Exosome miR-335 as a novel therapeutic strategy in hepatocellular carcinoma

Emerging role of exosomes in cancer therapy: progress and challenges

This review highlights recent progress in exosome-based drug delivery for cancer therapy, covering exosome biogenesis, cargo selection mechanisms, and their application across multiple cancer types. As small extracellular vesicles, exosomes exhibit high biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, making them ideal drug delivery vehicles capable of efficiently targeting cancer cells, minimizing off-target damage and side effects. This review aims to explore the potential of exosomes in cancer therapy, with a focus on applications in chemotherapy, gene therapy, and immunomodulation. Additionally, challenges related to exosome production and standardization are analyzed, highlighting the importance of addressing these issues for their clinical application. In conclusion, exosome-based drug delivery systems offer promising potential for future cancer therapies. Further research should aim to enhance production efficiency and facilitate clinical translation, paving the way for innovative cancer treatment strategies.

Exosomal microRNAs: impact on cancer detection, treatment, and monitoring

Exosomes, measuring between 30 and 150 nm in diameter, are small vesicles enclosed by a lipid bilayer membrane. They are released by various cells in the body and carry a diverse payload of molecules, including proteins, lipids, mRNA, and different RNA species such as long non-coding RNA, circular RNA, and microRNA (miRNA). With lengths of approximately 19-22 nucleotides, miRNAs constitute the predominant cargo in exosomes and serve as crucial regulators of protein biosynthesis. In cancer detection, exosomal miRNAs show promise as non-invasive biomarkers due to their stability and presence in various bodily fluids, aiding in early detection and precise diagnosis with specific miRNA signatures linked to different cancer types. Moreover, exosomal miRNAs influence treatment outcomes by affecting cellular processes like cell growth, cell death, and drug resistance, thereby impacting response to therapy. Additionally, they serve as indicators of disease progression and treatment response, providing insights that can guide treatment decisions and improve patient care. Through longitudinal studies, changes in exosomal miRNA profiles have been observed to correlate with disease progression, metastasis, and response to therapy, highlighting their potential for real-time monitoring of tumor dynamics and treatment efficacy. Understanding the intricate roles of exosomal miRNAs in cancer biology offers opportunities for developing innovative diagnostic tools and therapeutic strategies tailored to individual patients, ultimately advancing precision medicine approaches and improving outcomes for cancer patients. This review aims to provide an understanding of the role of exosomal miRNAs in cancer detection, treatment, and monitoring, shedding light on their potential for revolutionising oncology practices and patient care.

Extracellular Vesicles and Micro-RNAs in Liver Disease

Progression of liver disease is dependent on intercellular signaling, including those mediated by extracellular vesicles (EVs). Within these EVs, microRNAs (miRNAs) are packaged to selectively silence gene expression in recipient cells for upregulating or downregulating a specific pathway. Injured hepatocytes secrete EV-associated miRNAs which can be taken up by liver sinusoidal endothelial cells, immune cells, hepatic stellate cells, and other cell types. In addition, these recipient cells will secrete their own EV-associated miRNAs to propagate a response throughout the tissue and the circulation. In this review, we comment on the implications of EV-miRNAs in the progression of alcohol-associated liver disease, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis, viral and parasitic infections, liver fibrosis, and liver malignancies. We summarize how circulating miRNAs can be used as biomarkers and the potential of utilizing EVs and miRNAs as therapeutic methods to treat liver disease.

Biogenesis and functional implications of extracellular vesicles in cancer metastasis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a crucial role in the complex process of cancer metastasis by facilitating cellular communication and influencing the microenvironment to promote the spread and establishment of cancer cells in distant locations. This paper explores the process of EV biogenesis, explaining their various sources that range from endosomal compartments to plasma membrane shedding. It also discusses the complex mechanisms that control the sorting of cargo within EVs, determining their chemical makeup. We investigate the several functions of EVs in promoting the spread of cancer to other parts of the body. These functions include influencing the immune system, creating environments that support the formation of metastases before they occur, and aiding in the transformation of cells from an epithelial to a mesenchymal state. Moreover, we explore the practical consequences of EV cargo, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, in influencing the spread of cancer cells, from the beginning of invasion to the creation of secondary tumor sites. Examining recent progress in the field of EV-based diagnostics and treatments, we explore the potential of EVs as highly promising biomarkers for predicting the course of cancer and as targets for therapeutic intervention. This review aims to provide a complete understanding of the biology of EVs in the context of cancer metastasis. By unravelling the nuances of EV biology, it seeks to pave the way for new tactics in cancer detection, treatment, and management.

miRNAs in HCC, pathogenesis, and targets

Liver cancer is the third leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. HCC, the most common type of primary liver cancer, is driven by complex genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. MicroRNAs, a class of naturally occurring small noncoding RNAs, play crucial roles in HCC by simultaneously modulating the expression of multiple genes in a fine-tuning manner. Significant progress has been made in understanding how miRNAs influence key oncogenic pathways, including cell proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), as well as their role in modulating the immune microenvironment in HCC. Due to the unexpected stability of miRNAs in the blood and fixed HCC tumors, recent advancements also highlight their potential as noninvasive diagnostic tools. Restoring or inhibiting specific miRNAs has offered promising strategies for targeted HCC treatment by suppressing malignant hepatocyte growth and enhancing antitumor immunity. In this comprehensive review, we consolidate previous research and provide the latest insights into how miRNAs regulate HCC and their therapeutic and diagnostic potential. We delve into the dysregulation of miRNA biogenesis in HCC, the roles of miRNAs in the proliferation and apoptosis of malignant hepatocytes, angiogenesis and metastasis of HCC, the immune microenvironment in HCC, and drug resistance. We also discuss the therapeutic and diagnostic potential of miRNAs and delivery approaches of miRNA drugs to overcome the limitations of current HCC treatment options. By thoroughly summarizing the roles of miRNAs in HCC, our goal is to advance the development of effective therapeutic drugs with minimal adverse effects and to establish precise tools for early diagnosis of HCC.

MicroRNAs and RNA-Binding Protein-Based Regulation of Bone Metastasis from Hepatobiliary Cancers and Potential Therapeutic Strategies

Hepatobiliary cancers, such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), are among the deadliest malignancies worldwide, leading to a significant number of cancer-related deaths. While bone metastases from these cancers are rare, they are highly aggressive and linked to poor prognosis. This review focuses on RNA-based molecular mechanisms that contribute to bone metastasis from hepatobiliary cancers. Specifically, the role of two key factors, microRNAs (miRNAs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), which have not been extensively studied in the context of HCC and CCA, is discussed. These molecules often exhibit abnormal expression in hepatobiliary tumors, influencing cancer cell spread and metastasis by disrupting bone homeostasis, thereby aiding tumor cell migration and survival in the bone microenvironment. This review also discusses potential therapeutic strategies targeting these RNA-based pathways to reduce bone metastasis and improve patient outcomes. Further research is crucial for developing effective miRNA- and RBP-based diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and treatments to prevent bone metastases in hepatobiliary cancers.

