Association of thiazolidinediones with liver cancer and colorectal cancer in type 2 diabetes mellitus

The Role of Fatty Acid Metabolism, the Related Potential Biomarkers, and Targeted Therapeutic Strategies in Gastrointestinal Cancers

Gastrointestinal cancer has emerged as a significant global health concern due to its high incidence and mortality, limited effectiveness of early detection, suboptimal treatment outcomes, and poor prognosis. Metabolic reprogramming is a prominent feature of cancer, and fatty acid metabolism assumes a pivotal role in bridging glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism. Fatty acids play important roles in cellular structural composition, energy supply, signal transduction, and other lipid-related processes. Changes in the levels of fatty acid metabolite may indicate the malignant transformation of gastrointestinal cells, which have an impact on the prognosis of patients and can be used as a marker to monitor the efficacy of anticancer therapy. Therefore, targeting key enzymes involved in fatty acid metabolism, either as monotherapy or in combination with other agents, is a promising strategy for anticancer treatment. This article reviews the potential mechanisms of fatty acid metabolism disorders in the occurrence and development of gastrointestinal tumors, and summarizes the related potential biomarkers and anticancer strategies.

Cancer biology in diabetes update: Focusing on antidiabetic drugs

The association of type 2 diabetes with certain cancer risk has been of great interest for years. However, the effect of diabetic medications on cancer development is not fully understood. Prospective clinical trials have not elucidated the long-term influence of hypoglycemic drugs on cancer incidence and the safety for cancer-bearing patients with diabetes, whereas numerous preclinical studies have shown that antidiabetic drugs could have an impact on carcinogenesis processes beyond the glycemic control effect. Because there is no evidence of the safety profile of antidiabetic agents on cancer biology, careful consideration would be required when prescribing any medicines to patients with diabetes and existing tumor. In this review, we discuss the potential influence of each diabetes therapy in cancer 'initiation', 'promotion' and 'progression'.

The Growing Landscape of NAFLD-Associated Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Its Impact in Surveillance

Liver cancer is globally the third leading cause of death from cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) develops in patients with underlying liver disease. The fraction of HCC attributed to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) shows an accelerated increase in the last decades, being already responsible for 15% of all HCC cases. Similar to other causes of liver cirrhosis, patients with NAFLD-associated cirrhosis should be enrolled in HCC-screening programs, yet these patients are under-screened, and currently are less than half likely to be proposed for HCC screening as compared to patients with HCV-associated cirrhosis. NAFLD-associated HCC has the peculiarity of occurring in precirrhotic phases in 20-50% of the cases. Currently, HCC screening in precirrhotic NAFLD patients is not routinely recommended, since the risk of developing HCC is very low. However, because NAFLD affects one-third of the worldwide population, noncirrhotic NAFLD already accounts for 6% of HCC cases. As such, it is pressing to develop stratification tools, in order to personalize the individual risk of HCC development in a patient with NAFLD, allowing precision HCC-screening programs. This review summarizes the epidemiology of NAFLD-associated HCC with a critical analysis of current HCC-screening recommendations.

Targeting the Metabolic Paradigms in Cancer and Diabetes

Dysregulated metabolic dynamics are evident in both cancer and diabetes, with metabolic alterations representing a facet of the myriad changes observed in these conditions. This review delves into the commonalities in metabolism between cancer and type 2 diabetes (T2D), focusing specifically on the contrasting roles of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and glycolysis as primary energy-generating pathways within cells. Building on earlier research, we explore how a shift towards one pathway over the other serves as a foundational aspect in the development of cancer and T2D. Unlike previous reviews, we posit that this shift may occur in seemingly opposing yet complementary directions, akin to the Yin and Yang concept. These metabolic fluctuations reveal an intricate network of underlying defective signaling pathways, orchestrating the pathogenesis and progression of each disease. The Warburg phenomenon, characterized by the prevalence of aerobic glycolysis over minimal to no OXPHOS, emerges as the predominant metabolic phenotype in cancer. Conversely, in T2D, the prevailing metabolic paradigm has traditionally been perceived in terms of discrete irregularities rather than an OXPHOS-to-glycolysis shift. Throughout T2D pathogenesis, OXPHOS remains consistently heightened due to chronic hyperglycemia or hyperinsulinemia. In advanced insulin resistance and T2D, the metabolic landscape becomes more complex, featuring differential tissue-specific alterations that affect OXPHOS. Recent findings suggest that addressing the metabolic imbalance in both cancer and diabetes could offer an effective treatment strategy. Numerous pharmaceutical and nutritional modalities exhibiting therapeutic effects in both conditions ultimately modulate the OXPHOS-glycolysis axis. Noteworthy nutritional adjuncts, such as alpha-lipoic acid, flavonoids, and glutamine, demonstrate the ability to reprogram metabolism, exerting anti-tumor and anti-diabetic effects. Similarly, pharmacological agents like metformin exhibit therapeutic efficacy in both T2D and cancer. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms underlying these metabolic shifts and explores promising therapeutic strategies aimed at reversing the metabolic imbalance in both disease scenarios.

In praise of pioglitazone: An economically efficacious therapy for type 2 diabetes and other manifestations of the metabolic syndrome

Pioglitazone improves glycaemic control, not only by lowering insulin resistance, but also by improving beta cell function. Because of the improved beta cell function the glycaemic control that occurs with pioglitazone is prolonged. Pioglitazone has positive effects not only on cardiac risk factors and surrogate measures of cardiovascular disease, it also lowers the incidence of cardiac events in patients with diabetes. The recurrence of transient ischaemic attack and ischaemic stroke is also reduced in non-diabetic, insulin-resistant subjects. Utilized at preclinical stages (but not later) of heart failure, pioglitazone improves diastolic function and avoids progression to heart failure. Pioglitazone, through suppression of atrial remodelling, also decreases the incidence of atrial fibrillation. The manifestations of diseases associated with insulin resistance (non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and polycystic ovary disease) are also improved with pioglitazone. Pioglitazone may possibly improve psoriasis and other dermopathies. Pioglitazone is therefore an inexpensive and efficacious drug for the insulin-resistant subject with diabetes that is underutilized because of biases that have evolved from the toxicities of other thiazolidinediones.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and diabetes mellitus as growing aetiologies of hepatocellular carcinoma

Obesity-related complications such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) are well-established risk factors for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This review provides insights into the molecular mechanisms that underlie the role of steatosis, hyperinsulinemia and hepatic inflammation in HCC development and progression. We focus on recent findings linking intracellular pathways and transcription factors that can trigger the reprogramming of hepatic cells. In addition, we highlight the role of enzymes in dysregulated metabolic activity and consequent dysfunctional signalling. Finally, we discuss the potential uses and challenges of novel therapeutic strategies to prevent and treat NAFLD/T2D-associated HCC.

Lactoferrin suppresses the progression of colon cancer under hyperglycemia by targeting WTAP/m6A/NT5DC3/HKDC1 axis

BACKGROUND

Although the relationship between type 2 diabetes (T2D) and the increased risk of colorectal carcinogenesis is widely defined in clinical studies, the therapeutic methods and molecular mechanism of T2D-induced colon cancer and how does hyperglycemia affect the progression is still unknown. Here, we studied the function of lactoferrin (LF) in suppressing the progression of colon cancer in T2D mice, and uncovered the related molecular mechanisms in DNA 5mC and RNA m6A levels.

