Hypoxia and HIF-1 increase S100A8 and S100A9 expression in prostate cancer

Activation of Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1 Alpha-Mediated DNA Methylation Enzymes (DNMT3a and TET2) Under Hypoxic Conditions Regulates S100A6 Transcription to Promote Lung Cancer Cell Growth and Metastasis

Aims: This research was aimed at investigating the effects of hypoxia inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α)-mediated DNA methylation enzymes (ten-eleven translocase-2 [TET2] and DNA methyltransferase-3a [DNMT3a]) under hypoxic conditions on S100A6 transcription, thereby promoting the growth and metastasis of lung cancer cells. Methods: The expression of HIF-1α or S100A6 in lung cancer cells was interfered with under normoxic and hypoxic conditions, and the cell proliferative, migratory, and invasive properties were assessed. The mechanism of HIF-1α-regulated TET2 and DNMT3 effects on S100A6 transcription under hypoxic conditions was further investigated. Results: Functionally, S100A6 over-expression promoted lung cancer cell proliferation and metastasis. S100A6 over-expression reversed the inhibitory effects of HIF-1α interference on the proliferation and metastasis of lung cancer cells. S100A6 was induced to express in an HIF-1α-dependent manner under hypoxic conditions, and silencing S100A6 or HIF-1α suppressed lung cancer cell proliferation and metastasis under hypoxic conditions. Further, The Cancer Genome Atlas-lung adenocarcinoma database analysis revealed that S100A6 mRNA levels had a negative correlation with methylation levels. Mechanistically, CpG hypomethylation status in the S100A6 promoter hypoxia response element had an association with HIF-1α induction. TET2 was enriched in S100A6 promoter region of lung cancer cells under hypoxic conditions, whereas DNMT3a enrichment was reduced in S100A6 promoter region. HIF-1α-mediated S100A6 activation was linked to DNMT3a-associated epigenetic inactivation and TET2 activation. Innovation: The activation of HIF-1α-mediated DNA methylation enzymes under hypoxic conditions regulated S100A6 transcription, thereby promoting lung cancer cell growth and metastasis. Conclusion: In lung cancer progression, hypoxia-induced factor HIF-1α combined with DNA methylation modifications co-regulates S100A6 transcriptional activation and promotes lung cancer cell growth and metastasis.

Nanotherapeutics for prostate cancer treatment: A comprehensive review

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most prevalent solid organ malignancy and seriously affects male health. The adverse effects of prostate cancer therapeutics can cause secondary damage to patients. Nanotherapeutics, which have special targeting abilities and controlled therapeutic release profiles, may serve as alternative agents for PCa treatment. At present, many nanotherapeutics have been developed to treat PCa and have shown better treatment effects in animals than traditional therapeutics. Although PCa nanotherapeutics are highly attractive, few successful cases have been reported in clinical practice. To help researchers design valuable nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment and avoid useless efforts, herein, we first reviewed the strategies and challenges involved in prostate cancer treatment. Subsequently, we presented a comprehensive review of nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment, including their targeting methods, controlled release strategies, therapeutic approaches and mechanisms. Finally, we proposed the future prospects of nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment.

Anti-PD-L1 therapy altered inflammation but not survival in a lethal murine hepatitis virus-1 pneumonia model

Introduction

Because prior immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy in cancer patients presenting with COVID-19 may affect outcomes, we investigated the beta-coronavirus, murine hepatitis virus (MHV)-1, in a lethal pneumonia model in the absence (Study 1) or presence of prior programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) antibody (PD-L1mAb) treatment (Study 2).

Methods

In Study 1, animals were inoculated intratracheally with MHV-1 or vehicle and evaluated at day 2, 5, and 10 after infection. In Study 2, uninfected or MHV-1-infected animals were pretreated intraperitoneally with control or PD-L1-blocking antibodies (PD-L1mAb) and evaluated at day 2 and 5 after infection. Each study examined survival, physiologic and histologic parameters, viral titers, lung immunophenotypes, and mediator production.

Results

Study 1 results recapitulated the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and revealed increased cell surface expression of checkpoint molecules (PD-L1, PD-1), higher expression of the immune activation marker angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), but reduced detection of the MHV-1 receptor CD66a on immune cells in the lung, liver, and spleen. In addition to reduced detection of PD-L1 on all immune cells assayed, PD-L1 blockade was associated with increased cell surface expression of PD-1 and ACE, decreased cell surface detection of CD66a, and improved oxygen saturation despite reduced blood glucose levels and increased signs of tissue hypoxia. In the lung, PD-L1mAb promoted S100A9 but inhibited ACE2 production concomitantly with pAKT activation and reduced FOXO1 levels. PD-L1mAb promoted interferon-γ but inhibited IL-5 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) production, contributing to reduced bronchoalveolar lavage levels of eosinophils and neutrophils. In the liver, PD-L1mAb increased viral clearance in association with increased macrophage and lymphocyte recruitment and liver injury. PD-L1mAb increased the production of virally induced mediators of injury, angiogenesis, and neuronal activity that may play role in COVID-19 and ICI-related neurotoxicity. PD-L1mAb did not affect survival in this murine model.