Extracellular vesicles in cancer: challenges and opportunities for clinical laboratories

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized particles secreted by most cells. They transport different types of biomolecules (nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids) characteristic of their tissue or cellular origin that can mediate long-distance intercellular communication. In the case of cancer, EVs participate in tumor progression by modifying the tumor microenvironment, favoring immune tolerance and metastasis development. Consequently, EVs have great potential in liquid biopsy for cancer diagnosis, prognosis and follow-up. In addition, EVs could have a role in cancer treatment as a targeted drug delivery system. The intense research in the EV field has resulted in hundreds of patents and the creation of biomedical companies. However, methodological issues and heterogeneity in EV composition have hampered the advancement of EV validation trials and the development of EV-based diagnostic and therapeutic products. Consequently, only a few EV biomarkers have moved from research to clinical laboratories, such as the ExoDx Prostate IntelliScore (EPI) test, a CLIA/FDA-approved EV prostate cancer diagnostic test. In addition, the number of large-scale multicenter studies that would clearly define biomarker performance is limited. In this review, we will critically describe the different types of EVs, the methods for their enrichment and characterization, and their biological role in cancer. Then, we will specially focus on the parameters to be considered for the translation of EV biology to the clinic laboratory, the advances already made in the field of EVs related to cancer diagnosis and treatment, and the issues still pending to be solved before EVs could be used as a routine tool in oncology.

Extracellular Vesicles as Drug Delivery System for Cancer Therapy

In recent decades, the pursuit of drug delivery systems has led to the development of numerous synthetic options aimed at enhancing drug efficacy while minimizing side effects. However, the practical application of these systems is often hindered by challenges such as inefficiency, cytotoxicity, and immunogenicity. Extracellular vesicles, natural carriers for drugs, emerge as promising alternatives with distinct advantages over synthetic carriers. Notably, EVs exhibit biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and inherent tissue-targeting capabilities, thus opening new avenues for drug delivery strategies. This review provides an overview of EVs, including their biogenesis and absorption mechanisms. Additionally, we explore the current research efforts focusing on harnessing their potential as drug carriers, encompassing aspects such as purification techniques, drug loading, and bioengineering for targeted delivery. Finally, we discuss the existing challenges and future prospects of EVs as therapeutic agents in clinical settings. This comprehensive analysis aims to shed light on the potential of EVs as versatile and effective tools for drug delivery, particularly in the realm of cancer therapy.

Exosomal transfer of HCC-derived miR-17-5p downregulates NK cell function by targeting RUNX1-NKG2D axis

OBJECTIVE

Natural killer (NK) cells are an integral part of the staunch defense line against malignant tumors within the tumor microenvironment. Existing research indicates that miRNAs can influence the development of NK cells by negatively modulating gene expression. In this study, we aim to explore how the miR-17-5p in Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) exosomes regulates the killing function of NK cells towards HCC cells through the transcription factor RNX1.

METHODS

The exosomes were isolated from HCC tissues and cell lines, followed by a second generation sequencing to compare differential miRNAs. Verification was performed using qRT-PCR and Western blot methods. The mutual interactions between miR-17-5p and RUNX1, as well as between RUNX1 and NKG2D, were authenticated using techniques like luciferase reporter gene assays, Western blotting, and Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP). The cytotoxic activity of NK cells towards HCC cells in vitro was measured using methods such as RTCA and ELISPOT. The zebrafish xenotransplantation was utilized to assess the in vivo killing capacity of NK cells against HCC cells.

RESULTS

The level of miR-17-5p in exosomes from HCC tissue increased compared to adjacent tissues. We verified that RUNX1 was a target of miR-17-5p and that RUNX1 enhances the transcription of NKG2D. MiR-17-5p was found to downregulate the expression of RUNX1 and NKG2D, subsequently reducing the in vitro and in vivo cytotoxic capabilities of NK cells against HCC cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The miR-17-5p found within HCC exosomes can target RUNX1, subsequently attenuating the cytotoxic activity of NK cells.

Exosomes-based immunotherapy for cancer: Effective components in the naïve and engineered forms

Today, cancer treatment is one of the main challenges for researchers. The main cause of tumor cell formation is mutations that lead to uncontrolled proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis in malignant cells. Tumor cells also create a microenvironment that can suppress the immune system cells' responses through various methods, including producing soluble factors and cell-to-cell communication. After being produced from tumor cells, exosomes can also affect the functions of other cells in this microenvironment. Various studies have shown that exosomes from different sources, including tumor cells and immune cells, can be used to treat cancers due to their characteristics. Since tumor cells are rich sources of various types of tumor peptides, they can induce anti-tumor responses. Immune cells also produce exosomes that mimic the functions of their cells of origin, such that exosomes derived from NK cells and CTLs can directly lead to their apoptosis after merging with tumor cells. However, many researchers have pointed out that naïve exosomes have a limited therapeutic function, and their therapeutic potential can be increased by manipulating and engineering them. There are various methods to modify exosomes and improve their therapeutic potential. In general, these methods are divided into two parts, which include changing the cell of origin of the exosome and encapsulating the exosome to carry different drugs. In this review, we will discuss the studies on the therapeutic use of naive and engineered exosomes and provide an update on new studies in this field.

Advances and challenges of exosome-derived noncoding RNAs for hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis and treatment

Exosomes, also termed extracellular vesicles (EVs), are an important component of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and exert versatile effects on the molecular communications in the TME of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Exosome-mediated intercellular communication is closely associated with the tumorigenesis and development of HCC. Exosomes can be extracted through ultracentrifugation and size exclusion, followed by molecular analysis through sequencing. Increasing studies have confirmed the important roles of exosome-derived ncRNAs in HCC, including tumorigenesis, progression, immune escape, and treatment resistance. Due to the protective membrane structure of exosomes, the ncRNAs carried by exosomes can evade degradation by enzymes in body fluids and maintain good expression stability. Thus, exosome-derived ncRNAs are highly suitable as biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognostic prediction of HCC, such as exosomal miR-21-5p, miR-221-3p and lncRNA-ATB. In addition, substantial studies revealed that the up-or down-regulation of exosome-derived ncRNAs had an important impact on HCC progression and response to treatment. Exosomal biomarkers, such as miR-23a, lncRNA DLX6-AS1, miR-21-5p, lncRNA TUC339, lncRNA HMMR-AS1 and hsa_circ_0004658, can reshape immune microenvironment by regulating M2-type macrophage polarization and then promote HCC development. Therefore, by controlling exosome biogenesis and modulating exosomal ncRNA levels, HCC may be inhibited or eliminated. In this current review, we summarized the recent findings on the role of exosomes in HCC progression and analyzed the relationship between exosome-derived ncRNAs and HCC diagnosis and treatment.

MicroRNA Nano-Shuttles: Engineering Extracellular Vesicles as a Cutting-Edge Biotechnology Platform for Clinical Use in Therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized, membranous transporters of various active biomolecules with inflicting phenotypic capabilities, that are naturally secreted by almost all cells with a promising vantage point as a potential leading drug delivery platform. The intrinsic characteristics of their low toxicity, superior structural stability, and cargo loading capacity continue to fuel a multitude of research avenues dedicated to loading EVs with therapeutic and diagnostic cargos (pharmaceutical compounds, nucleic acids, proteins, and nanomaterials) in attempts to generate superior natural nanoscale delivery systems for clinical application in therapeutics. In addition to their well-known role in intercellular communication, EVs harbor microRNAs (miRNAs), which can alter the translational potential of receiving cells and thus act as important mediators in numerous biological and pathological processes. To leverage this potential, EVs can be structurally engineered to shuttle therapeutic miRNAs to diseased recipient cells as a potential targeted 'treatment' or 'therapy'. Herein, this review focuses on the therapeutic potential of EV-coupled miRNAs; summarizing the biogenesis, contents, and function of EVs, as well as providing both a comprehensive discussion of current EV loading techniques and an update on miRNA-engineered EVs as a next-generation platform piloting benchtop studies to propel potential clinical translation on the forefront of nanomedicine.

