
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4
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Rodríguez-Habibe I, Celis-Giraldo C, Patarroyo ME, Avendaño C, Patarroyo MA. A Comprehensive Review of the Immunological Response against Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Infection and Its Evasion Mechanisms. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8040764. [PMID: 33327628 PMCID: PMC7765147 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8040764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease, which has been reported for over 100 years, and against which the struggle has lasted for the same amount of time. It affects individuals from the order Artiodactyla, such as cattle, swine, sheep, wild animals from this order, and a few non-cloven hoofed species, such as mice and elephants. FMD causes large-scale economic losses for agricultural production systems; morbidity is almost 100% in an affected population, accompanied by a high mortality rate in young animals due to myocarditis or an inability to suckle if a mother is ill. The aetiological agent is an Aphthovirus from the family Picornaviridae, having seven serotypes: A, O, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3, and Asia 1. Serotype variability means that an immune response is serospecific and vaccines are thus designed to protect against each serotype independently. A host’s adaptive immune response is key in defence against pathogens; however, this virus uses successful strategies (along with most microorganisms) enabling it to evade a host’s immune system to rapidly and efficiently establish itself within such host, and thus remain there. This review has been aimed at an in-depth analysis of the immune response in cattle and swine regarding FMD virus, the possible evasion mechanisms used by the virus and describing some immunological differences regarding these species. Such aspects can provide pertinent knowledge for developing new FMD control and prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibett Rodríguez-Habibe
- Animal Science Faculty, Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales (U.D.C.A), Bogotá 111166, Colombia; (I.R.-H.); (C.C.-G.)
- Masters Programme in Veterinary Science, Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales (U.D.C.A), Bogotá 111166, Colombia
| | - Carmen Celis-Giraldo
- Animal Science Faculty, Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales (U.D.C.A), Bogotá 111166, Colombia; (I.R.-H.); (C.C.-G.)
| | - Manuel Elkin Patarroyo
- Fundación Instituto de Inmunología de Colombia (FIDIC), Bogotá 111321, Colombia;
- Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
| | - Catalina Avendaño
- Animal Science Faculty, Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales (U.D.C.A), Bogotá 111166, Colombia; (I.R.-H.); (C.C.-G.)
- Correspondence: (C.A.); (M.A.P.); Tel.: +57-6684-700 (C.A.); +57-1324-4672 (M.A.P.)
| | - Manuel Alfonso Patarroyo
- Fundación Instituto de Inmunología de Colombia (FIDIC), Bogotá 111321, Colombia;
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá 112111, Colombia
- Correspondence: (C.A.); (M.A.P.); Tel.: +57-6684-700 (C.A.); +57-1324-4672 (M.A.P.)
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5
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Ziraldo M, Bidart JE, Prato CA, Tribulatti MV, Zamorano P, Mattion N, D’Antuono AL. Optimized Adenoviral Vector That Enhances the Assembly of FMDV O1 Virus-Like Particles in situ Increases Its Potential as Vaccine for Serotype O Viruses. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:591019. [PMID: 33250878 PMCID: PMC7672010 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.591019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Although replication-defective human adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) vectors that express in situ the capsid-encoding region of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) have been proven to be effective as vaccines in relevant species for several viral strains, the same result was not consistently achieved for the O1/Campos/Brazil/58 strain. In the present study, an optimization of the Ad5 system was explored and was proven to enhance the expression of FMDV capsid proteins and their association into virus-like particles (VLPs). Particularly, we engineered a novel Ad5 vector (Ad5[PVP2]OP) which harbors the foreign transcription unit in a leftward orientation relative to the Ad5 genome, and drives the expression of the FMDV sequences from an optimized cytomegalovirus (CMV) enhancer-promoter as well. The Ad5[PVP2]OP vaccine candidate also contains the amino acid substitutions S93F/Y98F in the VP2 protein coding sequence, predicted to stabilize FMD virus particles. Cells infected with the optimized vector showed an ∼14-fold increase in protein expression as compared to cells infected with an unmodified Ad5 vector tested in previous works. Furthermore, amino acid substitutions in VP2 protein allowed the assembly of FMDV O1/Campos/Brazil/58 VLPs. Evaluation of several serological parameters in inoculated mice with the optimized Ad5[PVP2]OP candidate revealed an enhanced vaccine performance, characterized by significant higher titers of neutralizing antibodies, as compared to our previous unmodified Ad5 vector. Moreover, 94% of the mice vaccinated with the Ad5[PVP2]OP candidate were protected from homologous challenge. These results indicate that both the optimized protein expression and the stabilization of the in situ generated VLPs improved the performance of Ad5-vectored vaccines against the FMDV O1/Campos/Brazil/58 strain and open optimistic expectations to be tested in target animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaela Ziraldo
- Centro de Virología Animal, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan E. Bidart
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cecilia A. Prato
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María V. Tribulatti
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Patricia Zamorano
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nora Mattion
- Centro de Virología Animal, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alejandra L. D’Antuono
- Centro de Virología Animal, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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6
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Medina GN, de los Santos T, Diaz-San Segundo F. Use of IFN-Based Biotherapeutics to Harness the Host Against Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:465. [PMID: 32851039 PMCID: PMC7431487 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious vesicular disease of cloven-hoofed animals that severely constrains international trade of livestock and animal products. Currently, disease control measures include broad surveillance, enforcement of sanitary policy, and use of an inactivated vaccine. While use of these measures has contributed to eliminating foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) from a vast area of the world, the disease remains endemic in three continents, and outbreaks occasionally appear in previously declared FMD-free zones, causing economic and social devastation. Among others, a very fast rate of viral replication and the need for 7 days to achieve vaccine-induced protection are the main limitations in controlling the disease. New fast-acting antiviral strategies targeted to boost the innate immunity of the host to block viral replication are needed. Here we review the knowledge on the multiple strategies FMDV has evolved to block the host innate immunity, with particularly focus on the past and current research toward the development of interferon (IFN)-based biotherapeutics in relevant livestock species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisselle N. Medina
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), ARS, USDA, Orient Point, NY, United States
- Kansas State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Teresa de los Santos
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), ARS, USDA, Orient Point, NY, United States
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7
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8
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Medina GN, Segundo FDS, Stenfeldt C, Arzt J, de Los Santos T. The Different Tactics of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus to Evade Innate Immunity. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2644. [PMID: 30483224 PMCID: PMC6241212 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Like all pathogens, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is recognized by the immune system inducing a heightened immune response mainly mediated by type I and type III IFNs. To overcome the strong antiviral response induced by these cytokines, FMDV has evolved many strategies exploiting each region of its small RNA genome. These include: (a) inhibition of IFN induction at the transcriptional and translational level, (b) inhibition of protein trafficking; (c) blockage of specific post-translational modifications in proteins that regulate innate immune signaling; (d) modulation of autophagy; (e) inhibition of stress granule formation; and (f) in vivo modulation of immune cell function. Here, we summarize and discuss FMDV virulence factors and the host immune footprint that characterize infection in cell culture and in the natural hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisselle N Medina
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States.,Codagenix Inc., Farmingdale, NY, United States
| | - Fayna Díaz-San Segundo
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States.,Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Orient, NY, United States
| | - Carolina Stenfeldt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States.,Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States
| | - Teresa de Los Santos
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States
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9
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Ma XX, Ma LN, Chang QY, Ma P, Li LJ, Wang YY, Ma ZR, Cao X. Type I Interferon Induced and Antagonized by Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1862. [PMID: 30150977 PMCID: PMC6099088 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infections trigger the innate immune system, serving as the first line of defense, and are characterized by the production of type I interferon (IFN). Type I IFN is expressed in a broad spectrum of cells and tissues in the host and includes various subtypes (IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-δ, IFN-ε, IFN-κ, IFN-τ, IFN-ω, IFN-ν, and IFN-ζ). Since the discovery of type I IFN, our knowledge of the biology of type I IFN has accumulated immensely, and we now have a substantial amount of information on the molecular mechanisms of the response and induction of type I IFN, as well as the strategies utilized by viruses to evade the type I IFN response. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) can selectively alter cellular pathways to promote viral replication and evade antiviral immune activation of type I IFN. RNA molecules generated by FMDV are sensed by the cellular receptor for pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). FMDV preferentially activates different sensor molecules and various signal transduction pathways. Based on knowledge of the virus or RNA pathogen specificity as well as the function-structure relationship of RNA sensing, it is necessary to summarize numerous signaling adaptors that are reported to participate in the regulation of IFN gene activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Xia Ma