Discussion

In Study 1 and Study 2, ACE was upregulated and CD66a and ACE2 were downregulated by either MHV-1 or PD-L1mAb. CD66a is not only the MHV-1 receptor but also an identified immune checkpoint and a negative regulator of ACE. Crosstalk between CD66a and PD-L1 or ACE/ACE2 may provide insight into ICI therapies. These networks may also play role in the increased production of S100A9 and neurological mediators in response to MHV-1 and/or PD-L1mAb, which warrant further study. Overall, these findings support observational data suggesting that prior ICI treatment does not alter survival in patients presenting with COVID-19.

The functions and regulatory pathways of S100A8/A9 and its receptors in cancers

Inflammation primarily influences the initiation, progression, and deterioration of many human diseases, and immune cells are the principal forces that modulate the balance of inflammation by generating cytokines and chemokines to maintain physiological homeostasis or accelerate disease development. S100A8/A9, a heterodimer protein mainly generated by neutrophils, triggers many signal transduction pathways to mediate microtubule constitution and pathogen defense, as well as intricate procedures of cancer growth, metastasis, drug resistance, and prognosis. Its paired receptors, such as receptor for advanced glycation ends (RAGEs) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), also have roles and effects within tumor cells, mainly involved with mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), NF-κB, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and protein kinase C (PKC) activation. In the clinical setting, S100A8/A9 and its receptors can be used complementarily as efficient biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and treatment. This review comprehensively summarizes the biological functions of S100A8/A9 and its various receptors in tumor cells, in order to provide new insights and strategies targeting S100A8/A9 to promote novel diagnostic and therapeutic methods in cancers.

S100s and HMGB1 Crosstalk in Pancreatic Cancer Tumors

Pancreatic cancer remains a disease that is very difficult to treat. S100 proteins are small calcium binding proteins with diverse intra- and extracellular functions that modulate different aspects of tumorigenesis, including tumor growth and metastasis. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein is a multifaceted protein that also actively influences the development and progression of tumors. In this study, we investigate the possible correlations, at the transcript level, between S100s and HMGB1 in pancreatic cancer. For this purpose, we calculated Pearson's correlations between the transcript levels of 13 cancer-related S100 genes and HMGB1 in a cDNA array containing 19 pancreatic cancer tumor samples, and in 8 human pancreatic cancer cell lines. Statistically significant positive correlations were found in 5.5% (5 out of 91) and 37.4% (34 of 91) of the possible S100/S100 or S100/HMGB1 pairs in cells and tumors, respectively. Our data suggest that many S100 proteins crosstalk in pancreatic tumors either with other members of the S100 family, or with HMGB1. These newly observed interdependencies may be used to further the characterization of pancreatic tumors based on S100 and HMGB1 transcription profiles.

Activation of immune signals during organ transplantation

The activation of host's innate and adaptive immune systems can lead to acute and chronic graft rejection, which seriously impacts graft survival. Thus, it is particularly significant to clarify the immune signals, which are critical to the initiation and maintenance of rejection generated after transplantation. The initiation of response to graft is dependent on sensing of danger and stranger molecules. The ischemia and reperfusion of grafts lead to cell stress or death, followed by releasing a variety of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of host immune cells to activate intracellular immune signals and induce sterile inflammation. In addition to DAMPs, the graft exposed to 'non-self' antigens (stranger molecules) are recognized by the host immune system, stimulating a more intense immune response and further aggravating the graft damage. The polymorphism of MHC genes between different individuals is the key for host or donor immune cells to identify heterologous 'non-self' components in allogeneic and xenogeneic organ transplantation. The recognition of 'non-self' antigen by immune cells mediates the activation of immune signals between donor and host, resulting in adaptive memory immunity and innate trained immunity to the graft, which poses a challenge to the long-term survival of the graft. This review focuses on innate and adaptive immune cells receptor recognition of damage-associated molecular patterns, alloantigens and xenoantigens, which is described as danger model and stranger model. In this review, we also discuss the innate trained immunity in organ transplantation.