Native and engineered extracellular vesicles: novel tools for treating liver disease

Liver diseases are classified as acute liver damage and chronic liver disease, with recurring liver damage causing liver fibrosis and progression to cirrhosis and hepatoma. Liver transplantation is the only effective treatment for end-stage liver diseases; therefore, novel therapies are required. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are endogenous nanocarriers involved in cell-to-cell communication that play important roles in immune regulation, tissue repair and regeneration. Native EVs can potentially be used for various liver diseases owing to their high biocompatibility, low immunogenicity and tissue permeability and engineered EVs with surface modification or cargo loading could further optimize therapeutic effects. In this review, we firstly introduced the mechanisms and effects of native EVs derived from different cells and tissues to treat liver diseases of different etiologies. Additionally, we summarized the possible methods to facilitate liver targeting and improve cargo-loading efficiency. In the treatment of liver disease, the detailed engineered methods and the latest delivery strategies were also discussed. Finally, we pointed out the limitations and challenges of EVs for future development and applications. We hope that this review could provide a useful reference for the development of EVs and promote the clinical translation.

Exosomal ncRNAs: Multifunctional contributors to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignant liver cancer characterized by aggressive progression, unfavorable prognosis, and an increasing global health burden. Therapies that precisely target immunological checkpoints and immune cells have gained significant attention as possible therapeutics in recent years. In truth, the efficacy of immunotherapy is heavily contingent upon the tumor microenvironment (TME). Recent studies have indicated that exosomes serve as a sophisticated means of communication among biomolecules, executing an essential part in the TME of immune suppression. Exosomal non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) can induce the activation of tumor cells and immunosuppressive immune cells that suppress the immune system, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs), CD+8 T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs), and regulatory B cells (Bregs). This cell-cell crosstalk triggered by exosomal ncRNAs promotes tumor proliferation and metastasis, angiogenesis, malignant phenotype transformation, and drug resistance. Hence, it is imperative to comprehend how exosomal ncRNAs regulate tumor cells or immune cells within the TME to devise more comprehensive and productive immunotherapy programs. This study discusses the features of exosomal ncRNAs in HCC and how the activation of the exosomes redefines the tumor's immunosuppressive microenvironment, hence facilitating the advancement of HCC. Furthermore, we also explored the potential of exosomal ncRNAs as a viable biological target or natural vehicle for HCC therapy.

Inhalable dry powders of microRNA-laden extracellular vesicles prepared by thin-film freeze-drying

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are endogenous vesicles that comprise a variety of submicron vesicular structures. Among these, exosomes have been widely investigated as delivery systems for small and large molecules. Herein, the thin-film freeze-drying technology was utilized to engineer aerosolizable dry powders of miR-335-laden induced EVs (iEV-335) generated in B cells for potential delivery into the lung to treat primary lung cancer and/or pulmonary metastases. The size distribution, structure, and morphology of iEV-335 were preserved after they were subjected to thin-film freeze-drying with the proper excipients. Importantly, iEV-335, in liquid or reconstituted from thin-film freeze-dried powders, were equally effective in downregulating SOX4 gene expression in LM2 human triple-negative mammary cancer cells. The iEV-335 dry powder compositions showed mass median aerodynamic diameters (MMAD) of around 1.2 µm with > 60 % of the emitted doses had an MMAD of ≤ 3 µm, indicating that the powders can potentially achieve efficient deposition within the alveolar region following oral inhalation, which is desirable for treatment of primary lung cancer and pulmonary metastases. Overall, it is concluded that it is feasible to apply thin-film freeze-drying to prepare aerosolizable dry powders of iEVs for pulmonary delivery.

Understanding exosomes: Part 2-Emerging leaders in regenerative medicine

Exosomes are the smallest subset of extracellular signaling vesicles secreted by most cells with the ability to communicate with other tissues and cell types over long distances. Their use in regenerative medicine has gained tremendous momentum recently due to their ability to be utilized as therapeutic options for a wide array of diseases/conditions. Over 5000 publications are currently being published yearly on this topic, and this number is only expected to dramatically increase as novel therapeutic strategies continue to be developed. Today exosomes have been applied in numerous contexts including neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer's disease, central nervous system, depression, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, post-traumatic stress disorders, traumatic brain injury, peripheral nerve injury), damaged organs (heart, kidney, liver, stroke, myocardial infarctions, myocardial infarctions, ovaries), degenerative processes (atherosclerosis, diabetes, hematology disorders, musculoskeletal degeneration, osteoradionecrosis, respiratory disease), infectious diseases (COVID-19, hepatitis), regenerative procedures (antiaging, bone regeneration, cartilage/joint regeneration, osteoarthritis, cutaneous wounds, dental regeneration, dermatology/skin regeneration, erectile dysfunction, hair regrowth, intervertebral disc repair, spinal cord injury, vascular regeneration), and cancer therapy (breast, colorectal, gastric cancer and osteosarcomas), immune function (allergy, autoimmune disorders, immune regulation, inflammatory diseases, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis). This scoping review is a first of its kind aimed at summarizing the extensive regenerative potential of exosomes over a broad range of diseases and disorders.

A state-of-the-art review of the recent advances in exosome isolation and detection methods in viral infection

Proteins, RNA, DNA, lipids, and carbohydrates are only some of the molecular components found in exosomes released by tumor cells. They play an essential role in healthy and diseased cells as messengers of short- and long-distance intercellular communication. However, since exosomes are released by every kind of cell and may be found in blood and other bodily fluids, they may one day serve as biomarkers for a wide range of disorders. In many pathological conditions, including cancer, inflammation, and infection, they play a role. It has been shown that the biogenesis of exosomes is analogous to that of viruses and that the exosomal cargo plays an essential role in the propagation, dissemination, and infection of several viruses. Bidirectional modulation of the immune response is achieved by the ability of exosomes associated with viruses to facilitate immunological escape and stimulate the body's antiviral immune response. Recently, exosomes have received a lot of interest due to their potential therapeutic use as biomarkers for viral infections such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Hepatitis B virus (HBV), Hepatitis C virus (HCV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and SARS-CoV-2. This article discusses the purification procedures and detection techniques for exosomes and examines the research on exosomes as a biomarker of viral infection.

Role of miRNA in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common cancers and is responsible for the second cancer-related death globally. Many treatment regimens have been developed to cure the disease; however, life expectancy is still low. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore new selective, specific, and robust diagnosis markers for efficient early recognition of the ailment. Along with the diagnosis, the treatment's effectiveness can be determined by prognostic markers, and miRNAs are excellent tools for the diagnosis and prognosis of HCC. In addition, the altered expression profile of a few miRNAs promotes HCC cell migration and invasion, and selective up- or downregulation of these responsible genes may help mitigate the disorder. On one hand, few of the miRNAs have been found to enhance angiogenesis, a crucial step of tumor growth; on the other hand, upregulation of specific miRNAs is reported to suppress angiogenesis and resulting tumor growth of HCC cells. Exosomal miRNAs have significant implications in promoting angiogenesis, increased endothelial cell permeability, tube formation, and metastasis to hepatic and pulmonary tissues. miRNA also attributes to drug resistance toward chemotherapy and the prevention of autophagy also. Identifying novel miRNA and determining their differential expression in HCC tissue may serve as a potential tool for diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy to enhance the life expectancy and quality of life of HCC patients. In the present review, we have summarized the recent advances in HCC-related research.