METHODS

We examined the effects of LF (50% iron saturation) on the migration and invasion of colon tumor cells under high concentration of glucose. Then, transcriptomics and DNA methylation profilings of colon tumor cells was co-analyzed to screen out the special gene (NT5DC3), and the expression level of NT5DC3 in 75 clinical blood samples was detected by q-PCR and western blot, to investigate whether NT5DC3 was a biomarker to distinguish T2D patients and T2D-induced colon cancer patients from healthy volunteers. Futhermore, in T2D mouse with xenografted colon tumor models, the inhibitory effects of LF and NT5DC3 protein on colon tumors were investigated. In addition, epigenetic alterations were measured to examine the 5mC/m⁶A modification sites of NT5DC3 regulated by LF. Utilizing siRNA fragments of eight m⁶A-related genes, the special gene (WTAP) regulating m⁶A of NT5DC was proved, and the effect of LF on WTAP/NT5DC3/HKDC1 axis was finally evaluated.

RESULTS

A special gene NT5DC3 was screened out through co-analysis of transcriptomics and DNA methylation profiling, and HKDC1 might be a downstream sensor of NT5DC3. Mechanistically, LF-dependent cellular DNA 5mC and RNA m⁶A profiling remodeling transcriptionally regulate NT5DC3 expression. WTAP plays a key role in regulating NT5DC3 m⁶A modification and subsequently controls NT5DC3 downstream target HKDC1 expression. Moreover, co-treatment of lactoferrin and NT5DC3 protein restrains the growth of colon tumors by altering the aberrant epigenetic markers. Strikingly, clinical blood samples analysis demonstrates NT5DC3 protein expression is required to direct the distinction of T2D or T2D-induced colon cancer with healthy humans.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, this study reveals that lactoferrin acts as a major factor to repress the progression of colon cancer under hyperglycemia, thus, significantly expanding the landscape of natural dietary mediated tumor suppression.

New Association Between Diabetes Mellitus and Pancreatic Cancer

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus is a global issue that has affected the lives of many people all over the world. This disorder, which is also called the mother of all diseases, possesses high pathogenicity and results in the emergence of many disorders. One of the known correlated diseases is pancreatic cancer which can be accompanied by diabetes mellitus. Therefore, finding the association between these diseases and common genes is urgent.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, in order to survey the relationship between diabetes mellitus and pancreatic cancer, the common genes of these disorders were analyzed by bioinformatics tools.

METHODS

For this purpose, we screened 17 shared genes from microarray data downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. In addition, the relationship between identified genes was constructed by STRING and DAVID tools.

RESULTS

In total, 112 genes were identified to be differentially expressed. Among these, 17 genes were found to be common, including two genes that were down-regulated and others that were upregulated. Other analyses showed that most of the genes were enriched in Vibrio cholera infection and the mTOR signaling pathway. The biological processes of such genes included oxygen and gas transport, phagosome acidification, and GTPase activity.

CONCLUSION

In this study, 17 common genes that had not previously been considered in diabetes and pancreatic cancer were screened, which can be further considered for clinical approaches and in vitro studies.

Use of Antihyperglycemic Drugs and Risk of Cancer in Patients with Diabetes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Diabetes is associated with an increased risk for several types of cancer. Therefore, use of antihyperglycemic medications to lower blood glucose may modify cancer risk. Here we review available data on the link between the most common classes of antihyperglycemic agents and cancer risk among patients with diabetes.

RECENT FINDINGS

A database search was conducted between February 2022 and June 2022 on PubMed and Embase for systematic reviews and meta-analyses investigating the association between antihyperglycemic agents and risk of cancer. Use of biguanides such as metformin is associated with 20-30% lower risk for all cancer incidence, and somewhat greater benefit for cancer-related mortality. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, e.g., acarbose, have not been consistently associated with cancer. Similarly, no consistent effects have been reported for thiazolidinediones, but the relationship with cancer seems to depend on the type of drug, dose, and duration of treatment. Exposure to various types of incretin-based therapies (glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors) has not been found to significantly modify cancer risk. Inhibitors of sodium glucose cotransporter-2 may raise risk for bladder cancer and reduce risk for gastrointestinal cancer. Use of insulin and insulin analogs is associated with a significant increase in total cancer risk by almost 50% compared to other antihyperglycemic drugs. Likewise, insulin secretagogues like sulfonylureas have generally been linked to greater risk for cancer by ~ 20%, although these associations may be agent-specific and dose-dependent. Current evidence suggests that the risk of cancer associated with the use of antihyperglycemic medications among patients with diabetes depends on the class of drug and type of agent, dosage, and duration of treatment. More research is needed to delineate the mechanisms by which these agents affect the process of carcinogenesis.

Diabetes medications and risk of HCC

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a recognized risk factor for HCC in patients with liver disease, independent from the etiology of their liver disease. Hence, prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its underlying cause, insulin resistance, should be considered a treatment target for patients with liver disease. The drug armamentarium for diabetes is wide and consists of agents with insulin-sensitizing activity, agents that stimulate insulin secretion, insulin itself, and agents that reduce gastrointestinal and urinary glucose absorption. From an endocrinology perspective, the main goal of treatment is the achievement of euglycemia; however, in patients at risk of, or with known underlying liver disease, the choice of diabetic medication as it relates to potential hepatic carcinogenesis remains complex and should be carefully considered. In the last decade, increasing evidence has suggested that metformin may reduce the risk of HCC, whereas evidence for other classes of diabetic medications, particularly some of the newer agents including the sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, is fewer and often inconsistent. In this review, we aim to summarize the current evidence on the potential effects of the most widely used diabetic agents on liver cancer tumorigenesis.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma as a therapeutic target for hepatocellular carcinoma: Experimental and clinical scenarios

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer worldwide. Viral hepatitis is a significant risk factor for HCC, although metabolic syndrome and diabetes are more frequently associated with the HCC. With increasing prevalence, there is expected to be > 1 million cases annually by 2025. Therefore, there is an urgent need to establish potential therapeutic targets to cure this disease. Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the patho-physiology of HCC. Many synthetic agonists of PPARγ suppress HCC in experimental studies and clinical trials. These synthetic agonists have shown promising results by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in HCC cells and preventing the invasion and metastasis of HCC. However, some synthetic agonists also pose severe side effects in addition to their therapeutic efficacy. Thus natural PPARγ agonists can be an alternative to exploit this potential target for HCC treatment. In this review, the regulatory role of PPARγ in the pathogenesis of HCC is elucidated. Furthermore, the experimental and clinical scenario of both synthetic and natural PPARγ agonists against HCC is discussed. Most of the available literature advocates PPARγ as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of HCC.

Statin Use Reduces the Risk of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: An Updated Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary tumor of the liver resulting in approximately 800,000 deaths annually. A growing body of research investigating statin use and HCC risk has shown conflicting results. We aim to evaluate the current evidence of statin impact on HCC risk.

We performed a comprehensive literature search in PubMed, PubMed Central, Embase, and ScienceDirect databases from inception through May 2019 to identify all studies that evaluated the association between statin use and HCC. We included studies that presented an odds ratio (OR) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) or presented data sufficient to calculate the OR with a 95% CI. Statistical analysis was performed using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA), Version 3 software, and a Forrest plot was generated. We assessed for publication bias using conventional techniques.

