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Adimulam T, Arumugam T, Gokul A, Ramsuran V. Genetic Variants within SARS-CoV-2 Human Receptor Genes May Contribute to Variable Disease Outcomes in Different Ethnicities. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:8711. [PMID: 37240057 PMCID: PMC10218380 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24108711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has evolved into a global pandemic, with an alarming infectivity and mortality rate. Studies have examined genetic effects on SARS-CoV-2 disease susceptibility and severity within Eurasian populations. These studies identified contrasting effects on the severity of disease between African populations. Genetic factors can explain some of the diversity observed within SARS-CoV-2 disease susceptibility and severity. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the SARS-CoV-2 receptor genes have demonstrated detrimental and protective effects across ethnic groups. For example, the TT genotype of rs2285666 (Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)) is associated with the severity of SARS-CoV-2 disease, which is found at higher frequency within Asian individuals compared to African and European individuals. In this study, we examined four SARS-CoV-2 receptors, ACE2, Transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2), Neuropilin-1 (NRP1), and Basigin (CD147). A total of 42 SNPs located within the four receptors were reviewed: ACE2 (12), TMPRSS2 (10), BSG (CD147) (5), and NRP1 (15). These SNPs may be determining factors for the decreased disease severity observed within African individuals. Furthermore, we highlight the absence of genetic studies within the African population and emphasize the importance of further research. This review provides a comprehensive summary of specific variants within the SARS-CoV-2 receptor genes, which can offer a better understanding of the pathology of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and identify novel potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theolan Adimulam
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa; (T.A.); (T.A.); (A.G.)
| | - Thilona Arumugam
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa; (T.A.); (T.A.); (A.G.)
| | - Anmol Gokul
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa; (T.A.); (T.A.); (A.G.)
| | - Veron Ramsuran
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa; (T.A.); (T.A.); (A.G.)
- Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa
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Kehoe PG. The Coming of Age of the Angiotensin Hypothesis in Alzheimer's Disease: Progress Toward Disease Prevention and Treatment? J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 62:1443-1466. [PMID: 29562545 PMCID: PMC5870007 DOI: 10.3233/jad-171119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
There is wide recognition of a complex association between midlife hypertension and cardiovascular disease and later development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and cognitive impairment. While significant progress has been made in reducing rates of mortality and morbidity due to cardiovascular disease over the last thirty years, progress towards effective treatments for AD has been slower. Despite the known association between hypertension and dementia, research into each disease has largely been undertaken in parallel and independently. Yet over the last decade and a half, the emergence of converging findings from pre-clinical and clinical research has shown how the renin angiotensin system (RAS), which is very important in blood pressure regulation and cardiovascular disease, warrants careful consideration in the pathogenesis of AD. Numerous components of the RAS have now been found to be altered in AD such that the multifunctional and potent vasoconstrictor angiotensin II, and similarly acting angiotensin III, are greatly altered at the expense of other RAS signaling peptides considered to contribute to neuronal and cognitive function. Collectively these changes may contribute to many of the neuropathological hallmarks of AD, as well as observed progressive deficiencies in cognitive function, while also linking elements of a number of the proposed hypotheses for the cause of AD. This review discusses the emergence of the RAS and its likely importance in AD, not only because of the multiple facets of its involvement, but also perhaps fortuitously because of the ready availability of numerous RAS-acting drugs, that could be repurposed as interventions in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Gavin Kehoe
- Dementia Research Group, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Southmead Hospital, Bristol, UK