Drug target therapy and emerging clinical relevance of exosomes in meningeal tumors

Meningioma is the most common central nervous system (CNS) tumor. In recent decades, several efforts have been made to eradicate this disease. Surgery and radiotherapy remain the standard treatment options for these tumors. Drug therapy comes to play its role when both surgery and radiotherapy fail to treat the tumor. This mostly happens when the tumors are close to vital brain structures and are nonbenign. Although a wide variety of chemotherapeutic drugs and molecular targeted drugs such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors, alkylating agents, endocrine drugs, interferon, and targeted molecular pathway inhibitors have been studied, the roles of numerous drugs remain unexplored. Recent interest is growing toward studying and engineering exosomes for the treatment of different types of cancer including meningioma. The latest studies have shown the involvement of exosomes in the theragnostic of various cancers such as the lung and pancreas in the form of biomarkers, drug delivery vehicles, and vaccines. Proper attention to this new emerging technology can be a boon in finding the consistent treatment of meningioma.

Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cell Exosome-derived miR-335-5p Alleviated Lipopolysaccharide-induced Acute Lung Injury by Regulating the m6A Level of ITGβ4 Gene

BACKGROUND

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a serious complication that may accompany severe pneumonia in children. Derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell exosome (HucMSC-Exo) can contribute to the regeneration of damaged lung tissue. This study aims to investigate the impact of HucMSC-Exo on ALI and its potential mechanisms.

METHODS

Firstly, RT-qPCR was performed to assess the expression of miR-335-5p. Subsequently, Pearson correlation analysis was performed to examine the correlation between METTL14 and miR-335-5p, as well as the correlation between METTL14 and ITGβ4, while RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) was used to determine the m6A modification level of ITGβ4. Additionally, molecular biology techniques were employed to evaluate the expression of glycolysis-related factors. Definitively, an LPS-induced ALI model was established to investigate the effect of miR-335-5p on mice lung tissue.

RESULTS

miR-335-5p was found to be highly expressed in HucMSC-Exo. Transfection with miR-335-5p mimics resulted in increased glucose uptake. Pearson correlation analysis revealed a negative correlation between METTL14 and miR-335-5p, as well as between METTL14 and ITGβ4. The m6A level of ITGβ4 was elevated in ALI. Overexpression of METTL14 was found to reduce the expression of ITGβ4 and glucose levels, while overexpression of ITGβ4 reversed the effects of METTL14 overexpression. In vivo, results demonstrated that miR-335-5p could improve the extent of lung tissue lesions and reduce glycolytic levels.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed the mechanism by which miR-335-5p derived from HucMSC-Exo could alleviate LPS-induced ALI by regulating the m6A modification of ITGβ4, providing a new direction for the treatment of ALI.

Fibroblast activation protein: Pivoting cancer/chemotherapeutic insight towards heart failure

An important mechanism for cancer progression is degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) which is accompanied by the emergence and proliferation of an activated fibroblast, termed the cancer associated fibroblast (CAF). More specifically, an enzyme pathway identified to be amplified with local cancer progression and proliferation of the CAF, is fibroblast activation protein (FAP). The development and progression of heart failure (HF) irrespective of the etiology is associated with left ventricular (LV) remodeling and changes in ECM structure and function. As with cancer, HF progression is associated with a change in LV myocardial fibroblast growth and function, and expresses a protein signature not dissimilar to the CAF. The overall goal of this review is to put forward the postulate that scientific discoveries regarding FAP in cancer as well as the development of specific chemotherapeutics could be pivoted to target the emergence of FAP in the activated fibroblast subtype and thus hold translationally relevant diagnostic and therapeutic targets in HF.

Applications of engineered exosomes in drugging noncoding RNAs for cancer therapy

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are engaged in key cell biological and pathological events, and their expression alteration is connected to cancer progression both directly and indirectly. A huge number of studies have mentioned the significant role of ncRNAs in cancer prevention and therapy that make them an interesting subject for cancer therapy. However, there are several limitations, including delivery, uptake, and short half-life, in the application of ncRNAs in cancer treatment. Exosomes are introduced as promising options for the delivery of ncRNAs to the target cells. In this review, we will briefly discuss the application and barriers of ncRNAs. After that we will focus on exosome-based ncRNAs delivery and their advantages as well as the latest achievements in drugging ncRNAs with exosomes.

Function and biomedical implications of exosomal microRNAs delivered by parenchymal and nonparenchymal cells in hepatocellular carcinoma

Small extracellular vesicles (exosomes) are important components of the tumor microenvironment. They are small membrane-bound vesicles derived from almost all cell types and play an important role in intercellular communication. Exosomes transmit biological molecules obtained from parent cells, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, and are involved in cancer development. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), the most abundant contents in exosomes, are selectively packaged into exosomes to carry out their biological functions. Recent studies have revealed that exosome-delivered miRNAs play crucial roles in the tumorigenesis, progression, and drug resistance of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In addition, exosomes have great industrial prospects in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of patients with HCC. This review summarized the composition and function of exosomal miRNAs of different cell origins in HCC and highlighted the association between exosomal miRNAs from stromal cells and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment and the progression of HCC. Finally, we described the potential applicability of exosomal miRNAs derived from mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of HCC.

Role of exosomes in the development, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer. It is characterized by occult onset resulting in most patients being diagnosed at advanced stages and with poor prognosis. Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles with a lipid bilayer envelope released by various cells under physiological and pathological conditions, which play an important role in the biological information transfer between cells. There is growing evidence that HCC cell-derived exosomes may contribute to the establishment of a favorable microenvironment that supports cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. These exosomes not only provide a versatile platform for diagnosis but also serve as a vehicle for drug delivery. In this paper, we review the role of exosomes involved in the proliferation, migration, and metastasis of HCC and describe their application in HCC diagnosis and treatment. We also discuss the prospects of exosome application in HCC and the research challenges.

Synthetic miR-26a mimics delivered by tumor exosomes repress hepatocellular carcinoma through downregulating lymphoid enhancer factor 1

BACKGROUND

The dysregulation of exosomal microRNAs plays an important role in the progression of hepatocarcinogenesis. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic potential of synthetic exosomal miR-26a against HCC cells and explored the feasibility of tumor-derived exosomes as drug delivery vehicles.

METHODS

Proliferation and migration assays were performed to examine the effects of miR-26a on HCC in vitro. The direct target gene of miR-26a was identified through miRecords analysis and target validation. The transferring efficiency and anti-HCC effect of exosomes with different origin were studied and the optimal miR-26a delivery method was established and verified in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the relationships between prognosis of HCC patients and miR-26a expression in HCC serum and exosomes were retrospectively analyzed.

RESULTS

Here, we found that tumor cell-derived exosomes were taken in preferentially by HCC cells and promoted HCC progression through Wnt pathway by low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6). HCC cells with vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 35 knocked down were adopted to generate engineered LRP6-exosomes. The engineered HCC-derived exosomes loading miR-26a inhibited HCC progression in vitro and in vivo effectively. Overexpression of miR-26a impaired the growth and migration of HCC by targeting lymphoid enhancer factor 1 (LEF1). Moreover, low expression of exosomal miR-26a was an independent prognostic factor for recurrence and survival in HCC patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested the exosomal miR-26a could serve as a non-invasive prognostic marker for HCC patients. Genetically modified tumor-derived exosomes showed preferable transfection efficiency but reduced Wnt activity, which provides a novel therapeutic strategy for HCC.