Twenty studies (three randomized controlled trials, six cohorts, and 11 case-controls) with 2,668,497 patients including 24,341 cases of HCC were included in the meta-analysis. Our findings indicate a significant risk reduction of HCC among all statin users with a pooled odds ratio of 0.573 (95% CI: 0.491-0.668, I2= 86.57%) compared to non-users. No publication bias was found using Egger’s regression test or on visual inspection of the generated Funnel plot.

The results indicate that statin use was associated with a 43% lower risk of HCC compared to statin non-users. Further prospective randomized research is needed to confirm the association.

CRISPR/Cas9 Screens Reveal that Hexokinase 2 Enhances Cancer Stemness and Tumorigenicity by Activating the ACSL4-Fatty Acid β-Oxidation Pathway

Metabolic reprogramming is often observed in carcinogenesis, but little is known about the aberrant metabolic genes involved in the tumorigenicity and maintenance of stemness in cancer cells. Sixty-seven oncogenic metabolism-related genes in liver cancer by in vivo CRISPR/Cas9 screening are identified. Among them, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1), aldolase fructose-bisphosphate A (ALDOA), fatty acid binding protein 5 (FABP5), and hexokinase 2 (HK2) are strongly associated with stem cell properties. HK2 further facilitates the maintenance and self-renewal of liver cancer stem cells. Moreover, HK2 enhances the accumulation of acetyl-CoA and epigenetically activates the transcription of acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), leading to an increase in fatty acid β-oxidation activity. Blocking HK2 or ACSL4 effectively inhibits liver cancer growth, and GalNac-siHK2 administration specifically targets the growth of orthotopic tumor xenografts. These results suggest a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of liver cancer.

Selection and Warning of Evidence-Based Antidiabetic Medications for Patients With Chronic Liver Disease

The global prevalence of chronic liver disease and diabetes mellitus (DM) has gradually increased potentially due to changes in diet and lifestyle. The choice of antidiabetic medications for patients with coexisting DM and chronic liver disease is complicated. Severe liver injury may decrease the metabolism of antidiabetic medications, resulting in elevated drug concentrations and adverse effects. The choice of antidiabetic medications in patients with chronic liver disease has not been well studied. The long-term outcomes of antidiabetic medications in patients with chronic liver disease have gained attention recently. Herein, we reviewed relevant articles to extend our understanding on the selection and warning of antidiabetic medications for patients with chronic liver disease.

Pioglitazone, Bladder Cancer and the Presumption of Innocence

BACKGROUND

Thiazolidinediones are potent exogenous agonists of PPAR-γ, which augment the effects of insulin to its cellular targets and mainly at the level of adipose tissue. Pioglitazone, the main thiazolidinedione in clinical practice, has shown cardiovascular and renal benefits in patients with type 2 diabetes, durable reduction of glycated hemoglobulin levels, important improvements of several components of the metabolic syndrome and beneficial effects of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

OBJECTIVE

Despite all of its established advantages, the controversy for an increased risk of developing bladder cancer, combined with the advent of newer drug classes that achieved major cardiorenal effects have significantly limited its use spreading a persistent shadow of doubt for its future role.

METHODS

Pubmed, Google and Scope databases have been thoroughly searched and relevant studies were selected.

RESULTS

This paper explores thoroughly both in vitro and in vivo (animal models and humans) studies that investigated the possible association of pioglitazone with bladder cancer.

CONCLUSION

Currently the association of pioglitazone with bladder cancer cannot be based on solid evidence. This evidence cannot justify its low clinical administration, especially in the present era of individualised treatment strategies. Definite clarification of this issue is imperative and urgently anticipated from future high quality and rigorous pharmacoepidemiologic research, keeping in mind its unique mechanism of action and its significant pleiotropic effects.

Management of Diabetes in Candidates for Liver Transplantation and in Transplant Recipients

Diabetes is common in patients waitlisted for liver transplantation because of end-stage liver disease or hepatocellular cancer as well as in posttransplant phase (posttransplantation diabetes mellitus). In both conditions, the presence of diabetes severely affects disease burden and long-term clinical outcomes; careful monitoring and appropriate treatment are pivotal to reduce cardiovascular events and graft and recipients' death. We thoroughly reviewed the epidemiology of diabetes in the transplant setting and the different therapeutic options, from lifestyle intervention to antidiabetic drug use-including the most recent drug classes available-and to the inclusion of bariatric surgery in the treatment cascade. In waitlisted patients, the old paradigm that insulin should be the treatment of choice in the presence of severe liver dysfunction is no longer valid; novel antidiabetic agents may provide adequate glucose control without the risk of hypoglycemia, also offering cardiovascular protection. The same evidence applies to the posttransplant phase, where oral or injectable noninsulin agents should be considered to treat patients to target, limiting the impact of disease on daily living, without interaction with immunosuppressive regimens. The increasing prevalence of liver disease of metabolic origin (nonalcoholic fatty liver) among liver transplant candidates, also having a higher risk of noncirrhotic hepatocellular cancer, is likely to accelerate the acceptance of new drugs and invasive procedures, as suggested by international guidelines. Intensive lifestyle intervention programs remain however mandatory, both before and after transplantation. Achievement of adequate control is mandatory to increase candidacy, to prevent delisting, and to improve long-term outcomes.

Diabetes and Colorectal Cancer Risk: Clinical and Therapeutic Implications

Several epidemiological studies have identified diabetes as a risk factor for colorectal cancer (CRC). The potential pathophysiological mechanisms of this association include hyperinsulinemia, insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis, hyperglycemia, inflammation induced by adipose tissue dysfunction, gastrointestinal motility disorder, and impaired immunological surveillance. Several studies have shown that underlying diabetes adversely affects the prognosis of patients with CRC. This review explores the novel anticancer agents targeting IGF-1R and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), both of which play a vital role in diabetes-induced colorectal tumorigenesis. Inhibitors of IGF-1R and RAGE are expected to become promising therapeutic choices, particularly for CRC patients with diabetes. Furthermore, hypoglycemic therapy is associated with the incidence of CRC. Selection of appropriate hypoglycemic agents, which can reduce the risk of CRC in diabetic patients, is an unmet issue. Therefore, this review mainly summarizes the current studies concerning the connections among diabetes, hypoglycemic therapy, and CRC as well as provides a synthesis of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. Our synthesis provides a theoretical basis for rational use of hypoglycemic therapies and early diagnosis and treatment of diabetes-related CRC.

Baicalin suppresses the progression of Type 2 diabetes-induced liver tumor through regulating METTL3/m6A/HKDC1 axis and downstream p-JAK2/STAT1/clevaged Capase3 pathway

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological and clinical evidence suggests that diabetes increases the risk of liver cancer. Although the co-occurrence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and liver cancer is becoming more frequent, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Even though baicalin, extensively used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), can control T2D and inhibit liver cancer separately, minimal research is available regarding its possible effect on T2D-induced liver cancer. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to investigate the role of baicalin in T2D-induced hepatocellular cancer, and for the first time, we particularly emphasized the regulation of baicalin in genes RNA m⁶A in hepatocellular cancer.