- Center for Biomedical Research, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Li-Na Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Qiu-Yan Chang
- Center for Biomedical Research, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Peng Ma
- Center for Biomedical Research, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Lin-Jie Li
- Center for Biomedical Research, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yue-Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Zhong-Ren Ma
- Center for Biomedical Research, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xin Cao
- Center for Biomedical Research, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
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10
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Abubakar M, Manzoor S, Ahmed A. Interplay of foot and mouth disease virus with cell-mediated and humoral immunity of host. Rev Med Virol 2017; 28. [PMID: 29282795 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes a communicable disease of cloven hoofed animals, resulting in major economic losses during disease outbreaks. Like other members of the Picornaviridae FMDV has a relatively short infectious cycle; initiation of infection and dissemination, with production of infectious virions occurs in less than a week. The components of innate immunity as well as cell-mediated and humoral immunity play a crucial role in control of FMDV. However, it has been shown in vitro using a mouse model that FMDV has evolved certain mechanisms to counteract host immune responses ensuring its survival and spread. The viral leader proteinase, L pro, deters interferon beta (IFN-β) mRNA synthesis, thus, inhibiting host cell translation. Another viral proteinase, 3C pro, disrupts host cell transcription by cleaving histone H3. A transient lymphopenia in swine as a consequence of FMDV infection has also been observed, but the mechanism involved and viral protein(s) associated with this process are not clearly understood. In this review, we have covered the interaction of FMDV with different immune cells including lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells and their consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Afshan Ahmed
- FAO FMD Project (GCP/PAK/123/USA), Islamabad, Pakistan
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11
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French MA, Tjiam MC, Abudulai LN, Fernandez S. Antiviral Functions of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1)-Specific IgG Antibodies: Effects of Antiretroviral Therapy and Implications for Therapeutic HIV-1 Vaccine Design. Front Immunol 2017; 8:780. [PMID: 28725225 PMCID: PMC5495868 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Contemporary antiretroviral therapy (ART) is effective and tolerable for long periods of time but cannot eradicate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection by either elimination of viral reservoirs or enhancement of HIV-1-specific immune responses. Boosting "protective" HIV-1-specific immune responses by active or passive immunization will therefore be necessary to control or eradicate HIV-1 infection and is currently the topic of intense investigation. Recently reported studies conducted in HIV patients and non-human primate (NHP) models of HIV-1 infection suggest that HIV-1-specific IgG antibody responses may contribute to the control of HIV-1 infection. However, production of IgG antibodies with virus neutralizing activity by vaccination remains problematic and while vaccine-induced natural killer cell-activating IgG antibodies have been shown to prevent the acquisition of HIV-1 infection, they may not be sufficient to control or eradicate established HIV-1 infection. It is, therefore, important to consider other functional characteristics of IgG antibody responses. IgG antibodies to viruses also mediate opsonophagocytic antibody responses against virions and capsids that enhance the function of phagocytic cells playing critical roles in antiviral immune responses, particularly conventional dendritic cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Emerging evidence suggests that these antibody functions might contribute to the control of HIV-1 infection. In addition, IgG antibodies contribute to the intracellular degradation of viruses via binding to the cytosolic fragment crystallizable (Fc) receptor tripartite motif containing-21 (TRIM21). The functional activity of an IgG antibody response is influenced by the IgG subclass content, which affects binding to antigens and to Fcγ receptors on phagocytic cells and to TRIM21. The IgG subclass content and avidity of IgG antibodies is determined by germinal center (GC) reactions in follicles of lymphoid tissue. As HIV-1 infects cells in GCs and induces GC dysfunction, which may persist during ART, strategies for boosting HIV-1-specific IgG antibody responses should include early commencement of ART and possibly the use of particular antiretroviral drugs to optimize drug levels in lymphoid follicles. Finally, enhancing particular functions of HIV-1-specific IgG antibody responses by using adjuvants or cytokines to modulate the IgG subclass content of the antibody response might be investigated in NHP models of HIV-1 infection and during trials of therapeutic vaccines in HIV patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martyn A. French
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
- Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Royal Perth Hospital and PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - M. Christian Tjiam
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Laila N. Abudulai
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Sonia Fernandez
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
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12
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Rodríguez Pulido M, Sáiz M. Molecular Mechanisms of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Targeting the Host Antiviral Response. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:252. [PMID: 28660175 PMCID: PMC5468379 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the causative agent of an acute vesicular disease affecting pigs, cattle and other domestic, and wild animals worldwide. The aim of the host interferon (IFN) response is to limit viral replication and spread. Detection of the viral genome and products by specialized cellular sensors initiates a signaling cascade that leads to a rapid antiviral response involving the secretion of type I- and type III-IFNs and other antiviral cytokines with antiproliferative and immunomodulatory functions. During co-evolution with their hosts, viruses have acquired strategies to actively counteract host antiviral responses and the balance between innate response and viral antagonism may determine the outcome of disease and pathogenesis. FMDV proteases Lpro and 3C have been found to antagonize the host IFN response by a repertoire of mechanisms. Moreover, the putative role of other viral proteins in IFN antagonism is being recently unveiled, uncovering sophisticated immune evasion strategies different to those reported to date for other members of the Picornaviridae family. Here, we review the interplay between antiviral responses induced by FMDV infection and viral countermeasures to block them. Research on strategies used by viruses to modulate immunity will provide insights into the function of host pathways involved in defense against pathogens and will also lead to development of new therapeutic strategies to fight virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Rodríguez Pulido
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-UAM)Madrid, Spain
| | - Margarita Sáiz
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-UAM)Madrid, Spain
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Li D, Wei J, Yang F, Liu HN, Zhu ZX, Cao WJ, Li S, Liu XT, Zheng HX, Shu HB. Foot-and-mouth disease virus structural protein VP3 degrades Janus kinase 1 to inhibit IFN-γ signal transduction pathways. Cell Cycle 2016; 15:850-60. [PMID: 26901336 DOI: 10.1080/15384101.2016.1151584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals that is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). To replicate efficiently in vivo, FMDV has evolved methods to circumvent host antiviral defense mechanisms, including those induced by interferons (IFNs). Previous research has focused on the effect of FMDV L(pro) and 3C(pro) on type I IFNs. In this study, FMDV VP3 was found to inhibit type II IFN signaling pathways. The overexpression of FMDV VP3 inhibited the IFN-γ-triggered phosphorylation of STAT1 at Tyr701 and the subsequent expression of downstream genes. Mechanistically, FMDV VP3 interacted with JAK1/2 and inhibited the tyrosine phosphorylation, dimerization and nuclear accumulation of STAT1. FMDV VP3 also disrupted the assembly of the JAK1 complex and degraded JAK1 but not JAK2 via a lysosomal pathway. Taken together, the results reveal a novel mechanism used by which FMDV VP3 counteracts the type II IFN signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- a State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Lanzhou , China
| | - Jin Wei
- b Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University , Wuhan , China
| | - Fan Yang
- a State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Lanzhou , China
| | - Hua-Nan Liu
- a State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Lanzhou , China
| | - Zi-Xiang Zhu
- a State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Lanzhou , China
| | - Wei-Jun Cao
- a State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Lanzhou , China
| | - Shu Li
- b Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University , Wuhan , China
| | - Xiang-Tao Liu
- a State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Lanzhou , China
| | - Hai-Xue Zheng
- a State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Lanzhou , China
| | - Hong-Bing Shu
- b Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University , Wuhan , China
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14
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Naturally Occurring Fc-Dependent Antibody From HIV-Seronegative Individuals Promotes HIV-Induced IFN-α Production. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37493. [PMID: 27881846 PMCID: PMC5121582 DOI: 10.1038/srep37493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A majority of adults without HIV infection and with a low risk of HIV-exposure have plasma IgG antibodies that enhance the rate and magnitude of HIV-induced interferon alpha (IFN-α) production. Fc-dependent IgG-HIV complexes induce IFN-α rapidly and in high titers in response to HIV concentrations that are too low to otherwise stimulate an effective IFN-α response. IFN-α promoting antibody (IPA) counters HIV-specific inhibition of IFN-α production, and compensates for the inherent delay in IFN-α production common to HIV infection and other viruses. Naturally occurring IPA has the potential to initiate a potent IFN-α response early in the course of HIV mucosal invasion in time to terminate infection prior to the creation of a pool of persistently infected cells. The current study adds IPA as a mediator of an Fc-dependent antiviral state capable of preventing HIV infection.