Molecular imaging-guided extracellular vesicle-based drug delivery for precise cancer management: Current status and future perspectives

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), the mediators of intercellular communication, have attracted the attention of researchers for the important roles they play in cancer treatment. Compared with other inorganic nano-materials, EVs possess the advantages of higher biocompatibility, better physiochemical stability, easier surface modification, and excellent biosafety. They can be used as an advanced drug delivery system with an improved therapeutic index for various therapeutic agents. Engineered EV-based imaging and therapeutic agents (engineered EVs) have emerged as useful tools in targeted cancer diagnosis and therapy. Non-invasive tracing of engineered EVs contributes to a better evaluation of their functions in cancer progression, in vivo dynamic biodistribution, therapeutic response, and drug-loading efficiency. Recent advances in real-time molecular imaging (MI), and innovative EV labeling strategies have led to the development of novel tools that can evaluate the pharmacokinetics of engineered EVs in cancer management, which may accelerate further clinical translation of novel EV-based drug delivery platforms. Herein, we review the latest advances in EVs, their characteristics, and current examples of EV-based targeted drug delivery for cancer. Then, we discuss the prominent applications of MI for tracing both natural and engineered EVs. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and considerations of EVs in targeted cancer treatment and the limitations of different MI modalities. In the coming decades, EV-based therapeutic applications for cancer with improved drug loading and targeting abilities will be developed, and better anti-cancer effects of drug delivery nanoplatform will be achieved.

Extracellular Vesicles in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Progress and Challenges in the Translation from the Laboratory to Clinic

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play critical roles in intercellular communication by transporting bioactive cargo to recipient cells. EVs have been implicated in a range of physiological and pathological processes, including tumor progression, metastasis, immune modulation, and drug resistance. The objective of this review is to present a thorough overview of recent studies focusing on EVs in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), with an emphasis on their potential utility as diagnostic biomarkers as well as therapeutic agents. Initially, we explore the utility of EVs as diagnostic biomarkers for HCC, followed by a discussion of their potential as carriers of therapeutic payloads. Additionally, we delve into the emerging field of therapeutic EVs for modulating tumor immune responses. Through this review, our ultimate aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the opportunities and challenges in the clinical translation of EV research in the domain of HCC.

Multifaced roles of desmoplastic reaction and fibrosis in pancreatic cancer progression: Current understanding and future directions

Desmoplastic reaction is a fibrosis reaction that is characterized by a large amount of dense extracellular matrix (ECM) and dense fibrous stroma. Fibrotic stroma around the tumor has several different components, including myofibroblasts, collagen, and other ECM molecules. This stromal reaction is a natural response to the tissue injury process, and fibrosis formation is a key factor in pancreatic cancer development. The fibrotic stroma of pancreatic cancer is associated with tumor progression, metastasis, and poor prognosis. Reportedly, multiple processes are involved in fibrosis, which is largely associated with the upregulation of various cytokines, chemokines, matrix metalloproteinases, and other growth factors that promote tumor growth and metastasis. Fibrosis is also associated with immunosuppressive cell recruitment, such as regulatory T cells (Tregs) with suppressing function to antitumor immunity. Further, dense fibrosis restricts the flow of nutrients and oxygen to the tumor cells, which can contribute to drug resistance. Furthermore, the dense collagen matrix can act as a physical barrier to block the entry of drugs into the tumor, thereby further contributing to drug resistance. Thus, understanding the mechanism of desmoplastic reaction and fibrosis in pancreatic cancer will open an avenue to innovative medicine and improve the prognosis of patients suffering from this disease.

Recent progress in exosome research: isolation, characterization and clinical applications

Exosomes, a kind of nano-vesicles released by various cell types, carry a variety of "cargos" including proteins, RNAs, DNAs and lipids. There is substantial evidence that exosomes are involved in intercellular communication by exchanging "cargos" among cells and play important roles in cancer development. Because of the different expressions of "cargos" carried by exosomes in biological fluids under physiological and pathological conditions, exosomes have the potential as a minimally invasive method of liquid biopsy for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. In addition, due to their good biocompatibility, safety, biodistribution and low immunogenicity, exosomes also have potential applications in the development of promising cancer treatment methods. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in the isolation and characterization techniques of exosomes. Moreover, we review the biological functions of exosomes in regulating tumor metastasis, drug resistance and immune regulation during cancer development and outline the applications of exosomes in cancer therapy.

Role of exosomes in the development of the immune microenvironment in hepatocellular carcinoma

Despite numerous improved treatment methods used in recent years, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is still a disease with a high mortality rate. Many recent studies have shown that immunotherapy has great potential for cancer treatment. Exosomes play a significant role in negatively regulating the immune system in HCC. Understanding how these exosomes play a role in innate and adaptive immunity in HCC can significantly improve the immunotherapeutic effects on HCC. Further, engineered exosomes can deliver different drugs and RNA molecules to regulate the immune microenvironment of HCC by regulating the aforementioned immune pathway, thereby significantly improving the mortality rate of HCC. This study aimed to declare the role of exosomes in the development of the immune microenvironment in HCC and list engineered exosomes that could be used for clinical transformation therapy. These findings might be beneficial for clinical patients.

The potential application of encapsulated exosomes: A new approach to increase exosomes therapeutic efficacy

Cell therapy is one of the methods that have shown promising results in treating diseases in recent decades. However, the use of different types of cells comes with limitations. The application of immune cells in cell therapy can lead to cytokine storms and inappropriate responses to self-antigens. Also, the use of stem cells has the potential to create tumors. Also, cells may not migrate to the injury site after intravenous injection. Therefore, using exosomes from different cells as therapeutic candidates were proposed. Due to their small size and favorable characteristics, such as biocompatibility and immunocompatibility, the easy storage and isolation, exosomes have attracted much attention. They are used in treating many diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, orthopedic diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. However, the results of various studies have shown that the therapeutic efficiency of exosomes (Exo) can be increased by loading different drugs and microRNAs inside them (encapsulated exosomes). Therefore, analyzing studies investigating encapsulated exosomes' therapeutic ability is critical. In this study, we have examined the studies related to the use of encapsulated exosomes in treating diseases such as cancer and infectious diseases and their use in regenerative medicine. Compared to intact exosomes, the results show that the application of encapsulated exosomes has a higher therapeutic ability. Therefore it is suggested to use this method depending on the treatment type to increase the treatment's efficiency.

Engineering Extracellular Vesicles as Delivery Systems in Therapeutic Applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are transport vesicles secreted by living cells and released into the extracellular environment. Recent studies have shown that EVs serve as "messengers" in intercellular and inter-organismal communication, in both normal and pathological processes. EVs, as natural nanocarriers, can deliver bioactivators in therapy with their endogenous transport properties. This review article describes the engineering EVs of sources, isolation method, cargo loading, boosting approach, and adjustable targeting of EVs. Furthermore, the review summarizes the recent progress made in EV-based delivery systems applications, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, liver, kidney, nervous system diseases, and COVID-19 and emphasizes the obstacles and challenges of EV-based therapies and possible strategies.

The intervention effect of Aitongxiao prescription on primary liver cancer rats was evaluated based on high-throughput miRNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis

Liver cancer is a common malignant tumor known for its difficult treatment and poor prognosis. As a traditional Chinese medicine prescription, Aitongxiao prescription (ATXP) has been used in clinical treatment of primary liver cancer (PLC) for more than ten years, and its therapeutic effect is obvious and has been verified over time. However, the mechanism of ATXP in treating PLC has not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to detect the liver-protective effect of ATXP on a PLC rat model and explore its potential mechanism from the perspective of plasma extracellular vesicle miRNAs. Fifty SPF male SD rats were randomly selected, with six rats as the control group, and the remaining rats were injected with DEN to establish a primary liver cancer model. The model rats were randomly divided into the model group and the ATXP group. After 4 weeks of intervention, the liver-protective effect of ATXP was evaluated using plasma biochemical indicators and histopathological methods. Plasma extracellular vesicles were isolated and extracted, and identified by transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blot. Significant differentially expressed miRNAs in extracellular vesicles were screened by Illumina sequencing to explore the therapeutic targets of ATXP and conduct functional analysis. The results showed that ATXP significantly reduced plasma liver function in PLC rats and alleviated liver pathological damage. In addition, plasma extracellular vesicles were isolated and identified. According to the results of GO and KEGG analysis, they were related to multiple biological processes and covered multiple signaling pathways (PI3K-Akt and MAPK signaling pathways, etc.). The interaction between miR-199a-3p and MAP3K4 was determined by bioinformatics methods and dual-luciferase reporter gene detection, confirming that MAP3K4 is the target gene of miR-199a-3p. In conclusion, ATXP protects the liver from DEN-induced PLC, which may be related to the regulation of plasma extracellular vesicle miR-199a-3p. This study further reveals the mechanism of ATXP in treating liver cancer and provides a theoretical basis for subsequent research.