METHODS

Here, we constructed a cell culture model under a high concentration of glucose and a T2D-induced liver tumor model to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo role of baicalin in T2D-induced liver cancer progression. After confirming the suppressive effect of baicalin and the HKDC1 antibody on T2D-induced liver tumors, the epigenetic alterations (DNA 5mC and RNA m⁶A) of the baicalin-regulated HKDC1 gene were detected using MS and q-PCR. Next, the METTL3 gene-regulated m⁶A (2854 site) was investigated using SELECT PCR. Finally, the impact of the other three baicalin analogs (baicalein, wogonoside, and wogonin) on tumor inhibition was tested in vivo while verifying the related RNA m⁶A mechanism.

RESULTS

The results showed that baicalin and the HKDC1 antibody suppressed T2D-induced liver tumor progression in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, baicalin significantly inhibited the epigenetic modification (DNA 5mC and RNA m⁶A) of HKDC1 in HepG2 tumors, mainly targeting the RNA m⁶A site (2854). The m⁶A-related gene, METTL3, regulated the RNA m⁶A site (2854) of HKDC1, which was also restricted by baicalin. Moreover, the study verified that baicalin regulated the METTL3/HKDC1/JAK2/STAT1/caspase-3 pathway in liver cancer cells when exposed to a high glucose concentration. In addition, the three baicalin analogs were proven to regulate the m⁶A (2854 site) of HKDC1 and suppress T2D-induced liver tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study revealed that baicalin suppressed T2D-induced liver tumor progression by regulating the METTL3/m⁶A/HKDC1 axis, which might support its potential application for preventing and treating T2D-induced liver cancer.

Nanomedicine in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A New Frontier in Targeted Cancer Treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death and is associated with a dismal median survival of 2-9 months. The fundamental limitations and ineffectiveness of current HCC treatments have led to the development of a vast range of nanotechnologies with the goal of improving the safety and efficacy of treatment for HCC. Although remarkable success has been achieved in nanomedicine research, there are unique considerations such as molecular heterogeneity and concomitant liver dysfunction that complicate the translation of nanotheranostics in HCC. This review highlights the progress, challenges, and targeting opportunities in HCC nanomedicine based on the growing literature in recent years.

Progress in understanding of relationship between diabetes and colorectal cancer

Several epidemiological studies have suggested that diabetes is closely associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer and diabetes could be regarded as an independent risk factor for colorectal cancer. Potential pathophysiological mechanisms connecting diabetes and colorectal cancer include hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin-like growth factor axis, chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, gastrointestinal motility disorder, and impaired immunological surveillance. Meanwhile, multiple studies have revealed that diabetes is negatively related to the prognosis of patients with colorectal cancer. This review mainly summarizes the current studies concerning the linkages between diabetes and colorectal cancer and the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, so as to provide a theoretical basis for rational use of antidiabetic drugs and early diagnosis of diabetes-related colorectal cancer.

Prevention of NAFLD-associated HCC: Role of lifestyle and chemoprevention

In many countries worldwide, the burden of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is increasing. Preventive strategies are needed to counteract this trend. In this review, we provide an overview of the evidence on preventive strategies in NAFLD-associated HCC. We consider the impact of lifestyle factors such as weight loss, physical activity, smoking, dietary patterns and food items, including coffee and alcohol, on both HCC and NAFLD/NASH. Furthermore, evidence on chemopreventive treatments, including aspirin, antidiabetic treatments and statins is summarised. The role of adjuvant therapies for tertiary prevention of HCC is briefly reviewed.

Obesity, Diabetes, and Increased Cancer Progression

Rates of obesity and diabetes have increased significantly over the past decades and the prevalence is expected to continue to rise further in the coming years. Many observations suggest that obesity and diabetes are associated with an increased risk of developing several types of cancers, including liver, pancreatic, endometrial, colorectal, and post-menopausal breast cancer. The path towards developing obesity and diabetes is affected by multiple factors, including adipokines, inflammatory cytokines, growth hormones, insulin resistance, and hyperlipidemia. The metabolic abnormalities associated with changes in the levels of these factors in obesity and diabetes have the potential to significantly contribute to the development and progression of cancer through the regulation of distinct signaling pathways. Here, we highlight the cellular and molecular pathways that constitute the links between obesity, diabetes, cancer risk and mortality. This includes a description of the existing evidence supporting the obesity-driven morphological and functional alternations of cancer cells and adipocytes through complex interactions within the tumor microenvironment.

Abnormal Metabolism in the Progression of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease to Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Mechanistic Insights to Chemoprevention

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is on the rise and becoming a major contributor to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Reasons for this include the rise in obesity and metabolic syndrome in contrast to the marked advances in prevention and treatment strategies of viral HCC. These shifts are expected to rapidly propel this trend even further in the coming decades, with NAFLD on course to become the leading etiology of end-stage liver disease and HCC. No Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved medications are currently available for the treatment of NAFLD, and advances are desperately needed. Numerous medications with varying mechanisms of action targeting liver steatosis and fibrosis are being investigated including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists and farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonists. Additionally, drugs targeting components of metabolic syndrome, such as antihyperglycemics, have been found to affect NAFLD progression and are now being considered in the treatment of these patients. As NAFLD drug discovery continues, special attention should be given to their relationship to HCC. Several mechanisms in the pathogenesis of NAFLD have been implicated in hepatocarcinogenesis, and therapies aimed at NAFLD may additionally harbor independent antitumorigenic potential. This approach may provide novel prevention and treatment strategies.

Thiazolidinediones, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, meglitinides, sulfonylureas, and hepatocellular carcinoma risk: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Effects of second-line oral antidiabetic medications on incident HCC risk in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus remain unclear. This study evaluated associations between sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, meglitinides and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, and incident HCC risk.

METHODS

We systematically reviewed all studies on PubMed, Embase and Web of Science databases. Studies were included if they documented: (1) exposure to oral antidiabetic medication classes; (2) HCC incidence; (3) relative risks/odds ratios (OR) for HCC incidence. Eight eligible observational studies were identified. We performed random-effects meta-analyses to calculate pooled adjusted ORs (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Thiazolidinedione use (7 studies, 280,567 participants, 19,242 HCC cases) was associated with reduced HCC risk (aOR = 0.92, 95% CI = 0.86-0.97, I² = 43%), including among Asian subjects (aOR = 0.90, 95% CI = 0.83-0.97), but not Western subjects (aOR = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.87-1.04). Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor use (3 studies, 56,791 participants, 11,069 HCC cases) was associated with increased HCC incidence (aOR = 1.08; 95% CI = 1.02-1.14, I² = 21%). Sulfonylurea use (8 studies, 281,180 participants, 19,466 HCC cases) was associated with increased HCC risk in studies including patients with established liver disease (aOR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.02-1.11, I² = 75%). Meglitinide use (4 studies, 58,237 participants, 11,310 HCC cases) was not associated with HCC incidence (aOR = 1.19; 95% CI = 0.89-1.60, I² = 72%).

CONCLUSIONS

Thiazolidinedione use was associated with reduced HCC incidence in Asian individuals with diabetes. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor or sulfonylurea use was associated with modestly increased HCC risk; future research should determine whether those agents should be avoided in patients with chronic liver disease.