S100A8 and S100A9 in Cancer

S100A8 and S100A9 are Ca²⁺ binding proteins that belong to the S100 family. Primarily expressed in neutrophils and monocytes, S100A8 and S100A9 play critical roles in modulating various inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases. Forming a common heterodimer structure S100A8/A9, S100A8 and S100A9 are widely reported to participate in multiple signaling pathways in tumor cells. Meanwhile, S100A8/A9, S100A8, and S100A9, mainly as promoters, contribute to tumor development, growth and metastasis by interfering with tumor metabolism and the microenvironment. In recent years, the potential of S100A8/A9, S100A9, and S100A8 as tumor diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers has also been demonstrated. In addition, an increasing number of potential therapies targeting S100A8/A9 and related signaling pathways have emerged. In this review, we will first expound on the characteristics of S100A8/A9, S100A9, and S100A8 in-depth, focus on their interactions with tumor cells and microenvironments, and then discuss their clinical applications as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. We also highlight current limitations and look into the future of S100A8/A9 targeted anti-cancer therapy.

S100a8/a9 contributes to sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy by activating ERK1/2-Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission and respiratory dysfunction

Sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy (SIC) is the main complication and a leading cause of death in intensive care units. S100a8/a9 is a calcium-binding protein that participates in various inflammatory diseases; however, its role in sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy and the underlying mechanism remains to be explored. Here, septic cardiomyopathy was induced with cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) in S100a9-knockout (KO) mice lacking the heterodimer S100a8/a9 or wild-type (WT) mice administered with an S100a9-specific inhibitor Paquinimod (Paq), which prevents the binding of S100a9 toTLR4. Our results showed that S100a8/a9 expression in the heart peaked 24 h following the CLP operation, declined at 48 h and returned to baseline at 72 h. Loss of S100a9 by knockout in mice protected against CLP-induced mortality, cardiac dysfunction, myocyte apoptosis, recruitment of Mac-2⁺ macrophages, superoxide production, and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines genes compared with WT mice. Moreover, S100a9-KO significantly attenuated CLP-induced activation of the ERK1/2-Drp1 (S616) pathway, excessive mitochondrial fission, and mitochondrial respiration dysfunction. In contrast, activation of ERK1/2 with its agonist tBHQ reversed the inhibitory effects of S100a9-knockout on CLP-induced cardiomyopathy and mitochondrial dysfunction. Finally, administration of Paq to WT mice markedly prevented the CLP-induced cardiomyopathy mitochondrial fission and dysfunction compared with vehicle control. In summary, our data reveal, for the first time, that S100a8/a9 plays a critical role in mediating SIC, presumably by activating TLR4-ERK1/2-Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission and dysfunction and highlight that blockage of S100a8/a9 may be a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent SIC in patients with sepsis.

BAL Proteomic Signature of Lung Adenocarcinoma in IPF Patients and Its Transposition in Serum Samples for Less Invasive Diagnostic Procedures

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a form of chronic and irreversible fibrosing interstitial pneumonia of unknown etiology. Although antifibrotic treatments have shown a reduction of lung function decline and a slow disease progression, IPF is characterize by a very high mortality. Emerging evidence suggests that IPF increases the risk of lung carcinogenesis. Both diseases show similarities in terms of risk factors, such as history of smoking, concomitant emphysema, and viral infections, besides sharing similar pathogenic pathways. Lung cancer (LC) diagnosis is often difficult in IPF patients because of the diffuse lung injuries and abnormalities due to the underlying fibrosis. This is reflected in the lack of optimal therapeutic strategies for patients with both diseases. For this purpose, we performed a proteomic study on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) samples from IPF, LC associated with IPF (LC-IPF) patients, and healthy controls (CTRL). Molecular pathways involved in inflammation, immune response, lipid metabolism, and cell adhesion were found for the dysregulated proteins in LC-IPF, such as TTHY, APOA1, S10A9, RET4, GDIR1, and PROF1. The correlation test revealed a relationship between inflammation- and lipid metabolism-related proteins. PROF1 and S10A9, related to inflammation, were up-regulated in LC-IPF BAL and serum, while APOA1 and APOE linked to lipid metabolism, were highly abundant in IPF BAL and low abundant in IPF serum. Given the properties of cytokine/adipokine of the nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase, we also evaluated its serum abundance, highlighting its down-regulation in LC-IPF. Our retrospective analyses of BAL samples extrapolated some potential biomarkers of LC-IPF useful to improve the management of these contemporary pathologies. Their differential abundance in serum samples permits the measurement of these potential biomarkers with a less invasive procedure.

Hypoxia-related tumor environment correlated with immune infiltration and therapeutic sensitivity in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Background: Due to the high heterogeneity of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), traditional chemotherapy treatment ultimately failed in one-third of the patients. Big challenges existed in finding how to accurately predict prognosis and provide individualized treatment. Hypoxia, although being a key factor in the development and progression of DLBCL, plays its role in DLBCL prognosis, which has yet to be fully explored.