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Cáceres A, González JR. When pitch adds to volume: coregulation of transcript diversity predicts gene function. BMC Genomics 2018; 19:926. [PMID: 30545302 PMCID: PMC6293560 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-5263-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Genes corregulate their overall transcript volumes to perform their physiological functions. However, it is unknown if they additionally coregulate their transcript diversities. We studied the reliability, consistency and functional associations of co-splicing correlations of genes of interest, across two independent studies, multiple tissues and two statistical methods. We thoroughly investigated the reproducibility of co-splicing correlations of APP, the candidate gene of Azheimer’s disease (AD). We then studied how co-splicing correlations in different tissues contributed to predict functional interactions of three other genes and finally computed co-splicing frequency for 17 thousand genes across 52 human tissues. Results We replicated co-splicing correlations between APP and 5 AD-related genes and reproduced expected enrichment of APP co-splicing in synaptic vesicle cycle and proteosome pathways. We observed novel associations for tissue vulnerability to disease with enrichment in APP co-splicing, co-expression and epistasis in AD. APP co-splicing was the strongest predictor and replicated between studies. We confirmed known gene interactions of PRPF8 and GRIA1 in testis and brain cortex, and observed a novel interaction of FGFR2, in breast and prostate, modulated by cancer risk-variants. We produced a co-splicing map across 52 human tissues to help predict the function of over 17 thousand genes. Conclusions We show that coregulation of transcript diversities provides novel biological insights in gene physiology and helps to interpret GWAS results. Co-splicing correlations are reliable and frequent and should be further pursued to help predict gene function. Our results additionally support current AD interventions aiming at the ubiquitin proteosome pathway but unveil the need to consider transcript diversity in addition to volume to assess treatment response and susceptibility to the disease. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-5263-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Cáceres
- ISGlobal, 08003, Barcelona, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Juan R González
- ISGlobal, 08003, Barcelona, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain. .,Department of Mathematics, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain.
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Association of APOB and LIPC polymorphisms with type 2 diabetes in Chinese Han population. Gene 2018; 672:150-155. [PMID: 29883758 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2018.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Revised: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apolipoprotein B (APOB), and hepatic lipase (LIPC) genes have been shown to play a key role in lipid metabolism in type 2 diabetes (T2D). This study aimed to investigate the association of the three polymorphisms (rs679899 in APOB and rs6078 and rs6083 in LIPC) with T2D and related clinical quantitative traits. METHODS We conducted a case-control study in Chinese Han population, with a total of 929 T2D patients and 1044 healthy subjects in Chinese Han population. Polymorphisms were genotyped by MassARRAY Genotyping System. RESULTS The risk allele G of the polymorphism rs679899 was related to T2D (odds ratio (OR): 1.207, 95% confidence interval (CL): 1.006-1.448, P = 0.043) and the polymorphism rs679899 was associated with glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) levels (P = 0.001). We also showed that the polymorphism rs6083 was associated with cholesterol (CHOL) levels (P = 0.012), triglyceride (TG) levels (P = 0.040), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) levels (P = 0.033). No significant difference in genotypic frequencies of rs6078 and rs6083 was observed between T2D patients and controls. CONCLUSION This study suggests that the APOB polymorphism rs679899 is associated with type 2 diabetes and GGT levels, while the LIPC polymorphism rs6083 may influence CHOL, TG, and LDL levels in Chinese Han population.
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Roppongi RT, Karimi B, Siddiqui TJ. Role of LRRTMs in synapse development and plasticity. Neurosci Res 2016; 116:18-28. [PMID: 27810425 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2016.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich-repeat transmembrane neuronal proteins (LRRTMs) are a family of four synapse organizing proteins critical for the development and function of excitatory synapses. The genes encoding LRRTMs and their binding partners, neurexins and HSPGs, are strongly associated with multiple psychiatric disorders. Here, we review the literature covering their structural features, expression patterns in the developing and adult brains, evolutionary origins, and discovery as synaptogenic proteins. We also discuss their role in the development and plasticity of excitatory synapses as well as their disease associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiko T Roppongi
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Neuroscience Research Program, Kleysen Institute for Advanced Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, 710 William Avenue, Winnipeg R3Y 0Z3, MB, Canada
| | - Benyamin Karimi
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Neuroscience Research Program, Kleysen Institute for Advanced Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, 710 William Avenue, Winnipeg R3Y 0Z3, MB, Canada
| | - Tabrez J Siddiqui
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Neuroscience Research Program, Kleysen Institute for Advanced Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, 710 William Avenue, Winnipeg R3Y 0Z3, MB, Canada.