Dual PPARγ/ɑ agonist oroxyloside suppresses cell cycle progression by glycolipid metabolism switch-mediated increase of reactive oxygen species levels

Cancer cells prefers to rely on aerobic glycolysis than pyruvate oxidation to meet the high demand of energy for rapidly proliferation. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are a kind of important ligand-inducible transcription factors and play crucial roles in glucose and lipid metabolism. Careful designing of novel agonists for PPARs, may show improvement with the side effects and also increase the therapeutic value for cancer and other metabolic disorder diseases. Compared with normal human liver cells, lower expression or acitivity of PPARs is observed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In this study, we show that oroxyloside (OAG) is a new dual agonist of PPARγ/ɑ, and inhibits cell proliferation of HCC based on metabolic switch. Via both PPAR-dependent and PPAR-independent regulations on glycolipid metabolic enzymes, OAG shuts down the catabolism of glucose and promotes fatty acids oxidation to generate acetyl-CoA for TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The metabolic switch induced by OAG results in a marked increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, leading to rapid dephosphorylation of RB and cell-cycle arrest in G1 phase. Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) and β-Oxidation are required for the suppression of cell cycle progression by OAG. Together, our findings provide a new drug candidate and a viable therapeutic strategy for HCC based on metabolic reprogram.

Lifestyle and Environmental Approaches for the Primary Prevention of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Patients with chronic liver disease are at increased risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Most patients diagnosed with HCC have limited treatment options and a poor overall prognosis, with a 5-year survival less than 15%. Preventing the development of HCC represents the most important strategy. However, current guidelines lack specific recommendations for primary prevention. Lifestyle factors may be central in the pathogenesis of HCC, and primary prevention strategies focused on lifestyle modification could represent an important approach to the prevention of HCC. Both experimental and epidemiologic studies have identified promising chemopreventive agents for the primary prevention of HCC.

Thiazolidinediones reduce the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatic events in diabetic patients with chronic hepatitis B

Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) improve glycaemic control and ameliorate liver steatosis, inflammation and fibrosis in patients with fatty liver disease. We aimed to study the impact of TZD and glycaemic control on the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and hepatic events in diabetic patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). We performed a retrospective cohort study on diabetic patients with CHB in 2000-2017 using a territory-wide electronic healthcare database in Hong Kong. Diabetes mellitus was identified by use of any antidiabetic medication, haemoglobin A_1c (HbA_1c ) ≥6.5%, fasting glucose ≥7 mmol/L in two measurements or ≥11.1 mmol/L in one measurement and/or diagnosis codes. Use of antidiabetic medications was modelled as time-dependent covariates. Of 28 999 diabetic patients with CHB, 3963 (13.7%) developed liver-related events (a composite endpoint of HCC and hepatic events) at a median (interquartile range) follow-up of 7.1 (3.7-11.8) years; 1153 patients received TZD during follow-up. After adjusted for important confounders, TZD use was associated with a reduced risk of liver-related events (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 0.46, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.24-0.88; P = .019). Similar trends were observed in HCC (aHR 0.57) and hepatic events (aHR 0.35) separately. Compared to HbA_1c of 6.5% at baseline, patients with HbA_1c ≥7% had an increased risk of liver-related events; the risk further increased in 5795 (20.0%) patients with HbA_1c ≥9% at baseline (aHR 1.14, 95% CI 1.04-1.26; P = .006). TZD use is associated with a lower risk of liver-related events in diabetic patients with CHB. Liver-related events are more common in patients with high HbA_1c levels.

Pleiotropic effects of anti-diabetic drugs: A comprehensive review

Diabetes mellitus characterized by hyperglycaemia presents an array of comorbidities such as cardiovascular and renal failure, dyslipidemia, and cognitive impairments. Populations above the age of 60 are in an urgent need of effective therapies to deal with the complications associated with diabetes mellitus. Widely used anti-diabetic drugs have good safety profiles and multiple reports indicate their pleiotropic effects in diabetic patients or models. This review has been written with the objective of identifying the widely-marketed anti-diabetic drugs which can be efficiently repurposed for the treatment of other diseases or disorders. It is an updated, comprehensive review, describing the protective role of various classes of anti-diabetic drugs in mitigating the macro and micro vascular complications of diabetes mellitus, and differentiating these drugs on the basis of their mode of action. Notably, metformin, the anti-diabetic drug most commonly explored for cancer therapy, has also exhibited some antimicrobial effects. Unlike class specific effects, few instances of drug specific effects in managing cardiovascular complications have also been reported. A major drawback is that the pleiotropic effects of anti-diabetic drugs have been mostly investigated only in diabetic patients. Thus, for effective repurposing, more clinical trials devoted to analyse the effects of anti-diabetic drugs in patients irrespective of their diabetic condition, are required.

Cancer Biology and Prevention in Diabetes

The available evidence suggests a complex relationship between diabetes and cancer. Epidemiological data suggest a positive correlation, however, in certain types of cancer, a more complex picture emerges, such as in some site-specific cancers being specific to type I diabetes but not to type II diabetes. Reports share common and differential mechanisms which affect the relationship between diabetes and cancer. We discuss the use of antidiabetic drugs in a wide range of cancer therapy and cancer therapeutics in the development of hyperglycemia, especially antineoplastic drugs which often induce hyperglycemia by targeting insulin/IGF-1 signaling. Similarly, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4), a well-known target in type II diabetes mellitus, has differential effects on cancer types. Past studies suggest a protective role of DPP-4 inhibitors, but recent studies show that DPP-4 inhibition induces cancer metastasis. Moreover, molecular pathological mechanisms of cancer in diabetes are currently largely unclear. The cancer-causing mechanisms in diabetes have been shown to be complex, including excessive ROS-formation, destruction of essential biomolecules, chronic inflammation, and impaired healing phenomena, collectively leading to carcinogenesis in diabetic conditions. Diabetes-associated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) contribute to cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) formation in tumors, allowing the epithelium and endothelium to enable tumor cell extravasation. In this review, we discuss the risk of cancer associated with anti-diabetic therapies, including DPP-4 inhibitors and SGLT2 inhibitors, and the role of catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT), AMPK, and cell-specific glucocorticoid receptors in cancer biology. We explore possible mechanistic links between diabetes and cancer biology and discuss new therapeutic approaches.

Survival Benefit for Metformin Through Better Tumor Response by Neoadjuvant Concurrent Chemoradiotherapy in Rectal Cancer

BACKGROUND

Metformin may reduce cancer risk and mortality and improve radiotherapy responses in several malignancies.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to compare tumor responses and prognoses of metformin and nonmetformin groups of diabetic patients receiving neoadjuvant concurrent chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer.

DESIGN

This is a retrospective study.

SETTING

This study was conducted at a single institution in the Republic of Korea.

PATIENTS

Between January 2000 and November 2017, 104 patients with rectal cancer who were taking diabetes medication and treated with neoadjuvant concurrent chemoradiotherapy followed by radical surgery were reviewed. Patients were divided into those taking (n = 62) and not taking metformin (n = 42). Tumor responses, survival, and other outcomes were analyzed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Tumor response, rectal cancer-specific survival, and disease-free survival rates were measured.