Dynamic Role of Exosome microRNAs in Cancer Cell Signaling and Their Emerging Role as Noninvasive Biomarkers

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that originate from endosomes and are released by all cells irrespective of their origin or type. They play an important role in cell communication and can act in an autocrine, endocrine, or paracrine fashion. They are 40-150 nm in diameter and have a similar composition to the cell of origin. An exosome released by a particular cell is unique since it carries information about the state of the cell in pathological conditions such as cancer. miRNAs carried by cancer-derived exosomes play a multifaceted role by taking part in cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and immune evasion. Depending on the type of miRNA that it carries as its cargo, it can render cells chemo- or radiosensitive or resistant and can also act as a tumor suppressor. Since the composition of exosomes is affected by the cellular state, stress, and changes in the environment, they can be used as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers. Their unique ability to cross biological barriers makes them an excellent choice as vehicles for drug delivery. Because of their easy availability and stability, they can be used to replace cancer biopsies, which are invasive and expensive. Exosomes can also be used to follow the progression of diseases and monitor treatment strategies. A better understanding of the roles and functions of exosomal miRNA can be used to develop noninvasive, innovative, and novel treatments for cancer.

Exosomes: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Implications in Cancer

Exosomes are a subset of extracellular vesicles produced by all cells, and they are present in various body fluids. Exosomes play crucial roles in tumor initiation/progression, immune suppression, immune surveillance, metabolic reprogramming, angiogenesis, and the polarization of macrophages. In this work, we summarize the mechanisms of exosome biogenesis and secretion. Since exosomes may be increased in the cancer cells and body fluids of cancer patients, exosomes and exosomal contents can be used as cancer diagnostic and prognostic markers. Exosomes contain proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These exosomal contents can be transferred into recipient cells. Therefore, this work details the roles of exosomes and exosomal contents in intercellular communications. Since exosomes mediate cellular interactions, exosomes can be targeted for developing anticancer therapy. This review summarizes current studies on the effects of exosomal inhibitors on cancer initiation and progression. Since exosomal contents can be transferred, exosomes can be modified to deliver molecular cargo such as anticancer drugs, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and micro RNAs (miRNAs). Thus, we also summarize recent advances in developing exosomes as drug delivery platforms. Exosomes display low toxicity, biodegradability, and efficient tissue targeting, which make them reliable delivery vehicles. We discuss the applications and challenges of exosomes as delivery vehicles in tumors, along with the clinical values of exosomes. In this review, we aim to highlight the biogenesis, functions, and diagnostic and therapeutic implications of exosomes in cancer.

Extracellular vesicle RNA signaling in the liver tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) in liver cancers such as hepatocellular cancer (HCC) consists of a complex milieu of liver tissue-resident cells, infiltrated immune cells, and secreted factors that collectively serve to promote tumor growth and progression. Intercellular crosstalk contributes to tissue homeostasis, and perturbations during injury, inflammation and tumorigenesis that are important for tumor progression. Extracellular vesicle (EV)-mediated transfer of a payload of RNA molecules that serve as an intercellular signaling is an important contributor to tissue homeostasis within the TME. Several types of RNA have been implicated in EV-mediated signaling. Biological processes that can be modulated by EV RNA signaling within the liver include tumor growth, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and modulation of the immune cell activities. This mini-review describes the liver TME, and the biological effects of EV RNA-mediated signaling within the liver to highlight the role of EV RNA in intercellular communication.

Exosome-derived miRNAs regulate macrophage-colorectal cancer cell cross-talk during aggressive tumor development

Colorectal cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Its incidence and mortality have significantly increased during the past few years. Colorectal cancer cells cross-talk with other cells through exosomes in their tumor microenvironment. The miRNAs containing exosomes are responsible for tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. Multiple studies have shown that exosomal miRNAs are key players in the crosstalk between cancerous, immune, and stromal cells during colorectal cancer development. They help in the establishment of the tumorigenic microenvironment by reprogramming macrophages towards a pro-tumorigenic phenotype. In this review, we discussed various exosomal miRNAs derived both from colorectal cancer cells and macrophages that promote or inhibit cancer aggression. We also discussed various miRNA-based therapeutic approaches to inhibit cancer progression.

hsa-mir-133a-2 promotes the proliferation and invasion of cervical cancer cells by targeting the LAMB3-mediated PI3K/ATK pathway

OBJECTIVE

Cervical cancer, one of the common types of malignant tumors progressed in women, is on the rise in developing countries. Numerous previous studies have demonstrated that hsa-mir-133a-2 miRNA is abnormally expressed in cervical cancer cells. However, its fundamental mechanism in cervical cancer needs to be further clarified. Our study set out to investigate the effect of hsa-mir-133a-2 on the phenotypes of cervical cancer cells as well as any potential molecular processes involved in the proliferation and invasion of cervical cancer cells.

METHODS

The Cancer Genome Atlas-cervical squamous cell carcinoma and endocervical adenocarcinoma(TCGA-CESC) was adopted in order to verify the expression of hsa-mir-133a-2 in cervical cancer tissues and to identify its potential targets. The interaction between Laminin subunit beta-3(LAMB3) and hsa-mir-133a-2 was verified by TargetScan database as well as Luciferase reporter assay. The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8) and transwell methods were utilized to assess the influence of hsa-mir-133a-2 on the proliferation and invasion characteristics of cervical cancer cells. We studied the role that hsa-mir-133a-2 plays in cervical cancer progression through Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes(KEGG) analysis as well as Western Blot (WB) experiment.

RESULTS

Down-regulation of hsa-mir-133a-2 was detected in cervical cancer tissues. It directly targeted LAMB3 and negatively regulated LAMB3 expression. The overexpression of hsa-mir-133a-2 has a significant inhibiting effect on cervical cancer cell proliferation and invasion. The overexpression of hsa-mir-133a-2 significantly inhibits the proliferation and invasion of cervical cancer cells. Moreover, the LAMB3 was able to up-regulate the phosphorylation levels of AKT and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) protein in cervical cancer cells. hsa-mir-133a-2 could also modulate the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway by targeting LAMB3.