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Miners JS, Palmer JC, Tayler H, Palmer LE, Ashby E, Kehoe PG, Love S. Aβ degradation or cerebral perfusion? Divergent effects of multifunctional enzymes. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:238. [PMID: 25309424 PMCID: PMC4160973 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that deficient clearance of β-amyloid (Aβ) contributes to its accumulation in late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD). Several Aβ-degrading enzymes, including neprilysin (NEP), endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE), and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) reduce Aβ levels and protect against cognitive impairment in mouse models of AD. In post-mortem human brain tissue we have found that the activity of these Aβ-degrading enzymes rise with age and increases still further in AD, perhaps as a physiological response that helps to minimize the build-up of Aβ. ECE-1/-2 and ACE are also rate-limiting enzymes in the production of endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II (Ang II), two potent vasoconstrictors, increases in the levels of which are likely to contribute to reduced blood flow in AD. This review considers the possible interdependence between Aβ-degrading enzymes, ischemia and Aβ in AD: ischemia has been shown to increase Aβ production both in vitro and in vivo, whereas increased Aβ probably enhances ischemia by vasoconstriction, mediated at least in part by increased ECE and ACE activity. In contrast, NEP activity may help to maintain cerebral perfusion, by reducing the accumulation of Aβ in cerebral blood vessels and lessening its toxicity to vascular smooth muscle cells. In assessing the role of Aβ-degrading proteases in the pathogenesis of AD and, particularly, their potential as therapeutic agents, it is important to bear in mind the multifunctional nature of these enzymes and to consider their effects on other substrates and pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Scott Miners
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Jennifer C Palmer
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Hannah Tayler
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Laura E Palmer
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Emma Ashby
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Patrick G Kehoe
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Seth Love
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
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de Wit J, Ghosh A. Control of neural circuit formation by leucine-rich repeat proteins. Trends Neurosci 2014; 37:539-50. [PMID: 25131359 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2014.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The function of neural circuits depends on the precise connectivity between populations of neurons. Increasing evidence indicates that disruptions in excitatory or inhibitory synapse formation or function lead to excitation/inhibition (E/I) imbalances and contribute to neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. Leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing surface proteins have emerged as key organizers of excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Distinct LRR proteins are expressed in different cell types and interact with key pre- and postsynaptic proteins. These protein interaction networks allow LRR proteins to coordinate pre- and postsynaptic elements during synapse formation and differentiation, pathway-specific synapse development, and synaptic plasticity. LRR proteins, therefore, play a critical role in organizing synaptic connections into functional neural circuits, and their dysfunction may contribute to neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris de Wit
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Center for Human Genetics, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Anirvan Ghosh
- Neuroscience Discovery, F. Hoffman-La Roche, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
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8
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Wang XB, Cui NH, Gao JJ, Qiu XP, Yang N, Zheng F. Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphisms and risk for sporadic Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2014; 122:211-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-014-1235-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Chou CL, Yeh HI. The Role of the Renin-Angiotensin System in Amyloid Metabolism of Alzheimer's Disease. ACTA CARDIOLOGICA SINICA 2014; 30:114-118. [PMID: 27122777 PMCID: PMC4805016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unclear. Epidemiologic studies suggest hypertension plays a contributing role to AD. Recently, several experimental and observational studies showed interaction between the renin-angiotensin system and amyloid-β, a key pathologic feature of AD, with diverse results. This article reviews molecular, genetic, experimental and clinical data to clarify the impact on an AD patient with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor and angiotensin II receptor blocker therapy, with some guidance for the direction of possible future research. KEY WORDS Alzheimer's disease; Amyloid-β; Renin angiotensin system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Liang Chou
- Department of Neurology, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Hung-I Yeh
- Section of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan
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Winther M, Walmod PS. Neural cell adhesion molecules belonging to the family of leucine-rich repeat proteins. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 8:315-95. [PMID: 25300143 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8090-7_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) are motifs that form protein-ligand interaction domains. There are approximately 140 human genes encoding proteins with extracellular LRRs. These encode cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), proteoglycans, G-protein-coupled receptors, and other types of receptors. Here we give a brief description of 36 proteins with extracellular LRRs that all can be characterized as CAMs or putative CAMs expressed in the nervous system. The proteins are involved in multiple biological processes in the nervous system including the proliferation and survival of cells, neuritogenesis, axon guidance, fasciculation, myelination, and the formation and maintenance of synapses. Moreover, the proteins are functionally implicated in multiple diseases including cancer, hearing impairment, glaucoma, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Thus, LRR-containing CAMs constitute a large group of proteins of pivotal importance for the development, maintenance, and regeneration of the nervous system.