RESULTS

Tumor regression grade (p = 0.002), pathological complete response (p = 0.037), and N downstaging (p < 0.001) after neoadjuvant concurrent chemoradiotherapy were significantly higher in the metformin group than in the nonmetformin group. In analysis of cancer-specific mortality, metformin use, differentiation (well, moderate vs poor), pathological Union for International Cancer Control stage (3 vs 1-2), ypN stage (1-2 vs 0), and N downstaging (HR, 0.256 (95% CI, 0.082-0.794), p = 0.018; HR, 0.147 (95% CI, 0.031-0.697), p = 0.016; HR, 3.693 (95% CI, 1.283-10.635), p = 0.015; HR, 3.181 (95% CI, 1.155-8.759), p = 0.025, and HR, 0.175 (95% CI, 0.040-0.769), p = 0.021) were significant factors related to mortality in diabetic patients with rectal cancer. In addition, in the multivariate analysis of cancer recurrence, the interaction between metformin use and lymph node downstaging was a significant predictive factor (HR, 0.222 (95% CI, 0.077-0.639); p = 0.005).

LIMITATIONS

This was a small retrospective study conducted at a single institution.

CONCLUSIONS

Metformin use was associated with better tumor responses and cancer-specific survival, as well as a lower risk of cancer recurrence, in patients with diabetes mellitus who had lymph node downstaging after neoadjuvant concurrent chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer. See Video Abstract at http://links.lww.com/DCR/B185. BENEFICIO EN SUPERVIVENCIA CON METFORMINA A TRAVÉS DE UNA MEJOR RESPUESTA TUMORAL CON QUIMIORRADIOTERAPIA CONCURRENTE NEOADYUVANTE EN CÁNCER RECTAL: La metformina puede reducir el riesgo de cáncer y la mortalidad y mejorar las respuestas a la radioterapia en varios tumores malignos.Comparar las respuestas tumorales y los pronósticos de los grupos con metformina y sin metformina de pacientes diabéticos que reciben quimiorradioterapia concurrente neoadyuvante para cáncer de recto.Estudio retrospectivo.Institución única en la República de Corea.Se revisaron 104 pacientes entre enero de 2000 y noviembre de 2017, con cáncer rectal que tomaban medicamentos para diabetes y que fueron tratados con quimiorradioterapia concurrente neoadyuvante seguida de cirugía radical. Los pacientes se dividieron en aquellos que tomaban (n = 62) y los que no tomaban metformina (n = 42). Se analizaron las respuestas tumorales, la supervivencia y otros resultados.Se midieron las tasas de la respuesta tumoral, la supervivencia específica de cáncer rectal y de la supervivencia libre de enfermedad.El grado de regresión tumoral (p = 0.002), la remisión patológica completa (p = 0.037) y la reducción de la etapa N (p < 0.001) después de la quimiorradioterapia concurrente neoadyuvante fueron significativamente mayores en el grupo de metformina que en el grupo sin metformina. En el análisis de la mortalidad específica por cáncer, el uso de metformina, la diferenciación (bien, moderada vs pobre), el estadio patológico UICC (3 vs 1-2), el estadio ypN (1-2 vs 0) y la disminución de la etapa N (hazard ratios [intervalos de confianza 95%]: 0.256 [0.082-0.794], p = 0.018; 0.147 [0.031-0.697], p = 0.016; 3.693 [1.283-10.635], p = 0.015; 3.181 [1.155-8.759], p = 0.025 y 0.175 [0.040-0.769], p = 0.021, respectivamente) fueron factores significativos relacionados con la mortalidad en pacientes diabéticos con cáncer rectal. Adicionalmente, en el análisis multivariado de la recurrencia del cáncer, la interacción entre el uso de metformina y la disminución de la etapa ganglionar (N) fue un factor predictivo significativo (hazard ratios [intervalos de confianza del 95%]: 0.222 [0.077-0.639]; p = 0.005).Este fue un estudio retrospectivo pequeño realizado en un solo instituto.El uso de metformina se asoció con mejores respuestas tumorales y supervivencia específica de cáncer, así como un menor riesgo de recurrencia del cáncer, en pacientes con disminución de la etapa ganglionar (N) después de quimiorradioterapia concurrente neoadyuvante en pacientes con cáncer rectal y diabetes. Consulte Video Resumen en http://links.lww.com/DCR/B185. (Traducción-Dr. Jorge Silva Velazco).

Liver-related long-term outcomes of thiazolidinedione use in persons with type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Studies have described prominent histologic improvement in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) using thiazolidinedione (TZD); however, these were all short term with moderate sample size, no liver-related long-term outcomes could be noted.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study enrolled patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2013. We matched TZD users and nonusers at a 1:1 ratio through propensity score matching. This study included 5095 paired TZD users and nonusers. Cox proportional hazard models were used to compare the risks of cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation, hepatic failure and all-cause mortality between TZD users and nonusers. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to compare the cumulative incidence of these main outcomes.

RESULTS

The incidence rates of cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation, hepatic failure and all-cause mortality during follow-up were 0.77 vs 1.95, 1.43 vs 1.75, 0.36 vs 0.70, and 4.89 vs 3.78 per 1000 person-years between TZD users and nonusers. The adjusted hazard ratios of cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation, hepatic failure and all-cause mortality were 0.39 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.21-0.72), 0.86 (95% CI: 0.52-1.44), 0.46 (95% CI: 0.18-1.17) and 1.18 (95% CI: 0.87-1.61) respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated that TZD use could significantly lower the risk of cirrhosis. In clinical settings, TZD use might be able to improve liver-related long-term outcomes.

Association of hepatocellular carcinoma with thiazolidinediones use: A population-based case-control study

The study aimed to investigate the association between the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and thiazolidinediones use among type 2 diabetic patients who had risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma.A population-based case-control study was performed using the database of the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program. The cases consisted of 23580 type 2 diabetic subjects aged 20 to 84 years with newly diagnosed hepatocellular carcinoma between 2000 and 2011. The sex- and age-matched controls consisted of 23580 randomly selected type 2 diabetic subjects without hepatocellular carcinoma between 2000 and 2011. Ever use of thiazolidinediones was defined as subjects who had at least 1 prescription of thiazolidinediones before the index date. Never use of thiazolidinediones was defined as subjects who did not have a prescription of thiazolidinediones before the index date. The odds ratio and 95% confidence interval for the association between hepatocellular carcinoma and cumulative duration of thiazolidinediones use was measured by a multivariable logistic regression model.Among subjects with any 1 of the comorbidities including alcohol-related disease, cirrhosis, hepatitis B infection, hepatitis C infection, and other chronic hepatitis, a multivariable logistic regression model demonstrated that there was a negative association between hepatocellular carcinoma and every 1-year increase of cumulative duration of thiazolidinediones use (adjusted odds ratio 0.94, 95% confidence interval 0.92-0.97).There was a negative association in a duration-dependent manner between the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and thiazolidinediones use among type 2 diabetic patients who had risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma.