Methods: Data used in the current study were sourced from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. DLBCL patients were divided according to different hypoxia-related subtypes based on the expressions of hypoxia-related genes (HRGs) relevant to survival. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between subtypes were identified using the limma package. Using univariate Cox regression and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) analyses, the prognostic signature was established to calculate risk scores. The tumor microenvironment (TME) in low- and high-risk groups was evaluated by single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) and ESTIMATE. The chemotherapeutic sensitivity in two groups was assessed by IC50 values.

Results: DLBCL patients were clustered into two hypoxia-related subtype groups according to different gene survival and expressions associated with increasing oxygen delivery and reducing oxygen consumption, and these two subtype groups were compared. Based on the differential expression, a risk model was established using univariate cox and LASSO regression analyses, FNDC1, ANTXR1, RARRES2, S100A9, and MT1M. The performance of the risk signature in predicting the prognosis of DLBCL patients was validated in the internal and external datasets, as evidenced by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. In addition, we observed significant differences in the tumor microenvironment and chemotherapeutic response between low- and high-risk groups.

Conclusion: Our study developed novel hypoxia-related subtypes in DLBCL and identified five prognostic signatures for DLBCL patients. These findings may enrich our understanding of the role of hypoxia in DLBCL and help improve the treatment of DLBCL patients.

Morbid Obesity in Women Is Associated with an Altered Intestinal Expression of Genes Related to Cancer Risk and Immune, Defensive, and Antimicrobial Response

Background: Little is known about the relation between morbid obesity and duodenal transcriptomic changes. We aimed to identify intestinal genes that may be associated with the development of obesity regardless of the degree of insulin resistance (IR) of patients. Material and Methods: Duodenal samples were assessed by microarray in three groups of women: non-obese women and women with morbid obesity with low and high IR. Results: We identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with morbid obesity, regardless of IR degree, related to digestion and lipid metabolism, defense response and inflammatory processes, maintenance of the gastrointestinal epithelium, wound healing and homeostasis, and the development of gastrointestinal cancer. However, other DEGs depended on the IR degree. We mainly found an upregulation of genes involved in the response to external organisms, hypoxia, and wound healing functions in women with morbid obesity and low IR. Conclusions: Regardless of the degree of IR, morbid obesity is associated with an altered expression of genes related to intestinal defenses, antimicrobial and immune responses, and gastrointestinal cancer. Our data also suggest a deficient duodenal immune and antimicrobial response in women with high IR.

Comprehensive analysis of the correlations of S100B with hypoxia response and immune infiltration in hepatocellular carcinoma

S100B has been found to be dysregulated in many cancers including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the functions of S100B and its underlying mechanisms in HCC remain poorly understood, especially in the tumor microenvironment. In this study, functions enrichment analysis indicated that S100B expression was correlated with hypoxia and immune responses. We found that hypoxia could induce S100B expression in an HIF-1α-dependent manner in HepG2 cells. Luciferase reporter and ChIP-qRCR assays demonstrated that HIF-1α regulates S100B transcription by directly binding to hypoxia-response elements (HREs) of the S100B promoter. Functionally, knockdown of S100B reduces hypoxia-induced HepG2 cell invasion and migration. Furthermore, GSVA enrichment results displayed that S100B and its co-expressed genes were positively correlated with EMT pathway in HCC. Additionally, GO/KEGG cluster analysis results indicated that co-expressed genes of S100B were involved in biological processes of immune response and multiple tumor immune-related signaling pathways in HCC. S100B expression was positively correlated with multiple immune cells tumor infiltration and associated with chemokines/chemokine receptors and immune checkpoint genes. Moreover, S100B is predominantly expressed in immune cells, especially NK (Natural Killer) cell. In addition, the hub genes of S100B co-expression and hypoxia response in HepG2 cell were also associated with immune cells infiltration in HCC. Taken together, these findings provide a new insight into the complex networks between hypoxia response and immune cells infiltration in tumor microenvironment of liver cancer. S100B maybe serve as a novel target for future HCC therapies.

Transcriptional activation of S100A2 expression by HIF-1α via binding to the hypomethylated hypoxia response elements in HCC cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent and lethal cancers. Dysregulation of S100A2 has recently been found in many cancers including HCC. However, its regulatory mechanism in HCC remains poorly understood, especially in hypoxia. In this study, we found that S100A2 is upregulated and correlated with the clinicopathological features of HCC patients. Moreover, the elevated S100A2 showed worse overall survival. Functionally, S100A2 inhibition decreased the proliferation and migration of HepG2 cells. Interestingly, we found that HIF-1α directly binds to hypoxia response elements (HREs) of the S100A2 promoter region. S100A2 expression could be induced in an HIF-1α-dependent manner under hypoxia. Furthermore, S100A2 silencing significantly suppressed HCC cell proliferation and invasion under hypoxia. Mechanistically, pyrosequencing results showed that the hypomethylation status of CpG located in the HRE at the S100A2 promoter was correlated with S100A2 induction. Additionally, HIF-1α- mediated S100A2 activation was associated with TET2-related epigenetic inactivation. TET2 was enriched in the HRE of the S100A2 promoter in HepG2 cells. Finally, S100A2 methylation-related genes and pathways were analyzed. We found that the methylation of S100A2 is correlated with ANXA2, PPP1R15A, and FOS, which include in a hypoxia-related gene set from the GSEA database. Moreover, some EMT-related genes are associated with the methylation of S100A2 in HCC. Conclusively, our study thus uncovered a novel mechanism showing that hypoxia/HIF-1α signaling associated with DNA methylation enhances S100A2 expression in HCC. S100A2 may be useful as a target for facilitating novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in liver cancer.