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15
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Eschbaumer M, Stenfeldt C, Rekant SI, Pacheco JM, Hartwig EJ, Smoliga GR, Kenney MA, Golde WT, Rodriguez LL, Arzt J. Systemic immune response and virus persistence after foot-and-mouth disease virus infection of naïve cattle and cattle vaccinated with a homologous adenovirus-vectored vaccine. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:205. [PMID: 27634113 PMCID: PMC5025598 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0838-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In order to investigate host factors associated with the establishment of persistent foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection, the systemic response to vaccination and challenge was studied in 47 steers. Eighteen steers that had received a recombinant FMDV A vaccine 2 weeks earlier and 29 non-vaccinated steers were challenged by intra-nasopharyngeal deposition of FMDV A24. For up to 35 days after challenge, host factors including complete blood counts with T lymphocyte subsets, type I/III interferon (IFN) activity, neutralizing and total FMDV-specific antibody titers in serum, as well as antibody-secreting cells (in 6 non-vaccinated animals) were characterized in the context of viral infection dynamics. Results Vaccination generally induced a strong antibody response. There was a transient peak of FMDV-specific serum IgM in non-vaccinated animals after challenge, while IgM levels in vaccinated animals did not increase further. Both groups had a lasting increase of specific IgG and neutralizing antibody after challenge. Substantial systemic IFN activity in non-vaccinated animals coincided with viremia, and no IFN or viremia was detected in vaccinated animals. After challenge, circulating lymphocytes decreased in non-vaccinated animals, coincident with viremia, IFN activity, and clinical disease, whereas lymphocyte and monocyte counts in vaccinated animals were unaffected by vaccination but transiently increased after challenge. The CD4+/CD8+ T cell ratio in non-vaccinated animals increased during acute infection, driven by an absolute decrease of CD8+ cells. Conclusions The incidence of FMDV persistence was 61.5 % in non-vaccinated and 54.5 % in vaccinated animals. Overall, the systemic factors examined were not associated with the FMDV carrier/non-carrier divergence; however, significant differences were identified between responses of non-vaccinated and vaccinated cattle. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0838-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Eschbaumer
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Carolina Stenfeldt
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Steven I Rekant
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Juan M Pacheco
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - Ethan J Hartwig
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - George R Smoliga
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - Mary A Kenney
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - William T Golde
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - Luis L Rodriguez
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
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16
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Ricklin ME, Vielle NJ, Python S, Brechbühl D, Zumkehr B, Posthaus H, Zimmer G, Summerfield A. Partial Protection against Porcine Influenza A Virus by a Hemagglutinin-Expressing Virus Replicon Particle Vaccine in the Absence of Neutralizing Antibodies. Front Immunol 2016; 7:253. [PMID: 27446083 PMCID: PMC4928594 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This work was initiated by previous reports demonstrating that mismatched influenza A virus (IAV) vaccines can induce enhanced disease, probably mediated by antibodies. Our aim was, therefore, to investigate if a vaccine inducing opsonizing but not neutralizing antibodies against the hemagglutinin (HA) of a selected heterologous challenge virus would enhance disease or induce protective immune responses in the pig model. To this end, we immunized pigs with either whole inactivated virus (WIV)-vaccine or HA-expressing virus replicon particles (VRP) vaccine based on recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). Both types of vaccines induced virus neutralizing and opsonizing antibodies against homologous virus as shown by a highly sensitive plasmacytoid dendritic cell-based opsonization assay. Opsonizing antibodies showed a broader reactivity against heterologous IAV compared with neutralizing antibodies. Pigs immunized with HA-recombinant VRP vaccine were partially protected from infection with a mismatched IAV, which was not neutralized but opsonized by the immune sera. The VRP vaccine reduced lung lesions, lung inflammatory cytokine responses, serum IFN-α responses, and viral loads in the airways. Only the VRP vaccine was able to prime IAV-specific IFNγ/TNFα dual secreting CD4(+) T cells detectable in the peripheral blood. In summary, this work demonstrates that with the virus pair selected, a WIV vaccine inducing opsonizing antibodies against HA which lack neutralizing activity, is neither protective nor does it induce enhanced disease in pigs. In contrast, VRP-expressing HA is efficacious vaccines in swine as they induced both potent antibodies and T-cell immunity resulting in a broader protective value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meret E Ricklin
- Institute of Virology and Immunology , Mittelhäusern , Switzerland
| | | | - Sylvie Python
- Institute of Virology and Immunology , Mittelhäusern , Switzerland
| | - Daniel Brechbühl
- Institute of Virology and Immunology , Mittelhäusern , Switzerland
| | - Beatrice Zumkehr
- Institute of Virology and Immunology , Mittelhäusern , Switzerland
| | - Horst Posthaus
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute for Animal Pathology, University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
| | - Gert Zimmer
- Institute of Virology and Immunology , Mittelhäusern , Switzerland
| | - Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland; Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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17
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García-Nicolás O, Auray G, Sautter CA, Rappe JCF, McCullough KC, Ruggli N, Summerfield A. Sensing of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus-Infected Macrophages by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:771. [PMID: 27458429 PMCID: PMC4937788 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) represents a macrophage (MØ)-tropic virus which is unable to induce interferon (IFN) type I in its target cells. Nevertheless, infected pigs show a short but prominent systemic IFN alpha (IFN-α) response. A possible explanation for this discrepancy is the ability of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) to produce IFN-α in response to free PRRSV virions, independent of infection. Here, we show that the highly pathogenic PRRSV genotype 1 strain Lena is unique in not inducing IFN-α production in pDC, contrasting with systemic IFN-α responses found in infected pigs. We also demonstrate efficient pDC stimulation by PRRSV Lena-infected MØ, resulting in a higher IFN-α production than direct stimulation of pDC by PRRSV virions. This response was strain-independent, required integrin-mediated intercellular contact, intact actin filaments in the MØ and was partially inhibited by an inhibitor of neutral sphingomyelinase. Although infected MØ-derived exosomes stimulated pDC, an efficient delivery of the stimulatory component was dependent on a tight contact between pDC and the infected cells. In conclusion, with this mechanism the immune system can efficiently sense PRRSV, resulting in production of considerable quantities of IFN-α. This is adding complexity to the immunopathogenesis of PRRSV infections, as IFN-α should alert the immune system and initiate the induction of adaptive immune responses, a process known to be inefficient during infection of pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gaël Auray
- The Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI) Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Carmen A Sautter
- The Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI) Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Julie C F Rappe
- The Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI) Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | | | - Nicolas Ruggli
- The Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI) Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Artur Summerfield
- The Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI)Mittelhäusern, Switzerland; Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of BernBern, Switzerland
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18
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Stenfeldt C, Diaz-San Segundo F, de Los Santos T, Rodriguez LL, Arzt J. The Pathogenesis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Pigs. Front Vet Sci 2016; 3:41. [PMID: 27243028 PMCID: PMC4876306 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2016.00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The greatest proportion of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) clinical research has been dedicated to elucidating pathogenesis and enhancing vaccine protection in cattle with less efforts invested in studies specific to pigs. However, accumulated evidence from FMD outbreaks and experimental investigations suggest that critical components of FMD pathogenesis, immunology, and vaccinology cannot be extrapolated from investigations performed in cattle to explain or to predict outcomes of infection or vaccination in pigs. Furthermore, it has been shown that failure to account for these differences may have substantial consequences when FMD outbreaks occur in areas with dense pig populations. Recent experimental studies have confirmed some aspects of conventional wisdom by demonstrating that pigs are more susceptible to FMD virus (FMDV) infection via exposure of the upper gastrointestinal tract (oropharynx) than through inhalation of virus. The infection spreads rapidly within groups of pigs that are housed together, although efficiency of transmission may vary depending on virus strain and exposure intensity. Multiple investigations have demonstrated that physical separation of pigs is sufficient to prevent virus transmission under experimental conditions. Detailed pathogenesis studies have recently demonstrated that specialized epithelium within porcine oropharyngeal tonsils constitute the primary infection sites following simulated natural virus exposure. Furthermore, epithelium of the tonsil of the soft palate supports substantial virus replication during the clinical phase of infection, thus providing large amounts of virus that can be shed into the environment. Due to massive amplification and shedding of virus, acutely infected pigs constitute a considerable source of contagion. FMDV infection results in modulation of several components of the host immune response. The infection is ultimately cleared in association with a strong humoral response and, in contrast to ruminants, there is no subclinical persistence of FMDV in pigs. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of knowledge gained from experimental investigations of FMD pathogenesis, transmission, and host response in pigs. Details of the temporo-anatomic progression of infection are discussed in relation to specific pathogenesis events and the likelihood of transmission. Additionally, relevant aspects of the host immune response are discussed within contexts of conventional and novel intervention strategies of vaccination and immunomodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Stenfeldt
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Greenport, NY, USA; PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Fayna Diaz-San Segundo
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Greenport, NY, USA; Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, CANR, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Teresa de Los Santos