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Urbanowicz RJ, Andrew AS, Karagas MR, Moore JH. Role of genetic heterogeneity and epistasis in bladder cancer susceptibility and outcome: a learning classifier system approach. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2013; 20:603-12. [PMID: 23444013 PMCID: PMC3721175 DOI: 10.1136/amiajnl-2012-001574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Detecting complex patterns of association between genetic or environmental risk factors and disease risk has become an important target for epidemiological research. In particular, strategies that provide multifactor interactions or heterogeneous patterns of association can offer new insights into association studies for which traditional analytic tools have had limited success. MATERIALS AND METHODS To concurrently examine these phenomena, previous work has successfully considered the application of learning classifier systems (LCSs), a flexible class of evolutionary algorithms that distributes learned associations over a population of rules. Subsequent work dealt with the inherent problems of knowledge discovery and interpretation within these algorithms, allowing for the characterization of heterogeneous patterns of association. Whereas these previous advancements were evaluated using complex simulation studies, this study applied these collective works to a 'real-world' genetic epidemiology study of bladder cancer susceptibility. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION We replicated the identification of previously characterized factors that modify bladder cancer risk--namely, single nucleotide polymorphisms from a DNA repair gene, and smoking. Furthermore, we identified potentially heterogeneous groups of subjects characterized by distinct patterns of association. Cox proportional hazard models comparing clinical outcome variables between the cases of the two largest groups yielded a significant, meaningful difference in survival time in years (survivorship). A marginally significant difference in recurrence time was also noted. These results support the hypothesis that an LCS approach can offer greater insight into complex patterns of association. CONCLUSIONS This methodology appears to be well suited to the dissection of disease heterogeneity, a key component in the advancement of personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan John Urbanowicz
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, New Hampshire 03756, USA.
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LRRTM3 interacts with APP and BACE1 and has variants associating with late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). PLoS One 2013; 8:e64164. [PMID: 23750206 PMCID: PMC3672107 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine rich repeat transmembrane protein 3 (LRRTM3) is member of a synaptic protein family. LRRTM3 is a nested gene within α-T catenin (CTNNA3) and resides at the linkage peak for late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (LOAD) risk and plasma amyloid β (Aβ) levels. In-vitro knock-down of LRRTM3 was previously shown to decrease secreted Aβ, although the mechanism of this is unclear. In SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing APP and transiently transfected with LRRTM3 alone or with BACE1, we showed that LRRTM3 co-localizes with both APP and BACE1 in early endosomes, where BACE1 processing of APP occurs. Additionally, LRRTM3 co-localizes with APP in primary neuronal cultures from Tg2576 mice transduced with LRRTM3-expressing adeno-associated virus. Moreover, LRRTM3 co-immunoprecipitates with both endogenous APP and overexpressed BACE1, in HEK293T cells transfected with LRRTM3. SH-SY5Y cells with knock-down of LRRTM3 had lower BACE1 and higher CTNNA3 mRNA levels, but no change in APP. Brain mRNA levels of LRRTM3 showed significant correlations with BACE1, CTNNA3 and APP in ∼400 humans, but not in LRRTM3 knock-out mice. Finally, we assessed 69 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within and flanking LRRTM3 in 1,567 LOADs and 2,082 controls and identified 8 SNPs within a linkage disequilibrium block encompassing 5′UTR-Intron 1 of LRRTM3 that formed multilocus genotypes (MLG) with suggestive global association with LOAD risk (p = 0.06), and significant individual MLGs. These 8 SNPs were genotyped in an independent series (1,258 LOADs and 718 controls) and had significant global and individual MLG associations in the combined dataset (p = 0.02–0.05). Collectively, these results suggest that protein interactions between LRRTM3, APP and BACE1, as well as complex associations between mRNA levels of LRRTM3, CTNNA3, APP and BACE1 in humans might influence APP metabolism and ultimately risk of AD.