CONCLUSION

hsa-mir-133a-2 inhibits cervical cancer cell proliferation and invasion by indirectly regulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, providing us with a new clinical treatment strategy for cervical cancer.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell-Derived Exosomal miR-21-5p Induces Macrophage M2 Polarization by Targeting RhoB

M2-like polarized tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the major component of infiltrating immune cells in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), which have been proved to exhibit significant immunosuppressive and pro-tumoral effects. However, the underlying mechanism of the tumor microenvironment (TME) educating TAMs to express M2-like phenotypes is still not fully understood. Here, we report that HCC-derived exosomes are involved in intercellular communications and exhibit a greater capacity to mediate TAMs' phenotypic differentiation. In our study, HCC cell-derived exosomes were collected and used to treat THP-1 cells in vitro. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) results showed that the exosomes significantly promoted THP-1 macrophages to differentiate into M2-like macrophages, which have a high production of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and interleukin (IL)-10. The analysis of bioinformatics indicated that exosomal miR-21-5p is closely related to TAM differentiation and is associated with unfavorable prognosis in HCC. Overexpressing miR-21-5p in human monocyte-derived leukemia (THP-1) cells induced down-regulation of IL-1β levels; however, it enhanced production of IL-10 and promoted the malignant growth of HCC cells in vitro. A reporter assay confirmed that miR-21-5p directly targeted Ras homolog family member B (RhoB) 3'-untranslatedregion (UTR) in THP-1 cells. Downregulated RhoB levels in THP-1 cells would weaken mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) axis signaling pathways. Taken together, tumor-derived miR-21-5p promote the malignant advance of HCC, which mediated intercellular crosstalk between tumor cells and macrophages. Targeting M2-like TAMs and intercepting their associated signaling pathways would provide potentially specific and novel therapeutic approaches for HCC treatment.

Metastasis prevention: How to catch metastatic seeds

Despite considerable advances in the evolution of anticancer therapies, metastasis still remains the main cause of cancer mortality. Therefore, current strategies for cancer cure should be redirected towards prevention of metastasis. Targeting metastatic pathways represents a promising therapeutic opportunity aimed at obstructing tumor cell dissemination and metastatic colonization. In this review, we focus on preclinical studies and clinical trials over the last five years that showed high efficacy in suppressing metastasis through targeting lymph node dissemination, tumor cell extravasation, reactive oxygen species, pre-metastatic niche, exosome machinery, and dormancy.

Extracellular vesicle‑mediated miR‑126‑3p transfer contributes to inter‑cellular communication in the liver tumor microenvironment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their contents are gaining recognition as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of bioactive molecules, such as non‑coding RNA. The present study comprehensively assessed the microRNA (miRNA/miR) content within EVs released from HepG2 liver cancer (LC) cells and LX2 hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and determined the contribution of EV miRNA to intercellular communication. Using both transwell and spheroid co‑cultures of LC cells and HSCs, miR‑126‑3p within EV was established as a mediator of HSC to LC cell communication that influenced tumor cell migration and invasion, as well as the growth of multicellular LC/HSC spheroids. Manipulation of miR‑126‑3p either by enforced expression using pre‑miR‑126‑3p or by inhibition using antimiR‑126‑3p did not alter tumor cell viability, proliferation or sensitivity to either sorafenib or regorafenib. By contrast, enforced expression of miR‑126‑3p decreased tumor‑cell migration. Knockdown of miR‑126‑3p in tumor cells increased disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain‑containing protein 9 (ADAM9) expression and in HSCs increased collagen‑1A1 accumulation with an increase in compactness of multicellular spheroids. Within LC/HSC spheroids, ADAM9 and vascular endothelial growth factor expression was increased by silencing of miR‑126‑3p but diminished with the restoration of miR‑126‑3p. These studies implicate miR‑126‑3p in functional effects on migration, invasion and spheroid growth of tumor cells in the presence of HSCs, and thereby demonstrate functional EV‑RNA‑based intercellular signaling between HSCs and LC cells that is directly relevant to tumor‑cell behavior.

Role and mechanism of miR-335-5p in the pathogenesis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder of unknown etiology that occurs in women of reproductive age. Despite being considered to affect up to one-fifth of women in this cohort, the condition lacks generally accepted diagnostic biomarkers and options for targeted therapy. Hereby, we analyzed the diagnostic, therapeutic, and functional potential of a recently discovered miR-335-5p that was observed to be reduced in the follicular fluid (FF) of PCOS patients as compared with healthy women. We found miR-335-5p to be significantly decreased in the serum and FF samples of PCOS patients (n = 40) vs healthy women (n = 30), as well as in primary human granulosa cells (hGCs), and in 3 different hormonally induced PCOS-like murine models vs. wild-type (WT) mice. The level of circulating miR-335-5p was found to significantly correlate with the impaired endocrine and clinical features associated with PCOS in human patients. Ovarian intrabursal injection of the miR-335-5p antagomir in WT mice ovaries induced a PCOS-like reproductive phenotype. Treatment with the miR-335-5p agomir rescued the dihydrotestosterone-induced PCOS-phenotype in mice, thereby providing a functional link between miR-335-5p and PCOS. We identified SP1 as a miR-335-5p target gene by using the dual-luciferase reporter assay. Both the luciferase reporter assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay showed that SP1 bound to the promoter region of human CYP19A1 and inhibited its transcription. miR-335-5p increased the production of estradiol via the SP1/CYP19A1 axis in hGCs, thereby suggesting its mechanistic pathway of action. In conclusion, these results provide evidence that miR-335-5p may function as a mediator in the etiopathogenesis of PCOS, as well as has the potential as both a novel diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target for PCOS.

Exosomes in chronic liver disease

Chronic liver disease (CLD) is the major cause of mortality and morbidity, particularly in developing countries. Although there has been a significant advancement in the identification and treatment of liver diseases over time, clinical results are not satisfactory in advanced liver disease. Thus, it is crucial to develop certain technology for early detection, and curative therapies and to investigate the molecular mechanisms behind CLD's pathogenesis. The study of exosomes in CLD is a rapidly developing field. They are structurally membrane-derived nano vesicles released by various cells. In CLD, exosomes released from injured hepatic cells affect intercellular communication, creating a microenvironment conducive to the illness's development. They also carry liver cell-specific proteins and miRNAs, which can be used as diagnostic biomarkers and treatment targets for various liver diseases. End-stage liver disease can only be treated by a liver transplant, however, the low availability of compatible organs, high expenses of treatment, and surgical complications significantly lower patient survival rates. Early diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of CLD positively affect the likelihood of curative treatment and high patient survival rates. Considering the possibility that exosomes could be employed as tools for disease diagnostics and clinical intervention, The current study briefly summarizes the roles of exosomes and their cargo in diagnosing and treating liver diseases.

Exosomal miRNA in early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma

The incidence and mortality of hepatic carcinoma (HCC) remain high, and early diagnosis of HCC is seen as a key approach in improving clinical outcomes. However, the sensitivity and specificity of current early screening methods for HCC are not satisfactory. In recent years, research around exosomal miRNA has gradually increased, and these molecules have emerged as attractive candidates for early diagnosis and treatment of HCC. This review summarizes the feasibility of using miRNAs in peripheral blood exosomes as early diagnostic tools for HCC.

Stem cell- derived extracellular vesicles as new tools in regenerative medicine - Immunomodulatory role and future perspectives

In the last few decades, the practical use of stem cells (SCs) in the clinic has attracted significant attention in the regenerative medicine due to the ability of these cells to proliferate and differentiate into other cell types. However, recent findings have demonstrated that the therapeutic capacity of SCs may also be mediated by their ability to secrete biologically active factors, including extracellular vesicles (EVs). Such submicron circular membrane-enveloped vesicles may be released from the cell surface and harbour bioactive cargo in the form of proteins, lipids, mRNA, miRNA, and other regulatory factors. Notably, growing evidence has indicated that EVs may transfer their bioactive content into recipient cells and greatly modulate their functional fate. Thus, they have been recently envisioned as a new class of paracrine factors in cell-to-cell communication. Importantly, EVs may modulate the activity of immune system, playing an important role in the regulation of inflammation, exhibiting broad spectrum of the immunomodulatory activity that promotes the transition from pro-inflammatory to pro-regenerative environment in the site of tissue injury. Consequently, growing interest is placed on attempts to utilize EVs in clinical applications of inflammatory-related dysfunctions as potential next-generation therapeutic factors, alternative to cell-based approaches. In this review we will discuss the current knowledge on the biological properties of SC-derived EVs, with special focus on their role in the regulation of inflammatory response. We will also address recent findings on the immunomodulatory and pro-regenerative activity of EVs in several disease models, including in vitro and in vivo preclinical, as well as clinical studies. Finally, we will highlight the current perspectives and future challenges of emerging EV-based therapeutic strategies of inflammation-related diseases treatment.