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) , Greenport, NY , USA
| | - Luis L Rodriguez
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) , Greenport, NY , USA
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) , Greenport, NY , USA
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19
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Sei JJ, Waters RA, Kenney M, Barlow JW, Golde WT. Effect of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Infection on the Frequency, Phenotype and Function of Circulating Dendritic Cells in Cattle. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152192. [PMID: 27008425 PMCID: PMC4805171 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a highly contagious virus that causes one of the most devastating diseases in cloven-hoofed animals. Disease symptoms develop within 2 to 3 days of exposure and include fever and vesicular lesions on the tongue and hooves. Dendritic cells (DC) play an essential role in protective immune responses against pathogens. Therefore, investigating their role during FMDV infection would lead to a better understanding of host-pathogen interactions. In this study, following infection of cattle with FMDV, we investigated the frequency and function of conventional (cDC) and plasmacytoid DC (pDC) in blood by using multi-color flow cytometry. We show that the frequency of cDC and pDC increased following FMDV infection and peaked 3 to 4 days post-infection. During peak viremia, the cattle became lymphopenic, the expression of MHC class II molecules on cDC and pDC was dramatically down-regulated, the processing of exogenous antigen by cDC and pDC was impaired, and there was an increase in IL-10 production by DC and monocytes. Notably, after clearance of FMDV from the blood, MHC class II expression returned to pre-infection levels. Altogether, our study demonstrates that in cattle, FMDV inhibits the function of DC, thereby retarding the initiation of adaptive immune responses, potentially enhancing virus shedding during the acute phase of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet J. Sei
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - Ryan A. Waters
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
| | - Mary Kenney
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
| | - John W. Barlow
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - William T. Golde
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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20
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Stenfeldt C, Eschbaumer M, Pacheco JM, Rekant SI, Rodriguez LL, Arzt J. Pathogenesis of Primary Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Infection in the Nasopharynx of Vaccinated and Non-Vaccinated Cattle. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143666. [PMID: 26599543 PMCID: PMC4658095 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A time-course pathogenesis study was performed to compare and contrast primary foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection following simulated-natural (intra-nasopharyngeal) virus exposure of cattle that were non-vaccinated or vaccinated using a recombinant adenovirus-vectored FMDV vaccine. FMDV genome and infectious virus were detected during the initial phase of infection in both categories of animals with consistent predilection for the nasopharyngeal mucosa. A rapid progression of infection with viremia and widespread dissemination of virus occurred in non-vaccinated animals whilst vaccinated cattle were protected from viremia and clinical FMD. Analysis of micro-anatomic distribution of virus during early infection by lasercapture microdissection localized FMDV RNA to follicle-associated epithelium of the nasopharyngeal mucosa in both groups of animals, with concurrent detection of viral genome in nasopharyngeal MALT follicles in vaccinated cattle only. FMDV structural and non-structural proteins were detected in epithelial cells of the nasopharyngeal mucosa by immunomicroscopy 24 hours after inoculation in both non-vaccinated and vaccinated steers. Co-localization of CD11c+/MHC II+ cells with viral protein occurred early at primary infection sites in vaccinated steers while similar host-virus interactions were observed at later time points in non-vaccinated steers. Additionally, numerous CD8+/CD3- host cells, representing presumptive natural killer cells, were observed in association with foci of primary FMDV infection in the nasopharyngeal mucosa of vaccinated steers but were absent in non-vaccinated steers. Immunomicroscopic evidence of an activated antiviral response at primary infection sites of vaccinated cattle was corroborated by a relative induction of interferon -α, -β, -γ and -λ mRNA in micro-dissected samples of nasopharyngeal mucosa. Although vaccination protected cattle from viremia and clinical FMD, there was subclinical infection of epithelial cells of the nasopharyngeal mucosa that could enable shedding and long-term persistence of infectious virus. Additionally, these data indicate different mechanisms within the immediate host response to infection between non-vaccinated and vaccinated cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Stenfeldt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Michael Eschbaumer
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Juan M. Pacheco
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States of America
| | - Steven I. Rekant
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Luis L. Rodriguez
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States of America
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Langellotti C, Cesar G, Soria I, Quattrocchi V, Jancic C, Zamorano P, Vermeulen M. Foot-and-mouth disease virus infection of dendritic cells triggers phosphorylation of ERK1/2 inducing class I presentation and apoptosis. Vaccine 2015. [PMID: 26212005 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. This pathology is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). Over time, the development of vaccines to prevent the spread of this illness became essential. Vaccines currently used contain the inactivated form of the virus. However, vaccination generates an immune response different to that induced by the infection. We investigated whether these differences are related to intracellular mechanisms on dendritic cells (DCs). As a result, we demonstrated that the internalization of infective virus triggered the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, which was involved in the activation of caspase-9, the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis and the delivery of viral peptides on MHC class I molecules. While, inactivated virus (iFMDV) did not affect this pathway or any function mediated by its activation. As described, infectious virus in DCs was also associated to autophagy LC3 protein and was associated to lysosomal protein Lamp-2; contrary to observe for the iFMDV. Strikingly, the processing of viral antigens to accommodate in class I molecules does not appear to involve the proteasome. Finally, this increased presentation promotes a specific cytotoxic response against infectious virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Langellotti
- Instituto de Virología, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA)-Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Gonzalo Cesar
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)-CONICET, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ivana Soria
- Instituto de Virología, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA)-Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Valeria Quattrocchi
- Instituto de Virología, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA)-Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carolina Jancic
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)-CONICET, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Patricia Zamorano
- Instituto de Virología, Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA)-Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mónica Vermeulen
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX)-CONICET, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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22
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Summerfield A, Auray G, Ricklin M. Comparative Dendritic Cell Biology of Veterinary Mammals. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2015; 3:533-57. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-111009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, 3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland;
| | - Gael Auray
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, 3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland;
| | - Meret Ricklin
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, 3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland;
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Walker CM, Feng Z, Lemon SM. Reassessing immune control of hepatitis A virus. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 11:7-13. [PMID: 25617494 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
There is renewed interest in hepatitis A virus (HAV) pathogenesis and immunity after 2-3 decades of limited progress. From a public health perspective, the average age at infection has increased in developing countries, resulting in more severe hepatitis that is poorly understood mechanistically. More fundamentally, there is interest in comparing immunity to HAV and hepatitis C virus (HCV): small, positive-strand RNA viruses with very different infection outcomes. Here, we review evidence that circulating HAV virions are cloaked in membranes, with consequences for induction of innate immunity and antibody-mediated neutralization. We also consider the contribution of CD4+ helper versus CD8+ cytotoxic T cells to antiviral immunity and liver injury, and present a model of non-cytotoxic immune control of HAV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Walker
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Nationwide Children's Hospital, USA; College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Zongdi Feng
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, Nationwide Children's Hospital, USA; College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Stanley M Lemon
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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24
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Feng Z, Li Y, McKnight KL, Hensley L, Lanford RE, Walker CM, Lemon SM. Human pDCs preferentially sense enveloped hepatitis A virions. J Clin Invest 2014; 125:169-76. [PMID: 25415438 DOI: 10.1172/jci77527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Unlike other picornaviruses, hepatitis A virus (HAV) is cloaked in host membranes when released from cells, providing protection from neutralizing antibodies and facilitating spread in the liver. Acute HAV infection is typified by minimal type I IFN responses; therefore, we questioned whether plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), which produce IFN when activated, are capable of sensing enveloped virions (eHAV). Although concentrated nonenveloped virus failed to activate freshly isolated human pDCs, these cells produced substantial amounts of IFN-α via TLR7 signaling when cocultured with infected cells. pDCs required either close contact with infected cells or exposure to concentrated culture supernatants for IFN-α production. In isopycnic and rate-zonal gradients, pDC-activating material cosedimented with eHAV but not membrane-bound acetylcholinesterase, suggesting that eHAV, and not viral RNA exosomes, is responsible for IFN-α induction. pDC activation did not require virus replication and was associated with efficient eHAV uptake, which was facilitated by phosphatidylserine receptors on pDCs. In chimpanzees, pDCs were transiently recruited to the liver early in infection, during or shortly before maximal intrahepatic IFN-stimulated gene expression, but disappeared prior to inflammation onset. Our data reveal that, while membrane envelopment protects HAV against neutralizing antibody, it also facilitates an early but limited detection of HAV infection by pDCs.