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Ji X, Jia L, Jia J, Qi L. Genetic association of urokinase-type plasminogen activator gene rs2227564 site polymorphism with sporadic Alzheimer's disease in the Han Chinese population. Neural Regen Res 2012; 7:2377-83. [PMID: 25538763 PMCID: PMC4268744 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2012.30.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A missense C/T polymorphism in exon 6 (the NCBI rsID is rs2227564) of the urokinase-type plasminogen activator gene has been identified as a possible hot spot for Alzheimer's disease risk. The present study analyzed urokinase-type plasminogen gene polymorphisms of rs2227564 with sporadic Alzheimer's disease by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Results showed that CC, CT and TT genotype distribution frequencies had significant differences between sporadic Alzheimer's disease patients and healthy controls. In-depth analysis of the association between urokinase-type plasminogen gene rs2227564 polymorphisms and sporadic Alzheimer's disease indicated that people with the C-positive genotype CC + CT were at a higher risk for developing sporadic Alzheimer's disease. These results support the contribution of the polymorphisms of rs2227564 in the urokinase-type plasminogen gene to the pathogenesis of sporadic Alzheimer's disease in the Han Chinese population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuelian Ji
- Department of Neurology, Inner Mongolia People's Hospital, Huhhot 010017, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
| | - Longfei Jia
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Jianping Jia
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China,
Corresponding author: Jianping Jia, Chief physician, Professor, Doctoral supervisor, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China . (N20111027001/WJ)
| | - Li Qi
- Inner Mongolia Corps Hospital, Chinese People's Armed Police Forces, Huhhot 010040, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China
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Kumar S, Singh S, Hinze D, Josten M, Sahl HG, Siepmann M, Walter J. Phosphorylation of amyloid-β peptide at serine 8 attenuates its clearance via insulin-degrading and angiotensin-converting enzymes. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:8641-51. [PMID: 22267728 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.279133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulation of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) in the brain is a common pathological feature of Alzheimer disease (AD). Aggregates of Aβ are neurotoxic and appear to be critically involved in the neurodegeneration during AD pathogenesis. Accumulation of Aβ could be caused by increased production, as indicated by several mutations in the amyloid precursor protein or the γ-secretase components presenilin-1 and presenilin-2 that cause familial early-onset AD. However, recent data also indicate a decreased clearance rate of Aβ in AD brains. We recently demonstrated that Aβ undergoes phosphorylation by extracellular or cell surface-localized protein kinase A, leading to increased aggregation. Here, we provide evidence that phosphorylation of monomeric Aβ at Ser-8 also decreases its clearance by microglial cells. By using mass spectrometry, we demonstrate that phosphorylation at Ser-8 inhibited the proteolytic degradation of monomeric Aβ by the insulin-degrading enzyme, a major Aβ-degrading enzyme released from microglial cells. Phosphorylation also decreased the degradation of Aβ by the angiotensin-converting enzyme. In contrast, Aβ degradation by plasmin was largely unaffected by phosphorylation. Thus, phosphorylation of Aβ could play a dual role in Aβ metabolism. It decreases its proteolytic clearance and also promotes its aggregation. The inhibition of extracellular Aβ phosphorylation, stimulation of protease expression and/or their proteolytic activity could be explored to promote Aβ degradation in AD therapy or prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathish Kumar
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany
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Shih CM, Kuo WH, Lin CW, Chen W, Cheng WE, Chen SC, Lee YL. Association of polymorphisms in the genes of the urokinase plasminogen activation system with susceptibility to and severity of non-small cell lung cancer. Clin Chim Acta 2010; 412:194-8. [PMID: 20937265 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2010.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2010] [Revised: 09/30/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Urokinase plasminogen activating (uPA) system is implicated in neoplastic progression. High tissue levels of uPA system components correlate with a poor prognosis in lung cancer. The present study examined the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of uPA and the corresponding receptor, uPAR, for exploring their roles in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). METHODS The allele frequencies and genotype distributions of uPA rs4065 C/T and uPAR rs344781 (-516 T/C) among 375 NSCLC cases and 380 healthy controls were examined using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment-length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis. Putative association between the above SNPs and clinicopathological characteristics of NSCLC were also analyzed. RESULTS The genotype frequencies of the variant homozygotes of uPA and uPAR were significantly different between NSCLC and control subjects. Significant association was also observed between the examined genotypes and disease stage of NSCLC. Logistic regression analysis revealed that individuals with uPA rs4065 TT genotype have higher odds ratios (ORs) for lung cancer. Whereas, subjects with uPAR-344781 CC genotype have lower ORs for lung cancer. The patients carrying a homozygous TT genotype at uPA rs4065, or at least a T allele at uPAR-344781 (-516), had a tendency to develop advanced disease. CONCLUSIONS Our results revealed that genetic polymorphisms of the uPA rs4065 C/T and uPAR rs344781 (-516 T/C) were associated with the susceptibility and severity of NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuen-Ming Shih
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, Taiwan, ROC
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Domingues-Montanari S, Hernandez-Guillamon M, Fernandez-Cadenas I, Mendioroz M, Boada M, Munuera J, Rovira A, Maisterra O, Parés M, Gutierrez M, Alvarez-Sabin J, Chacón P, Delgado P, Montaner J. ACE variants and risk of intracerebral hemorrhage recurrence in amyloid angiopathy. Neurobiol Aging 2010; 32:551.e13-22. [PMID: 20381197 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 01/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a well-established cause of lobar intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). The aim of the authors was to investigate the influence of clinical characteristics and genetic variants in the ACE, LRP, MMP9, Tafi, VEGFA, CYP11B2, A2M and APOE on ICH recurrence in a cohort of CAA-related ICH patients. Sixty patients were enrolled and new symptomatic ICHs in the 36 mo following the index event were recorded. Leukoaraiosis degree, microbleeds count and variants in the APOE and ACE were associated with ICH recurrence. The rs4311 variant of the ACE was an independent risk factor (p = 0.001), resisting Bonferroni correction. Moreover, carriers of ε2 of the APOE and TT of the rs4311 of the ACE reached 100% recurrence before 18 mo (p < 0.001). Finally, ACE protein level was measured in serum of controls and depended on the rs4311 genotypes, TT carriers presenting higher level than CC carriers (p = 0.012). These results suggest that variants in the ACE are associated with CAA-related ICH recurrence, possibly by modulating ACE protein level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Domingues-Montanari
- Neurology Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Institute of Research, Vall d'Hebron Hospital, Barcelona, Spain
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17
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Kehoe PG, Miners S, Love S. Angiotensins in Alzheimer's disease - friend or foe? Trends Neurosci 2009; 32:619-28. [PMID: 19796831 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2009.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2009] [Revised: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 07/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is an important regulator of blood pressure. Observational and experimental studies suggest that alterations in blood pressure and components of the brain RAS contribute to the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), resulting in changes that can lead or contribute to cognitive decline. The complexity of the RAS and diversity of its interactions with neurological processes have recently become apparent but large gaps in our understanding still remain. Modulation of activity of components of the brain RAS offers substantial opportunities for the treatment and prevention of dementia, including AD. This paper reviews molecular, genetic, experimental and clinical data as well as the therapeutic opportunities that relate to the involvement of the RAS in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick G Kehoe
- Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Department of Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay Hospital, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK.