Extracellular Vesicle Secretion by Leukemia Cells In Vivo Promotes CLL Progression by Hampering Antitumor T-cell Responses

Small extracellular vesicle (sEV, or exosome) communication among cells in the tumor microenvironment has been modeled mainly in cell culture, whereas their relevance in cancer pathogenesis and progression in vivo is less characterized. Here we investigated cancer-microenvironment interactions in vivo using mouse models of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). sEVs isolated directly from CLL tissue were enriched in specific miRNA and immune-checkpoint ligands. Distinct molecular components of tumor-derived sEVs altered CD8+ T-cell transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome, leading to decreased functions and cell exhaustion ex vivo and in vivo. Using antagomiRs and blocking antibodies, we defined specific cargo-mediated alterations on CD8+ T cells. Abrogating sEV biogenesis by Rab27a/b knockout dramatically delayed CLL pathogenesis. This phenotype was rescued by exogenous leukemic sEV or CD8+ T-cell depletion. Finally, high expression of sEV-related genes correlated with poor outcomes in CLL patients, suggesting sEV profiling as a prognostic tool. In conclusion, sEVs shape the immune microenvironment during CLL progression.

SIGNIFICANCE

sEVs produced in the leukemia microenvironment impair CD8+ T-cell mediated antitumor immune response and are indispensable for leukemia progression in vivo in murine preclinical models. In addition, high expression of sEV-related genes correlated with poor survival and unfavorable clinical parameters in CLL patients. See related commentary by Zhong and Guo, p. 5. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1.

MiRNAs Overexpression and Their Role in Breast Cancer: Implications for Cancer Therapeutics

MicroRNAs have a plethora of roles in various biological processes in the cells and most human cancers have been shown to be associated with dysregulation of the expression of miRNA genes. MiRNA biogenesis involves two alternative pathways, the canonical pathway which requires the successful cooperation of various proteins forming the miRNA-inducing silencing complex (miRISC), and the non-canonical pathway, such as the mirtrons, simtrons, or agotrons pathway, which bypasses and deviates from specific steps in the canonical pathway. Mature miRNAs are secreted from cells and circulated in the body bound to argonaute 2 (AGO2) and miRISC or transported in vesicles. These miRNAs may regulate their downstream target genes via positive or negative regulation through different molecular mechanisms. This review focuses on the role and mechanisms of miRNAs in different stages of breast cancer progression, including breast cancer stem cell formation, breast cancer initiation, invasion, and metastasis as well as angiogenesis. The design, chemical modifications, and therapeutic applications of synthetic anti-sense miRNA oligonucleotides and RNA mimics are also discussed in detail. The strategies for systemic delivery and local targeted delivery of the antisense miRNAs encompass the use of polymeric and liposomal nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, extracellular vesicles, as well as viral vectors and viruslike particles (VLPs). Although several miRNAs have been identified as good candidates for the design of antisense and other synthetic modified oligonucleotides in targeting breast cancer, further efforts are still needed to study the most optimal delivery method in order to drive the research beyond preclinical studies.

The Emerging Role of Exosomal miRNAs as Biomarkers for Early Cancer Detection: A Comprehensive Literature Review

A significant number of cancer-related deaths are recorded globally each year, despite attempts to cure this illness. Medical science is working to develop new medication therapies as well as to find ways to identify this illness as early as possible, even using noninvasive techniques. Early detection of cancer can greatly aid its treatment. Studies into cancer diagnosis and therapy have recently shifted their focus to exosome (EXO) biomarkers, which comprise numerous RNA and proteins. EXOs are minuscule goblet vesicles that have a width of 30 to 140 nm and are released by a variety of cells, including immune, stem, and tumor cells, as well as bodily fluids. According to a growing body of research, EXOs, and cancer appear to be related. EXOs from tumors play a role in the genetic information transfer between tumor and basal cells, which controls angiogenesis and fosters tumor development and spread. To identify malignant activities early on, microRNAs (miRNAs) from cancers can be extracted from circulatory system EXOs. Specific markers can be used to identify cancer-derived EXOs containing miRNAs, which may be more reliable and precise for early detection. Conventional solid biopsy has become increasingly limited as precision and personalized medicine has advanced, while liquid biopsy offers a viable platform for noninvasive diagnosis and prognosis. Therefore, the use of body fluids such as serum, plasma, urine, and salivary secretions can help find cancer biomarkers using technologies related to EXOs.

Exosomal HBV-DNA for diagnosis and treatment monitoring of chronic hepatitis B

This study examined exosomal hepatitis B virus (HBV)-DNA levels in chronic HBV infection (CHB). Patients were grouped according to the European Association for the Study of the Liver classification (1: HBV-DNA-positive CHB, normal alanine aminotransferase [ALT]; 2: HBV-DNA-positive CHB, elevated ALT; 3: HBV-DNA-negative HBeAb-positive CHB, normal ALT; 4: HBV-DNA-positive HBeAg-negative HBeAb-positive CHB, elevated ALT; 5: HBV-DNA-negative, HBcAb-positive; 6: HBV-negative, normal ALT). Exosomes were isolated, comparative analysis of exosomes and serum HBV-DNA. The HBV-DNA content was lower in exosomes than in serum for groups 1, 2, and 4 (all P < 0.05). In the groups negative for serum HBV-DNA (groups 3 and 5), the exosomal HBV-DNA levels were higher than the serum HBV-DNA levels (all P < 0.05). The exosomal and serum HBV-DNA levels were correlated in groups 2 (R ² = 0.84) and 4 (R ² = 0.98). The exosomal HBV-DNA levels were correlated with total bilirubin (R ² = 0.94), direct bilirubin (R ² = 0.82), and indirect bilirubin (R ² = 0.81) in group 5 (all P < 0.05). In patients with CHB and negative for serum HBV-DNA, exosomal HBV-DNA was detectable and could be used to monitor the treatment effects. Exosomal HBV-DNA could be used in patients with a high suspicion of HBV infection but negative for serum HBV-DNA.

Regulation of pleiotropic physiological roles of nitric oxide signaling

Nitric Oxide (NO) is a highly diffusible, ubiquitous signaling molecule and a free radical that is naturally synthesized by our body. The pleiotropic effects of NO in biological systems are due to its reactivity with different molecules, such as molecular oxygen (O₂), superoxide anion, DNA, lipids, and proteins. There are several contradictory findings in the literature pertaining to its role in oncology. NO is a Janus-faced molecule shown to have both tumor promoting and tumoricidal effects, which depend on its concentration, duration of exposure, and location. A high concentration is shown to have cytotoxic effects by triggering apoptosis, and at a low concentration, NO promotes angiogenesis, metastasis, and tumor progression. Upregulated NO synthesis has been implicated as a causal factor in several pathophysiological conditions including cancer. This dichotomous effect makes it highly challenging to discover its true potential in cancer biology. Understanding the mechanisms by which NO acts in different cancers helps to develop NO based therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. This review addresses the physiological role of this molecule, with a focus on its bimodal action in various types of cancers.