Systematic screening identifies a TEAD4-S100A13 axis modulating cisplatin sensitivity of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to screen prognosis-related S100 protein family members in human paxpillomaviruses (HPV)-negative oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and their molecular regulations.

METHODS

Bioinformatic screening was conducted based on single-cell RNA-seq data from Puram 2017 dataset and bulk-seq data from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). HPV-negative OSCC cell lines CAL-27 and SCC-4 were used as in vitro cell models.

RESULTS

Among 21 S100 protein family member genes, S100A13 upregulation was associated with unfavorable progression-free survival and disease-specific survival of OSCC patients. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis showed that the higher S100A13 expression group had elevated genes enriched in DNA repair and oxidative phosphorylation. S100A13 knockdown increased cisplatin sensitivity, while its overexpression decreased the sensitivity of CAL-27 and SCC-4 cells. S100A13 gene had complex alternative transcription patterns. ENST00000440685 is one of the major protein-coding transcripts and was the only transcript elevated in the tumor group. TEAD4 could bind to the promoter of ENST00000440685 and increase its transcription. TEAD4 overexpression alleviated the tumor-suppressive effect of cisplatin in terms of colony formation, the expression of apoptotic proteins, and DNA damage. However, S100A13 knockdown partly abrogated the protective effects of TEAD4 overexpression.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed a novel TEAD4-S100A13 axis that might modulate cisplatin sensitivity of OSCC tumor cells.

Hypoxia and the Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products (RAGE) Signaling in Cancer

Hypoxia is characterized by an inadequate supply of oxygen to tissues, and hypoxic regions are commonly found in solid tumors. The cellular response to hypoxic conditions is mediated through the activation of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) that control the expression of a large number of target genes. Recent studies have shown that the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) participates in hypoxia-dependent cellular adaptation. We review recent evidence on the role of RAGE signaling in tumor biology under hypoxic conditions.

S100A8/A9 Molecular Complexes Promote Cancer Migration and Invasion via the p38 MAPK Pathway in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is one type of malignancy associated with migration and invasion through a currently unclear mechanism. We previously discovered S100A8/A9 levels were roughly elevated in the plasma of NPC patients as the promising biomarkers. However, their expressions and underlying functions in NPC tissues are still unknown. In the present study, we analyzed 49 NPC tissues and 20 chronic pharyngitis (CP) tissues. Immunohistochemical staining was performed in different tissues and analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U test statistically. Transwell migration and invasion experiments were further performed to determine S100A8/A9 effects on NPC. Our results showed that S100A8/A9 in NPC tissues were significantly higher than those in CP tissues, closely associated with NPC clinical stages. Intriguingly, exogenous S100A8/A9 protein stimulation could dramatically enhance NPC migration and invasion abilities. In addition, p38 MAPK pathway blockade could diminish the migration and invasion of NPC cells stimulated by S100A8/A9 proteins. The downstream tumor invasion and migration associated proteins (e.g., MMP7) were also elevated in NPC tissues, consistent with S100A8/A9 overexpression. Taken together, our present findings suggest that the secreted soluble inflammatory factors S100A8/A9 might promote cancer migration and invasion via the p38 MAPK signaling pathway along with invasion/migration associated proteins overexpression in the tumor microenvironment of NPC. This may shed light on the mechanism understanding of NPC prognosis and provide more novel clues for NPC diagnosis and therapy.

The Etiology and Pathophysiology Genesis of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer: A New Perspective

Background: The etiology of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer are unknown, with ageing being the greatness risk factor. Methods: This new perspective evaluates the available interdisciplinary evidence regarding prostate ageing in terms of the cell biology of regulation and homeostasis, which could explain the timeline of evolutionary cancer biology as degenerative, inflammatory and neoplasm progressions in these multifactorial and heterogeneous prostatic diseases. Results: This prostate ageing degeneration hypothesis encompasses the testosterone-vascular-inflamm-ageing triad, along with the cell biology regulation of amyloidosis and autophagy within an evolutionary tumorigenesis microenvironment. Conclusions: An understanding of these biological processes of prostate ageing can provide potential strategies for early prevention and could contribute to maintaining quality of life for the ageing individual along with substantial medical cost savings.