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18
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Webster J, Reiman EM, Zismann VL, Joshipura KD, Pearson JV, Hu-Lince D, Huentelman MJ, Craig DW, Coon KD, Beach T, Rohrer KC, Zhao AS, Leung D, Bryden L, Marlowe L, Kaleem M, Mastroeni D, Grover A, Rogers J, Heun R, Jessen F, Kölsch H, Heward CB, Ravid R, Hutton ML, Melquist S, Petersen RC, Caselli RJ, Papassotiropoulos A, Stephan DA, Hardy J, Myers A. Whole genome association analysis shows that ACE is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and fails to replicate most candidates from Meta-analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND GENETICS 2009; 1:19-30. [PMID: 21537449 PMCID: PMC3076748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2009] [Accepted: 07/20/2009] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
For late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD), the only confirmed, genetic association is with the apolipoprotein E (APOE) locus on chromosome 19. Meta-analysis is often employed to sort the true associations from the false positives. LOAD research has the advantage of a continuously updated meta-analysis of candidate gene association studies in the web-based AlzGene database. The top 30 AlzGene loci on May 1(st), 2007 were investigated in our whole genome association data set consisting of 1411 LOAD cases and neuropathoiogicaiiy verified controls genotyped at 312,316 SNPs using the Affymetrix 500K Mapping Platform. Of the 30 "top AlzGenes", 32 SNPs in 24 genes had odds ratios (OR) whose 95% confidence intervals that did not include 1. Of these 32 SNPs, six were part of the Affymetrix 500K Mapping panel and another ten had proxies on the Affymetrix array that had >80% power to detect an association with α=0.001. Two of these 16 SNPs showed significant association with LOAD in our sample series. One was rs4420638 at the APOE locus (uncorrected p-value=4.58E-37) and the other was rs4293, located in the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) locus (uncorrected p-value=0.014). Since this result was nominally significant, but did not survive multiple testing correction for 16 independent tests, this association at rs4293 was verified in a geographically distinct German cohort (p-value=0.03). We present the results of our ACE replication aiongwith a discussion of the statistical limitations of multiple test corrections in whole genome studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Webster
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - Eric M Reiman
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Banner Alzheimer's InstitutePhoenix, AZ85006, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of ArizonaTucson, AZ85724, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - Victoria L Zismann
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - Keta D Joshipura
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - John v Pearson
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - Diane Hu-Lince
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - Matthew J Huentelman
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - David W Craig
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - Keith D Coon
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
- Division of Thoracic Oncology Research, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical CenterPhoenix, AZ85013, USA
| | - Thomas Beach
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
- Sun Health Research InstituteSun City, AZ85351, USA
| | - Kristen C Rohrer
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - Alice S Zhao
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - Doris Leung
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - Leslie Bryden
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - Lauren Marlowe
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - Mona Kaleem
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
| | | | - Andrew Grover
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
- Sun Health Research InstituteSun City, AZ85351, USA
| | - Joseph Rogers
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
- Sun Health Research InstituteSun City, AZ85351, USA
| | - Reinhard Heun
- Department of Psychiatry, University of BonnSigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Frank Jessen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of BonnSigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Heike Kölsch
- Department of Psychiatry, University of BonnSigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Rivka Ravid
- Netherlands Institute for Neurosciences, Dutch Royal Academy of Arts and SciencesMeibergdreef 47 AB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael L Hutton
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo ClinicJacksonville, FL32224, USA
| | - Stacey Melquist
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo ClinicJacksonville, FL32224, USA
| | - Ron C Petersen
- Department of Neurology, Mayo ClinicRochester, MN55905, USA
| | - Richard J Caselli
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
- Department of Neurology, Mayo ClinicScottsdale, AZ85259, USA
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State UniversityTempe, AZ85281, USA
| | - Andreas Papassotiropoulos
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Division of Molecular Psychology and Life Sciences Training Facility, Biozentrum, University of BaselSwitzerland
| | - Dietrich A Stephan
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen)Phoenix, AZ85004, USA
- Banner Alzheimer's InstitutePhoenix, AZ85006, USA
- Arizona Alzheimer's ConsortiumPhoenix AZ85006, USA
| | - John Hardy
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