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25
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Habiela M, Seago J, Perez-Martin E, Waters R, Windsor M, Salguero FJ, Wood J, Charleston B, Juleff N. Laboratory animal models to study foot-and-mouth disease: a review with emphasis on natural and vaccine-induced immunity. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:2329-2345. [PMID: 25000962 PMCID: PMC4202264 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.068270-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Laboratory animal models have provided valuable insight into foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) pathogenesis in epidemiologically important target species. While not perfect, these models have delivered an accelerated time frame to characterize the immune responses in natural hosts and a platform to evaluate therapeutics and vaccine candidates at a reduced cost. Further expansion of these models in mice has allowed access to genetic mutations not available for target species, providing a powerful and versatile experimental system to interrogate the immune response to FMDV and to target more expensive studies in natural hosts. The purpose of this review is to describe commonly used FMDV infection models in laboratory animals and to cite examples of when these models have failed or successfully provided insight relevant for target species, with an emphasis on natural and vaccine-induced immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Habiela
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Julian Seago
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Ryan Waters
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Miriam Windsor
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Francisco J. Salguero
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7TE, UK
| | - James Wood
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | | | - Nicholas Juleff
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
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26
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Sei JJ, Ochoa AS, Bishop E, Barlow JW, Golde WT. Phenotypic, ultra-structural, and functional characterization of bovine peripheral blood dendritic cell subsets. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109273. [PMID: 25295753 PMCID: PMC4190170 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) are multi-functional cells that bridge the gap between innate and adaptive immune systems. In bovine, significant information is lacking on the precise identity and role of peripheral blood DC subsets. In this study, we identify and characterize bovine peripheral blood DC subsets directly ex vivo, without further in vitro manipulation. Multi-color flow cytometric analysis revealed that three DC subsets could be identified. Bovine plasmacytoid DC were phenotypically identified by a unique pattern of cell surface protein expression including CD4, exhibited an extensive endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, efficiently internalized and degraded exogenous antigen, and were the only peripheral blood cells specialized in the production of type I IFN following activation with Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists. Conventional DC were identified by expression of a different pattern of cell surface proteins including CD11c, MHC class II, and CD80, among others, the display of extensive dendritic protrusions on their plasma membrane, expression of very high levels of MHC class II and co-stimulatory molecules, efficient internalization and degradation of exogenous antigen, and ready production of detectable levels of TNF-alpha in response to TLR activation. Our investigations also revealed a third novel DC subset that may be a precursor of conventional DC that were MHC class II+ and CD11c−. These cells exhibited a smooth plasma membrane with a rounded nucleus, produced TNF-alpha in response to TLR-activation (albeit lower than CD11c+ DC), and were the least efficient in internalization/degradation of exogenous antigen. These studies define three bovine blood DC subsets with distinct phenotypic and functional characteristics which can be analyzed during immune responses to pathogens and vaccinations of cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet J. Sei
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, New York, United States of America
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Amanda S. Ochoa
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Bishop
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, New York, United States of America
| | - John W. Barlow
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
| | - William T. Golde
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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27
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Reid E, Charleston B. Type I and III interferon production in response to RNA viruses. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2014; 34:649-58. [PMID: 24956361 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2014.0066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The biology of RNA viruses is closely linked to the type I and type III interferon (IFN) response of the host. These viruses display a range of molecular patterns that may be detected by host cells resulting in the induction of IFNs. Consequently, there are many examples of mechanisms employed by RNA viruses to block or delay IFN induction and reduce the expression of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), a necessary step in the virus lifecycle because of the capacity of IFNs to block virus replication. Efficient transmission of viruses depends, in part, on maintaining a balance between virus replication and host survival; specialized host cells, such as plasmacytoid dendritic cells, can sense viral molecular patterns and produce IFNs to help maintain this balance. There are now many examples of RNA viruses inducing type I and type III IFNs, and although these IFNs act through different receptors, in many systems studied, they induce a similar spectrum of genes. However, there may be a difference in the temporal expression pattern, with more prolonged expression of ISGs in response to type III IFN compared with type I IFN. There are also examples of synergy between type I and type III IFNs to induce antiviral responses. Clearly, it is important to understand the different roles of these IFNs in the antiviral response in vivo. One of the most striking differences between these 2 IFN systems is the distribution of the receptors: type I IFN receptors are expressed on most cells, yet type III receptor expression is restricted primarily to epithelial cells but has also been demonstrated on other cells, including dendritic cells. There is increasing evidence that type III IFNs are a key control mechanism against RNA viruses that infect respiratory and enteric epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Reid
- Viral Immunology, The Pirbright Institute , Surrey, United Kingdom
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Bekeredjian-Ding I, Greil J, Ammann S, Parcina M. Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells: Neglected Regulators of the Immune Response to Staphylococcus aureus. Front Immunol 2014; 5:238. [PMID: 24904586 PMCID: PMC4033153 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are a rare subset of leukocytes equipped with Fcγ and Fcε receptors, which exert contrary effects on sensing of microbial nucleic acids by endosomal Toll-like receptors. In this article, we explain how pDC contribute to the immune response to Staphylococcus aureus. Under normal circumstances the pDC participates in the memory response to the pathogen: pDC activation is initiated by uptake of staphylococcal immune complexes with IgG or IgE. However, protein A-expressing S. aureus strains additionally trigger pDC activation in the absence of immunoglobulin. In this context, staphylococci exploit the pDC to induce antigen-independent differentiation of IL-10 producing plasmablasts, an elegant means to propagate immune evasion. We further discuss the role of type I interferons in infection with S. aureus and the implications of these findings for the development of immune based therapies and vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Johann Greil
- Institute for Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Hospital Bonn , Bonn , Germany ; Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Heidelberg , Heidelberg , Germany
| | - Sandra Ammann
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Heidelberg , Heidelberg , Germany
| | - Marijo Parcina
- Institute for Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Hospital Bonn , Bonn , Germany
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29
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Vitour D, Doceul V, Ruscanu S, Chauveau E, Schwartz-Cornil I, Zientara S. Induction and control of the type I interferon pathway by Bluetongue virus. Virus Res 2013; 182:59-70. [PMID: 24211608 PMCID: PMC7114367 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A general review describing the current knowledge on the type I IFN pathway. Description of several mechanisms evolved by viruses to counteract this antiviral response. An up-to-date review on the interaction of BTV and the type I IFN pathway in vivo and in vitro. Description of the cellular sensors involved in the induction of IFN-α/β synthesis upon BTV infection in haematopoietic and non-haematopoietic cells. Description of the strategies evolved by BTV to counteract this cellular antiviral response.
The innate immune response is the first line of defence against viruses, involving the production of type I IFN (IFN-α/β) and other pro-inflammatory cytokines that control the infection. It also shapes the adaptive immune response generated by both T and B cells. Production of type I IFN occurs both in vivo and in vitro in response to Bluetongue virus (BTV), an arthropod-borne virus. However, the mechanisms responsible for the production of IFN-β in response to BTV remained unknown until recently and are still not completely understood. In this review, we describe the recent advances in the identification of cellular sensors and signalling pathways involved in this process. The RNA helicases retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) were shown to be involved in the expression of IFN-β as well as in the control of BTV infection in non-haematopoietic cells. In contrast, induction of IFN-α/β synthesis in sheep primary plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) required the MyD88 adaptor independently of the Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7), as well as the kinases dsRNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) and stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK)/Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK). As type I IFN is essential for the establishment of an antiviral cellular response, most of viruses have elaborated counteracting mechanisms to hinder its action. This review also addresses the ability of BTV to interfere with IFN-β synthesis and the recent findings describing the non-structural viral protein NS3 as a powerful antagonist of the host cellular response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Vitour
- UMR1161 ANSES-INRA-ENVA, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Virginie Doceul
- UMR1161 ANSES-INRA-ENVA, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Suzana Ruscanu
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, UR892 INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| | - Emilie Chauveau
- UMR1161 ANSES-INRA-ENVA, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | | | - Stéphan Zientara
- UMR1161 ANSES-INRA-ENVA, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France.