High Monocyte Count and Expression of S100A9 and S100A12 in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Are Associated with Poor Outcome in Patients with Metastatic Prostate Cancer

Increasing evidence indicates calcium-binding S100 protein involvement in inflammation and tumor progression. In this prospective study, we evaluated the mRNA levels of two members of this family, S100A9 and S100A12, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in a cohort of 121 prostate cancer patients using RT-PCR. Furthermore, monocyte count was determined by flow cytometry. By stratifying patients into different risk groups, according to TNM stage, Gleason score and PSA concentration at diagnosis, expression of S100A9 and S100A12 was found to be significantly higher in patients with metastases compared to patients without clinically detectable metastases. In line with this, we observed that the protein levels of S100A9 and S100A12 in plasma were higher in patients with advanced disease. Importantly, in patients with metastases at diagnosis, high monocyte count and high levels of S100A9 and S100A12 were significantly associated with short progression free survival (PFS) after androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). High monocyte count and S100A9 levels were also associated with short cancer-specific survival, with monocyte count providing independent prognostic information. These findings indicate that circulating levels of monocytes, as well as S100A9 and S100A12, could be biomarkers for metastatic prostate cancer associated with particularly poor prognosis.

Perspectives on signaling for biological- and processed food-related advanced glycation end-products and its role in cancer progression

Receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) is a multifunctional receptor binds a broad spectrum of ligands and mediates responses to cell damage and stress conditions. It also activates programs leading to acute and chronic inflammation and implicated in several pathological diseases, including cancer. In this review, we presented the non-enzymatic reaction of reducing sugar with the amino groups of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. This reaction initiates a complex series of rearrangements and dehydrations, and then produces a class of irreversibly cross-linked heterogeneous fluorescent moieties, termed advanced glycation end products (AGEs). There is a growing body of evidence that interaction of processes food-related AGEs with a cell surface receptor RAGE brings out the generation of oxidative stress and subsequently evokes proliferative, angiogenic and inflammatory reactions, thereby being involved in the development and progression of various types of cancers. This review is an insightful assessment of molecular mechanisms through which RAGE signaling contributes to the enhancement and survival of the tumorigenic cell. Here we summarize the procurement of individual ligands of RAGE like amphoterin, calcium-binding proteins, and resultant mediation of RAGE signaling pathway, which partially can elucidate the elevated risk of several cancers. Besides, we summarize many factors or conditions including APE1 (apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1), retinol mutations, retinoblastoma (Rb), proteinase 3 (PR3) hypoxia and so on through which RAGE signaling presents an establishment of cancerous environment. Additionally, we also reviewed some recent findings that give shreds of evidence for presenting the role of RAGE and its ligands in the advanced stage of cancers.

S100A8/A9 in Myocardial Infarction: A Promising Biomarker and Therapeutic Target

Myocardial infarction (MI), the main cause of cardiovascular-related deaths worldwide, has long been a hot topic because of its threat to public health. S100A8/A9 has recently attracted an increasing amount of interest as a crucial alarmin that regulates the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease after its release from myeloid cells. However, the role of S100A8/A9 in the etiology of MI is not well understood. Here, we elaborate on the critical roles and potential mechanisms of S100A8/A9 driving the pathogenesis of MI. First, cellular source of S100A8/A9 in infarcted heart is discussed. Then we highlight the effect of S100A8/A9 heterodimer in the early inflammatory period and the late reparative period of MI as well as myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Moreover, the predictive value of S100A8/A9 for the risk of recurrence of cardiovascular events is elucidated. Therefore, this review focuses on the molecular mechanisms of S100A8/A9 in MI pathogenesis to provide a promising biomarker and therapeutic target for MI.

BRG1 Stimulates Endothelial Derived Alarmin MRP8 to Promote Macrophage Infiltration in an Animal Model of Cardiac Hypertrophy

Endothelial cell derived angiocrine factors contribute to the disruption of homeostasis and the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases in response to stress stimuli. In the present study we investigated the role of BRG1, a key component of the chromatin remodeling complex, in the regulation of angiocrine signaling. We report that angiotensin II (Ang II) induced pathological cardiac hypertrophy was attenuated in mice with endothelial-specific ablation of BRG1 (ecKO) compared to the control mice (WT). Mitigation of cardiac hypertrophy as a result of BRG1 deficiency was accompanied by decreased macrophage homing to the hearts. This could be explained by the observation that the ecKO mice exhibited down-regulation of myeloid-related protein 8 (MRP8), a well-established chemokine for macrophages, in vascular endothelial cells compared to the WT mice. Further analysis revealed that BRG1 mediated the activation of MRP8 expression by Ang II treatment in endothelial cells to promote macrophage migration. BRG1 was recruited to the MRP8 promoter by interacting with hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1α). Reciprocally, BRG1 facilitated the binding of HIF-1α to the MRP8 promoter by sequentially recruiting histone acetyltransferase p300 and histone demethylase KDM3A. Depletion of either p300 or KDM3A repressed the induction of MRP8 expression by Ang II and ameliorated macrophage migration. In conclusion, our data delineate a novel epigenetic pathway whereby Ang II stimulates MRP8 production and macrophage homing to promote cardiac hypertrophy.