Penalized full likelihood approach to variable selection for Cox's regression model under nested case-control sampling

Assuming Cox's regression model, we consider penalized full likelihood approach to conduct variable selection under nested case-control (NCC) sampling. Penalized non-parametric maximum likelihood estimates (PNPMLEs) are characterized by self-consistency equations derived from score functions. A cross-validation method based on profile likelihood is used to choose the tuning parameter within a family of penalty functions. Simulation studies indicate that the numerical performance of (P)NPMLE is better than weighted partial likelihood in estimating the log-relative risk and in identifying the covariates and the model, under NCC sampling. LASSO performs best when cohort size is small; SCAD performs best when cohort size is large and may eventually perform as well as the oracle estimator. Using the SCAD penalty, we establish the consistency, asymptotic normality, and oracle properties of the PNPMLE, as well as the sparsity property of the penalty. We also propose a consistent estimate of the asymptotic variance using observed profile likelihood. Our method is illustrated to analyze the diagnosis of liver cancer among those in a type 2 diabetic mellitus dataset who were treated with thiazolidinediones in Taiwan.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction in the Transition from NASH to HCC

The liver constantly adapts to meet energy requirements of the whole body. Despite its remarkable adaptative capacity, prolonged exposure of liver cells to harmful environmental cues (such as diets rich in fat, sugar, and cholesterol) results in the development of chronic liver diseases (including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)) that can progress to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The pathogenesis of these diseases is extremely complex, multifactorial, and poorly understood. Emerging evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction or maladaptation contributes to detrimental effects on hepatocyte bioenergetics, reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, inflammation, and cell death leading to NASH and HCC. The present review highlights the potential contribution of altered mitochondria function to NASH-related HCC and discusses how agents targeting this organelle could provide interesting treatment strategies for these diseases.

Study design choices for evaluating the comparative safety of diabetes medications: An evaluation of pioglitazone use and risk of bladder cancer in older US adults with type-2 diabetes

AIM

The aim of the study was to empirically demonstrate the effect of varying study designs when evaluating the safety of pioglitazone in treating bladder cancer.

METHODS

We identified Medicare beneficiaries above 65 years of age with diabetes between 2008 and 2015 and with classified exposure (at least two claims within 180 days) to glucose-lowering drugs (GLD), pioglitazone or another drug. The effects of varying the following study design parameters on bladder cancer risk were assessed: use of a new vs existing drug, choice of referent (all non-users and users of GLDs, non-insulin GLDs and DPP-4s) and whether or not censoring accounted for treatment change. We used the Cox proportional hazards model to obtain adjusted HRs and 95% CIs.

RESULTS

We included 1,510,212 patients classified as pioglitazone users (N = 135,188) or non-users (N = 1,375,024). Users had more diabetic complications than non-users, but fewer than insulin users. The HR ranged from 1.10 (1.01-1.20) to 1.13 (0.99-1.29) when censoring ignored treatment change, suggesting a weak association or none between pioglitazone and bladder cancer, probably under-estimating risk. However, the HR was 1.20 (1.01-1.42) when cohorts were restricted to new users, censored upon treatment change, and when DPP-4 was used as the referent, suggesting an increased risk of bladder cancer associated with pioglitazone.

CONCLUSIONS

The continued demand for new GLDs indicates the need for more robust observational methods to improve the value of generating real-world evidence in equipping clinicians to make informed prescribing decisions. Although there is no one-size-fits-all approach, we recommend active comparator new user study designs that compare therapeutically equivalent drugs and account for treatment changes during follow-up to present the least biased comparative safety estimates.

Using human experience to identify drug repurposing opportunities: theory and practice

Retrospective evidence drawn from real-world experience of a medicine's use outside its labelled indication is one of a number of techniques used in drug repurposing (DRP). Relying as it does on large numbers of real incidences of human experience, rather than individual case reports with limited statistical support, preclinical experiments with poor translatability or in silico associations, which are early-stage hypotheses, it represents the best validated form of DRP. Cancer is the most frequent of such DRP examples (e.g. aspirin in pancreatic cancer, hazard ratio = 0.25). This approach can be combined with pathway analysis to provide first-in-class treatments for complex diseases. Alternatively, it can be combined with prospective preclinical studies to uncover a validated mechanism for a new indication, after which a repurposed molecule is chemically optimized.

Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance for Predicting the Recurrence of Hepatocellular Carcinoma after Curative Treatment

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of the disorder of glucose metabolism on the recurrence of HCC after curative treatment. Two hundred and eleven patients with HCC who received curative treatment in our hospital from 2006 to 2017 were enrolled in this study. Recurrence-free survival was estimated using the Kaplan–Meier method, and the differences between the groups partitioned by the presence or absence of DM and the values of hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), fasting plasma glucose (FPG), fasting immunoreactive insulin (FIRI), and homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were evaluated using the log-rank test. There were no significant differences in the recurrence-free survival rate between the patients with and without DM (p = 0.144), higher and lower levels of HbA1c (≥6.5 and <6.5%, respectively; p = 0.509), FPG (≥126 and <126 mg/dL, respectively; p = 0.143), and FIRI (≥10 and <10 μU/mL, respectively; p = 0.248). However, the higher HOMA-IR group (≥2.3) had HCC recurrence significantly earlier than the lower HOMA-IR group (<2.3, p = 0.013). Moreover, there was a significant difference between the higher and lower HOMA-IR groups without DM (p = 0.009), and there was no significant difference between those groups with DM (p = 0.759). A higher HOMA-IR level, particularly in non-diabetic patients, was a significant predictor for HCC recurrence after curative treatment.

A systematic review of observational studies of the association between pioglitazone use and bladder cancer

AIM

To conduct a systematic review of all observational studies on the effect of pioglitazone on the risk of bladder cancer.

METHODS

The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were queried for papers published between 1 January 2000 and 30 October 2017. We took into consideration observational studies (both retrospective and prospective) that included participants with Type 2 diabetes prescribed anti-hyperglycaemic drugs.

RESULTS

While some studies reported an association, others did not, and meta-analyses of these studies showed a significantly increased risk; however, while meta-analysis is a powerful and practical statistical tool, its results should be considered with caution when applied to widely heterogeneous studies. We describe how many of these studies are affected by different types of bias, most notably time-related biases, which should preclude a pooled analysis that would result in biased estimation of the risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Given existing data, it is not appropriate to pool the outcomes of highly heterogeneous studies and further rigorously conducted observational research is needed to clarify the role of pioglitazone use on the incidence of bladder cancer.

Drug Development for Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Landscape and Challenges

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is now the leading cause of chronic liver disease in industrialized economies. With no licensed treatment currently available, together with a growing prevalence that parallels global increases in obesity and type 2 diabetes, NAFLD will dominate the landscape of hepatology for the foreseeable future. A multifaceted etiopathogenesis, paucity of reproducible preclinical models that effectively recreate human NAFLD, and lack of robust surrogate trial endpoints have presented major hurdles in drug discovery and development. Smooth collaboration between bench scientists, biotechnology, pharmaceutical industries, and clinicians will be pivotal to target identification, development of effective therapies, biomarker discovery, and ultimately to bring pipeline drugs to market. This review examines the key challenges remaining in NAFLD drug development, outlines early and late phase clinical trials of candidate treatments, and discusses the journey toward biomarker discovery which may facilitate development of novel endpoints in NAFLD clinical trials, enabling meaningful response to be determined noninvasively.

Pioglitazone use and risk of bladder cancer: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Studies investigating bladder cancer risk in pioglitazone-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus patients report conflicting results. Previous meta-analyses on this topic utilized publications prior to 2013. More long-term observational studies have been published since then. We reviewed the accumulated evidence and updated findings from previous meta-analyses.