- Reta Lila Weston Laboratories, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, Queen SquareLondon WC1N3BG, England
| | - Amanda Myers
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami, Miller School of MedicineMiami, FL33136, USA
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD20892, USA
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Seripa D, Panza F, Franceschi M, D'Onofrio G, Solfrizzi V, Dallapiccola B, Pilotto A. Non-apolipoprotein E and apolipoprotein E genetics of sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2009; 8:214-36. [PMID: 19496238 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2008.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The genetic epidemiology of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (SAD) remains a very active area of research,making it one of the most prolifically published areas in medicine and biology. Numerous putative candidate genes have been proposed. However, with the exception of apolipoprotein E (APOE), the only confirmed genetic risk factor for SAD, all the other data appear to be not consistent. Nevertheless, the genetic risk for SAD attributable to the APOE gene in the general population is 20-0%, providing a strong evidence for the existence of additional genetic risk factors. The first part of the present article was dedicated to non-APOE genetics of SAD, reviewing chromosomes-by-chromosomes the available data concerning the major candidate genes. The second part of this article focused on some recently discovered aspects of the APOE polymorphism and their implications for SAD. An attempt to identify the future directions for non-APOE genetic research in SAD was also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Seripa
- Geriatric Unit and Gerontology-Geriatrics Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy.
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20
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Helbecque N, Codron V, Cottel D, Amouyel P. An age effect on the association of common variants of ACE with Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 2009; 461:181-4. [PMID: 19539712 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2009] [Revised: 06/02/2009] [Accepted: 06/11/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
It is now well established that vascular risk factors are associated with cognitive performances. The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) components, major determinants of the cardiovascular system, are expressed in the brain and were shown to play a role on amyloid metabolism, learning and memory. The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), a pivotal RAS protein, is encoded by a huge gene containing many variants, one of them, the I/D variant (rs1799752), being associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Other variants, such as SNPs rs4291A>T located -240bp from the initiation codon, and rs4343G>A encoding a silent mutation in exon 16, were inconsistently associated with the risk of AD. In a case-control study including 376 late-onset AD patients and 444 control subjects, we showed a statistically significant effect on the risk of AD of two variants (rs4343 and rs1799752) and of the haplotype ATI (rs4343/rs4291/rs1799752) in subjects aged 73 years and above.
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21
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Miners S, Ashby E, Baig S, Harrison R, Tayler H, Speedy E, Prince JA, Love S, Kehoe PG. Angiotensin-converting enzyme levels and activity in Alzheimer's disease: differences in brain and CSF ACE and association with ACE1 genotypes. Am J Transl Res 2009; 1:163-77. [PMID: 19956428 PMCID: PMC2776311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2008] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD): ACE1 variations influence plasma ACE and risk of AD, and ACE is increased in AD brain. We measured frontal ACE level and activity in 89 AD and 51 control brains, and post-mortem CSF from 101 cases and 19 controls. Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) level and Braak stage were used to indicate neuronal preservation and disease progression. We genotyped the common ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism, rs4343, rs1800764 and rs4921. ACE activity was elevated in AD and correlated with Braak stage. Crude ACE levels were unchanged but adjustment for NSE suggested increased neuronal ACE production with Braak stage. Exposing SH-SY-5Y neurons to oligomeric Abeta1-42 increased ACE level and activity, suggesting Abeta may upregulate ACE in AD. In CSF, ACE level but not activity was reduced in AD. ACE1 genotype did not predict ACE level or activity in brain or CSF. ACE activity and neuronal production increase in AD brain, possibly in response to Abeta. Peripheral measurements do not reflect ACE activity in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Miners
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
| | - Emma Ashby
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
| | - Shabnam Baig
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
| | - Rachel Harrison
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
| | - Hannah Tayler
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
| | - Elizabeth Speedy
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
| | - Jonathan A Prince
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institute177 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Seth Love
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
| | - Patrick G Kehoe
- From Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay HospitalFrenchay, Bristol BS16 1LE, UK
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