S100A9 promotes prostate cancer cell invasion by activating TLR4/NF-κB/integrin β1/FAK signaling

Background

S100A9, which is expressed in prostate cancer, has been reported in association with prostate cancer progression. However, the role of S100A9 in prostate cancer metastasis is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of S100A9 on prostate cancer cell invasion and the involved mechanisms.

Materials and methods

Integrin β1 expression in PC-3 and DU-145 cells was determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (qRT-PCR) and Western blot. Cellular invasion was measured by transwell invasion assay. Western blot was used to determine protein expression. Concentrations of S100A9 and fibronectin were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The protein interaction was detected by immunoprecipitation. The NF-κB activity was measured by luciferase reporter assay. The DU-145 cells metastasis in vivo was determined in mice xenograft models after S100A9 overexpression.

Results

S100A9 promoted prostate cancer cells invasion, integrin β1 expression and fibronectin secretion. Further investigation evidenced that S100A9 interacted with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and activated NF-κB, which was responsible for tumor cell invasion, integrin β1 up-regulation and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) phosphorylation. Furthermore, integrin β1 inhibition led to decreased FAK phosphorylation and reduced tumor cell invasion. Overexpression of S100A9 increased xenograft tumor micro-metastases, integrin β1 expression and induced NF-κB and FAK activation in vivo.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated that S100A9 promotes prostate cancer cell invasion, and one of the underlying molecular mechanisms is that S100A9 activates integrin β1/FAK through TLR4/NF-κB signaling leading to metastasis of prostate cancer cell.

Macrophage HIF-1α Is an Independent Prognostic Indicator in Kidney Cancer

PURPOSE

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is frequently associated with inactivation of the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor, resulting in activation of HIF-1α and HIF-2α. The current paradigm, established using mechanistic cell-based studies, supports a tumor promoting role for HIF-2α, and a tumor suppressor role for HIF-1α. However, few studies have comprehensively examined the clinical relevance of this paradigm. Furthermore, the hypoxia-associated factor (HAF), which regulates the HIFs, has not been comprehensively evaluated in ccRCC.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

To assess the involvement of HAF/HIFs in ccRCC, we analyzed their relationship to tumor grade/stage/outcome using tissue from 380 patients, and validated these associations using tissue from 72 additional patients and a further 57 patients treated with antiangiogenic therapy for associations with response. Further characterization was performed using single-cell mRNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), RNA-in situ hybridization (RNA-ISH), and IHC.

RESULTS

HIF-1α was primarily expressed in tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), whereas HIF-2α and HAF were expressed primarily in tumor cells. TAM-associated HIF-1α was significantly associated with high tumor grade and increased metastasis and was independently associated with decreased overall survival. Furthermore, elevated TAM HIF-1α was significantly associated with resistance to antiangiogenic therapy. In contrast, high HAF or HIF-2α were associated with low grade, decreased metastasis, and increased overall survival. scRNA-seq, RNA-ISH, and Western blotting confirmed the expression of HIF-1α in M2-polarized CD163-expressing TAMs.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight a potential role of TAM HIF-1α in ccRCC progression and support the reevaluation of HIF-1α as a therapeutic target and marker of disease progression.

CDCA2 Inhibits Apoptosis and Promotes Cell Proliferation in Prostate Cancer and Is Directly Regulated by HIF-1α Pathway

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a major serious malignant tumor and is commonly diagnosed in older men. Identification of novel cancer-related genes in PCa is important for understanding its tumorigenesis mechanism and developing new therapies against PCa. Here, we used RNA sequencing to identify the specific genes, which are upregulated in PCa cell lines and tissues. The cell division cycle associated protein (CDCA) family, which plays a critical role in cell division and proliferation, is upregulated in the PCa cell lines of our RNA-Sequencing data. Moreover, we found that CDCA2 is overexpressed, and its protein level positively correlates with its histological grade, clinical stage, and Gleason Score. CDCA2 was further found to be upregulated and correlated with poor prognosis and patient survival in multiple cancer types in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset. The functional study suggests that inhibition of CDCA2 will lead to apoptosis and lower proliferation in vitro. Silencing of CDCA2 also repressed tumor growth in vivo. Loss of CDCA2 affects several oncogenic pathways, including MAPK signaling. In addition, we further demonstrated that CDCA2 was induced in hypoxia and directly regulated by the HIF-1α/Smad3 complex. Thus, our data indicate that CDCA2 could act as an oncogene and is regulated by hypoxia and the HIF-1αpathway. CDCA2 may be a useful prognostic biomarker and potential therapeutic target for PCa.