METHODS

This meta-analysis was based on a systematic review of peer-reviewed observational studies published prior to September 30, 2016. Eligible studies were identified using a specified MEDLINE search. References from included studies and from previous meta-analyses were screened for additional records. Meta-analysis hazards ratios were derived using a random-effects model. Several sensitivity analyses including hierarchical Bayesian meta-analysis with country-specific effects were conducted.

RESULTS

Of 363 identified records, 23 studies were included in this review and 18 in the actual meta-analyses. For bladder cancer outcome, the estimated effect size for ever vs. never use of pioglitazone was 1.16 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.04-1.28]. In the cumulative dose and duration analyses, highest effect was observed in the highest/longest exposure group, but substantial heterogeneity was present. In the sensitivity analysis, only studies adjusted for lifestyle-related factors were included and the frequentist effect size was 1.18 (95% CI, 1.00-1.40, p = 0.054). However, the risk was not verified in the Bayesian framework with an effect size of 1.17 [95% credible interval (CrI), 0.94-1.54].

CONCLUSIONS

In line with previous meta-analyses, we observed a small but statistically significant association between ever (vs. never) use of pioglitazone and bladder cancer risk; however, causality is not established and alternative explanations cannot be ruled out.

Pharmacotherapy of type 2 diabetes in patients with chronic liver disease: focus on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

INTRODUCTION

Pharmacotherapy used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is facing a paradigm shift in clinical practice with recent cardiovascular (CV) outcome trials having a substantial impact on drug prescription with treatment having a more tailored approach. In patients with T2DM, the issue of chronic liver disease is multifaceted. However, a clinical evidence is emerging on the beneficial effect of antidiabetic medications on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

AREAS COVERED

The authors provide a synopsis on the current and upcoming pharmacotherapy for NAFLD, including the challenges with their development, focusing on drugs for T2DM. Clinical data on the potential benefits and safety issues are assessed with the aim of proposing an individualized algorithm for patient management. Both MEDLINE and ClinicalTrials.Gov are used to derive the relevant information.

EXPERT OPINION

Considering the pivotal role of insulin resistance in NAFLD, insulin sensitizers should be the treatment of choice. Accordingly, pioglitazone is the only drug with a significant effect on liver fibrosis, the driver of disease progression and long-term outcome. Among new glucose-lowering drugs, glucagon-like-peptide 1 receptor agonists or sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 inhibitors have shown positive effects in phase II studies and are qualifying as potential candidates for NAFLD treatment in diabetes.

NAFLD/NASH in patients with type 2 diabetes and related treatment options

Type 2 diabetes may reduce life expectancy and patients' quality of life due to its micro- and macro-vascular complications and to the higher risk of several types of cancer. An emerging important factor is represented by the hepatic involvement; it is recognized that excessive hepatic fat accumulation represents a typical feature of diabetic patients and that it also plays an important pathogenic role. It is now evident that non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), generally perceived as a benign condition, may have on the contrary an important deleterious impact for diabetic patients increasing the risk to develop cardiovascular complications but also serious hepatic diseases, in particular non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Lifestyle intervention, bariatric surgery and several drug therapies have now accumulated evidence of efficacy in treating NASH. On the other hand, their durability and safety in the long-term is yet to be proven and their use may be sometimes associated with side effects or higher risk of adverse events limiting the regular administration or contraindicating it. Professional health care providers, building awareness about the importance of these hepatic complications, should put more efforts in primary prevention using a behavioral therapy needing a multidisciplinary approach, in secondary prevention applying on a regular basis in the clinical setting available predictive algorithms to identify the patients at higher cardiovascular and hepatologic risk, and in tertiary prevention treating, when not contraindicated, the diabetic patients preferentially with drugs with proven benefit on NAFLD/NASH.

Pioglitazone and bladder cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Current evidence about the association between pioglitazone and bladder cancer risk remains conflict. We aimed to assess the risk of bladder cancer associated with the use of pioglitazone and identify modifiers that affect the results. We systematically searched PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials from inception to 25 August 2016 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies that evaluated the association between pioglitazone and bladder cancer risk. Conventional and cumulative meta-analyses were used to calculate the odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI). A restricted spline regression analysis was used to examine the dose-response relationship with a generalized least-squares trend test. We included two RCTs involving 9114 patients and 20 observational studies (n = 4,846,088 individuals). An increased risk of bladder cancer in patients treated with pioglitazone versus placebo was noted from RCTs (OR, 1.84; 95%CI, 0.99 to 3.42). In observational studies, the increased risk of bladder cancer was slight but significant among ever-users of pioglitazone versus never-users (OR, 1.13; 95%CI, 1.03 to 1.25), which appeared to be both time- (P = 0.003) and dose-dependent (P = 0.05). In addition, we observed the association differed by region of studies (Europe, United States, or Asia) or source of funding (sponsored by industry or not). Current evidence suggests that pioglitazone may increase the risk of bladder cancer, possibly in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Patients with long-term and high-dose exposure to pioglitazone should be monitored regularly for signs of bladder cancer.

Effect of hypoglycemic agents on survival outcomes of lung cancer patients with diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

To assess the association between hypoglycemic agents and prognosis of lung cancer patients with diabetes.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane Library until May 2017. The search yielded 2593 unique citations, of which 18 articles met inclusion criteria. The hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated by a fixed-effects or random-effects model.

RESULTS

The pooled HRs favoring metformin users were 0.77 for overall survival (OS) (n = 15, 95% CI: 0.68-0.86) and 0.50 for disease-free survival (n = 5, 95% CI: 0.39-0.64). One study assessed the relationship between metformin and cancer-specific survival (CSS), reporting no significant results. No significant association between insulin and OS (n = 2, HR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.79-1.13) or CSS (n = 2, HR: 1.03, 95% CI: 0.76-1.41) was noted. One study evaluated association of sulfonylureas with lung cancer survival and reported no clinical benefit (HR: 1.10, 95% CI: 0.87-1.40). One study reported no association of thiazolidinediones with lung cancer survival (HR: 1.04, 95% CI: 0.65-1.66).

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis demonstrated that metformin exposure might improve survival outcomes in lung cancer patients with diabetes.

Linking Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease to Hepatocellular Carcinoma: From Bedside to Bench and Back

Aims and background

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are two major causes of liver disease worldwide. Epidemiological and clinical data have clearly demonstrated that NAFLD and its associated metabolic abnormalities are a risk factor for HCC. Traditionally, the mechanisms whereby NAFLD acts as a risk for HCC are believed to include replicative senescence of steatotic hepatocytes and compensatory hyperplasia of progenitor cells as a reaction to chronic hepatic injury. Recent years have witnessed significant advances in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the link between NAFLD and HCC.

Methods

In the present review, we provide an update on the pathophysiological pathways linking NAFLD and its associated metabolic derangements to malignant hepatic transformation, with a special focus on insulin resistance, adipokines, inflammation, and angiogenesis. We will also discuss the potential therapeutic implications that such molecular links carry.

Results

Although treating NAFLD could reduce the risk of malignant hepatic transformation, no long-term studies focusing on this issue have been conducted thus far. Insulin resistance, inflammation as well as derangements in adipokines and angiogenic factors associated with NAFLD are closely intertwined with the risk of developing HCC.

Conclusions

Traditional therapeutic approaches in NAFLD including metformin and statins may theoretically reduce the risk of HCC by acting on common pathophysiological pathways shared by NAFLD and HCC.