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30
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Brencicova E, Diebold SS. Nucleic acids and endosomal pattern recognition: how to tell friend from foe? Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:37. [PMID: 23908972 PMCID: PMC3726833 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system has evolved endosomal and cytoplasmic receptors for the detection of viral nucleic acids as sensors for virus infection. Some of these pattern recognition receptors (PRR) detect features of viral nucleic acids that are not found in the host such as long stretches of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and uncapped single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) in case of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 and RIG-I, respectively. In contrast, TLR7/8 and TLR9 are unable to distinguish between viral and self-nucleic acids on the grounds of distinct molecular patterns. The ability of these endosomal TLR to act as PRR for viral nucleic acids seems to rely solely on the mode of access to the endolysosomal compartment in which recognition takes place. The current dogma states that self-nucleic acids do not enter the TLR-sensing compartment under normal physiological conditions. However, it is still poorly understood how dendritic cells (DC) evade activation by self-nucleic acids, in particular with regard to specific DC subsets, which are specialized in taking up material from dying cells for cross-presentation of cell-associated antigens. In this review we discuss the current understanding of how the immune system distinguishes between foreign and self-nucleic acids and point out some of the key aspects that still require further research and clarification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Brencicova
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London, UK
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31
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Python S, Gerber M, Suter R, Ruggli N, Summerfield A. Efficient sensing of infected cells in absence of virus particles by plasmacytoid dendritic cells is blocked by the viral ribonuclease E(rns.). PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003412. [PMID: 23785283 PMCID: PMC3681750 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) have been shown to efficiently sense HCV- or HIV-infected cells, using a virion-free pathway. Here, we demonstrate for classical swine fever virus, a member of the Flaviviridae, that this process is much more efficient in terms of interferon-alpha induction when compared to direct stimulation by virus particles. By employment of virus replicon particles or infectious RNA which can replicate but not form de novo virions, we exclude a transfer of virus from the donor cell to the pDC. pDC activation by infected cells was mediated by a contact-dependent RNA transfer to pDC, which was sensitive to a TLR7 inhibitor. This was inhibited by drugs affecting the cytoskeleton and membrane cholesterol. We further demonstrate that a unique viral protein with ribonuclease activity, the viral Erns protein of pestiviruses, efficiently prevented this process. This required intact ribonuclease function in intracellular compartments. We propose that this pathway of activation could be of particular importance for viruses which tend to be mostly cell-associated, cause persistent infection, and are non-cytopathogenic. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) represent the most potent producers of interferon type I and are therefore of major importance in antiviral defences. A TLR7-dependent induction of interferon-α in pDC by infected cells in the absence of virions has been demonstrated for hepatitis C virus. Here, we show that this pathway is also very efficient for classical swine fever virus, a pestivirus that is also a member of the Flaviviridae. Our data indicate a transfer of RNA from the donor cell to pDC in a cell-contact-dependent manner requiring intact lipid rafts and cytoskeleton of the donor cell. Importantly, we demonstrate that the enigmatic viral Erns protein unique to pestiviruses efficiently prevents this pathway of pDC activation. This novel function of Erns is dependent on its RNase activity within intracellular compartments. The present study underlines the importance of pDC activation by infected cells and identifies a novel pathway of virus escaping the interferon system. Considering that Erns is required for pestiviruses to establish persistent infection of foetuses after transplacental virus transmission resulting in the development of immunotolerant animals, this report also points on a possible role of pDC in preventing immunotolerance after viral infection of foetuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Python
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Markus Gerber
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Rolf Suter
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Ruggli
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (NR); (AS)
| | - Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (NR); (AS)
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32
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Cell mediated innate responses of cattle and swine are diverse during foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection: a unique landscape of innate immunity. Immunol Lett 2013; 152:135-43. [PMID: 23727070 PMCID: PMC7112845 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Harnessing the innate immunity can protect domestic animals from viruses. Innate immune cells have potential capacity to afford protection against infection. Understanding the innate and adaptive immunity will aid rational vaccine design.
Pathogens in general and pathogenic viruses in particular have evolved a myriad of mechanisms to escape the immune response of mammalian species. Viruses that cause acute disease tend to bear characteristics that make them very contagious, as survival does not derive from chronicity of infection, but spread of disease throughout the herd. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is one of the most contagious viruses known. Upon infection of susceptible species, cloven-hoofed animals, the virus proliferates rapidly and causes a vesicular disease within 2–4 days. Disease symptoms resolve by 10 days to 2 weeks and in most cases, virus can no longer be detected. Periods of fever and viremia are usually brief, 1–3 days. In vivo control of virus infection and clearance of the virus during and following acute infection is of particular interest. The interaction of this virus with cells mediating the early, innate immune response has been analyzed in a number of recent studies. In most reports, the virus has a distinct inhibitory effect on the response of cells early in infection. Here we review these new data and discuss the dynamics of the interaction of virus with different cell types mediating the immune response to infection.
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33
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Baumann A, Mateu E, Murtaugh MP, Summerfield A. Impact of genotype 1 and 2 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses on interferon-α responses by plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Vet Res 2013; 44:33. [PMID: 23675981 PMCID: PMC3672080 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus (PRRSV) infections are characterized by prolonged viremia and viral shedding consistent with incomplete immunity. Type I interferons (IFN) are essential for mounting efficient antiviral innate and adaptive immune responses, but in a recent study, North American PRRSV genotype 2 isolates did not induce, or even strongly inhibited, IFN-α in plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), representing “professional IFN-α-producing cells”. Since inhibition of IFN-α expression might initiate PRRSV pathogenesis, we further characterized PRRSV effects and host modifying factors on IFN-α responses of pDC. Surprisingly, a variety of type 1 and type 2 PRRSV directly stimulated IFN-α secretion by pDC. The effect did not require live virus and was mediated through the TLR7 pathway. Furthermore, both IFN-γ and IL-4 significantly enhanced the pDC production of IFN-α in response to PRRSV exposure. PRRSV inhibition of IFN-α responses from enriched pDC stimulated by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides was weak or absent. VR-2332, the prototype genotype 2 PRRSV, only suppressed the responses by 34%, and the highest level of suppression (51%) was induced by a Chinese highly pathogenic PRRSV isolate. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that pDC respond to PRRSV and suggest that suppressive activities on pDC, if any, are moderate and strain-dependent. Thus, pDC may be a source of systemic IFN-α responses reported in PRRSV-infected animals, further contributing to the puzzling immunopathogenesis of PRRS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Baumann
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis (IVI), Sensemattstrasse 293, Mittelhäusern, 3147, Switzerland.
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Lannes N, Summerfield A. Regulation of porcine plasmacytoid dendritic cells by cytokines. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60893. [PMID: 23577175 PMCID: PMC3620061 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are the most potent producers of type-I interferon (IFN) and represent the main interferon (IFN)-α source in response to many viruses. Considering the important roles played by type I IFN's, not only as antiviral effectors but also as potent alarming cytokine of the immune system, we investigated how such responses are regulated by various cytokines. To this end, we stimulated enriched pDC in the presence or absence of particular cytokines with a strong activator, CpG DNA, or a weak activator of pDC, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). Alternatively, we pre-incubated pDC for 16 h before stimulation. The pro-inflammatory cytokines tested Interleukin (IL)-6, IL17A, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α did not influence IFN-α responses except TNF-α, which promoted responses induced by FMDV. The haematopoietic cytokines Fms-related tyrosine kinase 3 ligand (Flt3-L) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) had enhancing effects on pDC activation at least in one of the protocols tested. IFN-β and IFN-γ were the most potent at enhancing FMDV-induced IFN-α, up to 10-fold. Interestingly, also the Th2 cytokine IL-4 was an efficient promoter of pDC activity, while IL-10 was the only negative regulator of IFN-α in pDC identified. The cytokines enhancing IFN-α responses also promoted pDC survival in cell culture with the exception of GM-CSF. Taken together this work illustrates how the cytokine network can influence pDC activation, a knowledge of relevance for improving vaccines and therapeutic interventions during virus infections, cancers and autoimmune diseases in which pDC play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Lannes
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
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35
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Lannes N, Python S, Summerfield A. Interplay of foot-and-mouth disease virus, antibodies and plasmacytoid dendritic cells: virus opsonization under non-neutralizing conditions results in enhanced interferon-alpha responses. Vet Res 2012; 43:64. [PMID: 22934974 PMCID: PMC3479418 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-43-64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a highly infectious member of the Picornaviridae inducing an acute disease of cloven-hoofed species. Vaccine-induced immune protection correlates with the presence of high levels of neutralizing antibodies but also opsonising antibodies have been proposed as an important mechanism of the immune response contributing to virus clearance by macrophages and leading to the production of type-I interferon (IFN) by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC). The present study demonstrates that the opsonising antibody titres mediating enhanced IFN-α responses in pDC were similar to neutralizing titres, when antigenically related viruses from the same serotype were employed. However, sera cross-reacted also with non-neutralized isolates of multiple serotypes, when tested in this assay. Both uncomplexed virus and immune complexed virus stimulated pDC via Toll-like receptor 7. An additional finding of potential importance for strain-specific differences in virulence and/or immunogenicity was that pDC activation by FMDV strongly differed between viral isolates. Altogether, our results indicate that opsonising antibodies can have a broader reactivity than neutralizing antibodies and may contribute to antiviral responses induced against antigenically distant viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Lannes
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, 3147, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.
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36
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Abstract
Evolution of RNA viruses occurs through disequilibria of collections of closely related mutant spectra or mutant clouds termed viral quasispecies. Here we review the origin of the quasispecies concept and some biological implications of quasispecies dynamics. Two main aspects are addressed: (i) mutant clouds as reservoirs of phenotypic variants for virus adaptability and (ii) the internal interactions that are established within mutant spectra that render a virus ensemble the unit of selection. The understanding of viruses as quasispecies has led to new antiviral designs, such as lethal mutagenesis, whose aim is to drive viruses toward low fitness values with limited chances of fitness recovery. The impact of quasispecies for three salient human pathogens, human immunodeficiency virus and the hepatitis B and C viruses, is reviewed, with emphasis on antiviral treatment strategies. Finally, extensions of quasispecies to nonviral systems are briefly mentioned to emphasize the broad applicability of quasispecies theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esteban Domingo
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), C/ Nicolás Cabrera, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain.
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Ruscanu S, Pascale F, Bourge M, Hemati B, Elhmouzi-Younes J, Urien C, Bonneau M, Takamatsu H, Hope J, Mertens P, Meyer G, Stewart M, Roy P, Meurs EF, Dabo S, Zientara S, Breard E, Sailleau C, Chauveau E, Vitour D, Charley B, Schwartz-Cornil I. The double-stranded RNA bluetongue virus induces type I interferon in plasmacytoid dendritic cells via a MYD88-dependent TLR7/8-independent signaling pathway. J Virol 2012; 86:5817-28. [PMID: 22438548 PMCID: PMC3347300 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06716-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs), especially plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), produce large amounts of alpha/beta interferon (IFN-α/β) upon infection with DNA or RNA viruses, which has impacts on the physiopathology of the viral infections and on the quality of the adaptive immunity. However, little is known about the IFN-α/β production by DCs during infections by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses. We present here novel information about the production of IFN-α/β induced by bluetongue virus (BTV), a vector-borne dsRNA Orbivirus of ruminants, in sheep primary DCs. We found that BTV induced IFN-α/β in skin lymph and in blood in vivo. Although BTV replicated in a substantial fraction of the conventional DCs (cDCs) and pDCs in vitro, only pDCs responded to BTV by producing a significant amount of IFN-α/β. BTV replication in pDCs was not mandatory for IFN-α/β production since it was still induced by UV-inactivated BTV (UV-BTV). Other inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-12p40, were also induced by UV-BTV in primary pDCs. The induction of IFN-α/β required endo-/lysosomal acidification and maturation. However, despite being an RNA virus, UV-BTV did not signal through Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) for IFN-α/β induction. In contrast, pathways involving the MyD88 adaptor and kinases dsRNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) and stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK)/Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK) were implicated. This work highlights the importance of pDCs for the production of innate immunity cytokines induced by a dsRNA virus, and it shows that a dsRNA virus can induce IFN-α/β in pDCs via a novel TLR-independent and Myd88-dependent pathway. These findings have implications for the design of efficient vaccines against dsRNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzana Ruscanu
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, UR892 INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Florentina Pascale
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, UR892 INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Centre de Recherche en Imagerie Interventionnelle, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Mickael Bourge
- IFR87 La Plante et son Environnement, IMAGIF CNRS, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Behzad Hemati
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, UR892 INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | - Céline Urien
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, UR892 INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Michel Bonneau
- Centre de Recherche en Imagerie Interventionnelle, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Haru Takamatsu
- Vector Bourne Viral Disease Programme, Institute for Animal Health, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Jayne Hope
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Mertens
- Vector Bourne Viral Disease Programme, Institute for Animal Health, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Gilles Meyer
- Université de Toulouse, INP, ENVT, INRA UMR1225, IHAP, Toulouse, France
| | - Meredith Stewart
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Polly Roy
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Eliane F. Meurs
- Institut Pasteur, Hepacivirus and Innate Immunity, Paris, France
| | - Stéphanie Dabo
- Institut Pasteur, Hepacivirus and Innate Immunity, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Bernard Charley
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, UR892 INRA, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Hüsser L, Ruggli N, Summerfield A. Nproof Classical Swine Fever Virus Prevents Type I Interferon-Mediated Priming of Conventional Dendritic Cells for Enhanced Interferon-α Response. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2012; 32:221-9. [DOI: 10.1089/jir.2011.0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Linda Hüsser
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Ruggli
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
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Foot-and-mouth disease virus causes a decrease in spleen dendritic cells and the early release of IFN-α in the plasma of mice. Differences between infectious and inactivated virus. Antiviral Res 2012; 94:62-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Revised: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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40
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Modulation of Cytokine mRNA Expression in Pharyngeal Epithelial Samples obtained from Cattle Infected with Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus. J Comp Pathol 2012; 146:243-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2011.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2011] [Revised: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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41
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Moraes MP, Segundo FDS, Dias CC, Pena L, Grubman MJ. Increased efficacy of an adenovirus-vectored foot-and-mouth disease capsid subunit vaccine expressing nonstructural protein 2B is associated with a specific T cell response. Vaccine 2011; 29:9431-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Revised: 10/06/2011] [Accepted: 10/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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42
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Acute hepatitis A virus infection is associated with a limited type I interferon response and persistence of intrahepatic viral RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:11223-8. [PMID: 21690403 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1101939108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is an hepatotropic human picornavirus that is associated only with acute infection. Its pathogenesis is not well understood because there are few studies in animal models using modern methodologies. We characterized HAV infections in three chimpanzees, quantifying viral RNA by quantitative RT-PCR and examining critical aspects of the innate immune response including intrahepatic IFN-stimulated gene expression. We compared these infection profiles with similar studies of chimpanzees infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), an hepatotropic flavivirus that frequently causes persistent infection. Surprisingly, HAV-infected animals exhibited very limited induction of type I IFN-stimulated genes in the liver compared with chimpanzees with acute resolving HCV infection, despite similar levels of viremia and 100-fold greater quantities of viral RNA in the liver. Minimal IFN-stimulated gene 15 and IFIT1 responses peaked 1-2 wk after HAV challenge and then subsided despite continuing high hepatic viral RNA. An acute inflammatory response at 3-4 wk correlated with the appearance of virus-specific antibodies and apoptosis and proliferation of hepatocytes. Despite this, HAV RNA persisted in the liver for months, remaining present long after clearance from serum and feces and revealing dramatic differences in the kinetics of clearance in the three compartments. Viral RNA was detected in the liver for significantly longer (35 to >48 wk) than HCV RNA in animals with acute resolving HCV infection (10-20 wk). Collectively, these findings indicate that HAV is far stealthier than HCV early in the course of acute resolving infection. HAV infections represent a distinctly different paradigm in virus-host interactions within the liver.
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Classical swine fever virus N(pro) limits type I interferon induction in plasmacytoid dendritic cells by interacting with interferon regulatory factor 7. J Virol 2011; 85:8002-11. [PMID: 21680532 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00330-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are detected by different classes of pattern recognition receptors that lead to the activation of interferon regulatory factors (IRF) and consequently to the induction of alpha/beta interferon (IFN-α/β). In turn, efficient viral strategies to escape the type I IFN-induced antiviral mechanisms have evolved. Previous studies established that pestivirus N(pro) antagonizes the early innate immune response by targeting the transcription factor IRF3 for proteasomal degradation. Here, we report that N(pro) of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) interacts also with IRF7, another mediator of type I IFN induction. We demonstrate that the Zn-binding domain of N(pro) is essential for the interaction of N(pro) with IRF7. For IRF3 and IRF7, the DNA-binding domain, the central region, and most of the regulatory domain are required for the interaction with N(pro). Importantly, the induction of IRF7-dependent type I IFN responses in plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) is reduced after wild-type CSFV infection compared with infection with virus mutants unable to interact with IRF7. This is associated with lower levels of IRF7 in pDC. Consequently, wild-type but not N(pro) mutant CSFV-infected pDC show reduced responses to other stimuli. Taken together, the results of this study show that CSFV N(pro) is capable of manipulating the function of IRF7 in pDC and provides the virus with an additional strategy to circumvent the innate defense.
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Stenfeldt C, Heegaard PMH, Stockmarr A, Tjørnehøj K, Belsham GJ. Analysis of the acute phase responses of serum amyloid a, haptoglobin and type 1 interferon in cattle experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O. Vet Res 2011; 42:66. [PMID: 21592356 PMCID: PMC3123197 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-42-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
A series of challenge experiments were performed in order to investigate the acute phase responses to foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection in cattle and possible implications for the development of persistently infected "carriers". The host response to infection was investigated through measurements of the concentrations of the acute phase proteins (APPs) serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (HP), as well as the bioactivity of type 1 interferon (IFN) in serum of infected animals. Results were based on measurements from a total of 36 infected animals of which 24 were kept for observational periods exceeding 28 days in order to determine the carrier-status of individual animals. The systemic host response to FMDV in infected animals was evaluated in comparison to similar measurements in sera from 6 mock-inoculated control animals. There was a significant increase in serum concentrations of both APPs and type 1 IFN in infected animals coinciding with the onset of viremia and clinical disease. The measured parameters declined to baseline levels within 21 days after inoculation, indicating that there was no systemically measurable inflammatory reaction related to the carrier state of FMD. There was a statistically significant difference in the HP response between carriers and non-carriers with a lower response in the animals that subsequently developed into FMDV carriers. It was concluded that the induction of SAA, HP and type 1 IFN in serum can be used as markers of acute infection by FMDV in cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Stenfeldt
- National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark (DTU-Vet), Division of Virology, Lindholm, DK-4771 Kalvehave, Denmark.
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Golde WT, de Los Santos T, Robinson L, Grubman MJ, Sevilla N, Summerfield A, Charleston B. Evidence of activation and suppression during the early immune response to foot-and-mouth disease virus. Transbound Emerg Dis 2011; 58:283-90. [PMID: 21501424 DOI: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011.01223.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus causes a serious disease of livestock species, threatening free global trade and food security. The disease spreads rapidly between animals, and to ensure a window of opportunity for such spread, the virus has evolved multiple mechanisms to subvert the early immune response. The cycle of infection in the individual animal is very short, infection is initiated, disseminated throughout the body and infectious virus produced in <7 days. Foot-and-mouth disease virus has been shown to disrupt the innate response in vitro and also interacts directly with antigen-presenting cells and their precursors. This interaction results in suboptimal immune function, favouring viral replication and the delayed onset of specific adaptive T-cell responses. Detailed understanding of this cycle is crucial to effectively control disease in livestock populations. Knowledge-based vaccine design would specifically target and induce the immunological mechanisms of early protection and of robust memory induction. Specifically, information on the contribution of cytokines and interferon, innate immune cells as well as humoral and cellular immunity can be employed to design vaccines promoting such responses. Furthermore, understanding of viral escape mechanisms of immunity can be used to create attenuated viruses that could be used to develop novel vaccines and to study viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- W T Golde
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, USA
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46
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Summerfield A. Viewpoint: factors involved in type I interferon responses during porcine virus infections. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 148:168-71. [PMID: 21458079 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Revised: 02/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Since type I interferon (IFN-I) is considered a potent antiviral defence mechanism, it is not surprising that during evolution viruses have development of various mechanisms to counteract IFN-I induction or release. Despite this, certain virus infections are associated with very high levels of systemic IFN-I. One explanation for this observation is the presence of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), which are able to produce high levels of IFN-I despite the presence of viral IFN-I antagonists. Examples of virus infection in pigs including classical swine fever virus, influenza virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, and porcine circo virus type 2 highlight factors involved in controlling such responses and illustrate potential negative and positive effects for the host. Based on published data, we propose that in addition to the ability to activate pDC, the ability to spread systemically, and the tropism for lymphoid tissue also represent important factors contributing to strong systemic IFN-I responses during certain virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, 3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.
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47
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Bovine plasmacytoid dendritic cells are the major source of type I interferon in response to foot-and-mouth disease virus in vitro and in vivo. J Virol 2011; 85:4297-308. [PMID: 21307187 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02495-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Type I interferons (alpha/beta interferons [IFN-α/β]) are the main innate cytokines that are able to induce a cellular antiviral state, thereby limiting viral replication and disease pathology. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) play a crucial role in the control of viral infections, especially in response to viruses that have evolved mechanisms to block the type I IFN signal transduction pathway. Using density gradient separation and cell sorting, we have highly enriched a population of bovine cells capable of producing high levels of biologically active type I IFN. These cells represented less than 0.1% of the total lymphocyte population in blood, pseudoafferent lymph, and lymph nodes. Phenotypic analysis identified these cells as bovine pDCs (CD3(-) CD14(-) CD21(-) CD11c(-) NK(-) TCRδ(-) CD4(+) MHC II(+) CD45RB(+) CD172a(+) CD32(+)). High levels of type I IFN were generated by these cells in vitro in response to Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR-9) agonist CpG and foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) immune complexes. In contrast, immune complexes formed with UV-inactivated FMDV or FMDV empty capsids failed to elicit a type I IFN response. Depletion of CD4 cells in vivo resulted in levels of type I IFN in serum early during FMDV infection that were significantly lower than those for control animals. In conclusion, pDCs interacting with immune-complexed virus are the major source of type I interferon production during acute FMDV infection in cattle.
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48
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North American porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses inhibit type I interferon production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J Virol 2010; 85:2703-13. [PMID: 21191013 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01616-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although enveloped viruses typically trigger the prodigious secretion of alpha interferon (IFN-α) by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), porcine pDC remain quiescent when exposed to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). This inactivity is likely due to virus-mediated interference since the typical IFN-α response by either purified or nonsorted porcine pDC to transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) or the Toll-like receptor 9 agonist, oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) D19, was markedly reduced in the presence of PRRSV. Suppression occurred independently of virus viability and acidification of pDC early endosomes but correlated with diminished levels of IFN-α mRNA. This change was attributed to an abrogation of transcription resulting from a decrease in the otherwise enhanced amounts of the requisite interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF-7), whose gene expression in turn was limited as a consequence of a lessened availability of nuclear-localized signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1). While PRRSV also inhibited tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) synthesis by pDC responding to either agent, only the interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-6 production instigated by ODN D19 exposure was blocked. Likewise, PRRSV did not impact a specific TGEV-associated enhancement of IL-8 expression. Moreover, an augmented phosphorylation of NF-κB seen in activated pDC was not only unaffected by PRRSV but actually occurred in its presence. Thus, as supported by a demonstrated resilience of pDC to PRRSV infection, this pathogen may interact with a cell surface protein(s) to selectively impede the completion of cascades involved in cytokine production by stimulated pDC.
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49
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Foot-and-mouth disease virus exhibits an altered tropism in the presence of specific immunoglobulins, enabling productive infection and killing of dendritic cells. J Virol 2010; 85:2212-23. [PMID: 21177807 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02180-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes an acute vesicular disease of farm animals. The development of successful control strategies is limited by an incomplete understanding of the immune response to FMDV. Dendritic cells (DC) mediate the induction of immunity to pathogens, but their role in FMDV infection of cattle is uncharacterized. Bovine monocyte-derived DC (moDC) were exposed to integrin-binding and cell culture-adapted strains of FMDV in vitro. MoDC were not largely susceptible to infection by integrin-binding FMDV but were susceptible to culture-adapted virus. Binding specific antibodies to integrin-binding FMDV at neutralizing or subneutralizing IgG concentrations significantly enhanced infection via CD32 (FcγR). Monocytes also expressed CD32 but were nonsusceptible to FMDV immune complex (IC) infection, indicating a requirement for additional factors involved in cellular susceptibility. Infection of moDC by the FMDV IC was productive and associated with high levels of cell death. Infected moDC were unable to efficiently stimulate FMDV-specific CD4(+) memory T cells, but exposing moDC to IC containing inactivated FMDV resulted in significantly increased T cell stimulation. Thus, neutralized FMDV concurrently loses its ability to infect susceptible cells while gaining the capacity to infect immune cells. This represents a change in the tropism of FMDV that could occur after the onset of the antibody response. We propose that IC could dynamically influence the anti-FMDV immune response and that this may explain why the early immune response to FMDV has evolved toward T cell independence in vivo. Moreover, we propose that DC targeting could prove useful in the development of effective vaccines against FMDV.
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50
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Batista A, Quattrocchi V, Olivera V, Langellotti C, Pappalardo J, Di Giacomo S, Mongini C, Portuondo D, Zamorano P. Adjuvant effect of Cliptox™ on the protective immune response induced by an inactivated vaccine against foot and mouth disease virus in mice. Vaccine 2010; 28:6361-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.06.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2009] [Revised: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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