Bmal1 integrates mitochondrial metabolism and macrophage activation

Metabolic pathways and inflammatory processes are under circadian regulation. Rhythmic immune cell recruitment is known to impact infection outcomes, but whether the circadian clock modulates immunometabolism remains unclear. We find that the molecular clock Bmal1 is induced by inflammatory stimulants, including Ifn-γ/lipopolysaccharide (M1) and tumor-conditioned medium, to maintain mitochondrial metabolism under metabolically stressed conditions in mouse macrophages. Upon M1 stimulation, myeloid-specific Bmal1 knockout (M-BKO) renders macrophages unable to sustain mitochondrial function, enhancing succinate dehydrogenase (SDH)-mediated mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species as well as Hif-1α-dependent metabolic reprogramming and inflammatory damage. In tumor-associated macrophages, aberrant Hif-1α activation and metabolic dysregulation by M-BKO contribute to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Consequently, M-BKO increases melanoma tumor burden, whereas administering the SDH inhibitor dimethyl malonate suppresses tumor growth. Therefore, Bmal1 functions as a metabolic checkpoint that integrates macrophage mitochondrial metabolism, redox homeostasis and effector functions. This Bmal1-Hif-1α regulatory loop may provide therapeutic opportunities for inflammatory diseases and immunotherapy.

Down-Regulation of S100A8 is an Independent Predictor of PSA Recurrence in Prostate Cancer Treated by Radical Prostatectomy

Dysregulation of S100A8 is described in many different human tumor types, but its role in prostate cancer is unknown. To evaluate the clinical relevance of S100A8 expression in prostate cancer, a tissue microarray containing 13,665 tumors was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Cytoplasmic S100A8 staining was compared to prostate cancer phenotype, patient prognosis and molecular features including TMPRSS2:ERG fusion status and deletions of PTEN, 3p, 5q and 6q. S100A8 immunostaining was typically seen in normal prostate tissue but lost in 60% of 9786 interpretable prostate cancers. In the remaining tumors, S100A8 was considered weak in 17.9%, moderate in 17.8% and strong in 5.4% of cases. Loss of S100A8 expression was linked to advanced tumor stage, high Gleason grade, positive nodal status, positive surgical margin and high preoperative PSA (P < .0001 each). In addition, loss of S100A8 expression was associated with TMPRSS2:ERG fusions (P < .0001), deletions of PTEN, 3p, and 6q (P < .005), and a high number of genomic deletions per tumor (P = .0009). Absence of S100A8 immunostaining was also linked to an elevated risk for early PSA recurrence (P < .0001). In a multivariate analysis limited to features that are preoperatively available, the prognostic impact of S100A8 expression (P < .0001) was independent of clinical stage, Gleason grade, and serum PSA level (P < .0001). Taken together, the results of our study demonstrate that complete loss of S100A8 expression is linked to adverse tumor features and predicts early biochemical recurrence in prostate cancer. S100A8 measurement, either alone or in combination might be of clinical utility in prostate cancers.

Comparative RNA-seq analysis reveals dys-regulation of major canonical pathways in ERG-inducible LNCaP cell progression model of prostate cancer

Prostate Cancer (CaP) is the second leading cause of cancer related death in USA. In human CaP, gene fusion between androgen responsive regulatory elements at the 5'-untranslated region of TMPRSS2 and ETS-related genes (ERG) is present in at least 50% of prostate tumors. Here we have investigated the unique cellular transcriptome associated with over-expression of ERG in ERG-inducible LNCaP cell model system of human CaP. Comprehensive transcriptome analyses reveal a distinct signature that distinguishes ERG dependent and independent CaP in LNCaP cells. Our data highlight a significant heterogeneity among the transcripts. Out of the 526 statistically significant differentially expressed genes, 232 genes are up-regulated and 294 genes are down-regulated in response to ERG. These ERG-associated genes are linked to several major cellular pathways, cell cycle regulation being the most significant. Consistently our data indicate that ERG plays a key role in modulating the expression of genes required for G1 to S phase transition, particularly those that affect cell cycle arrest at G1 phase. Moreover, cell cycle arrest in response to ERG appears to be promoted by induction of p21 in a p53 independent manner. These findings may provide new insights into mechanisms that promote growth and progression of CaP.

Hypoxia and the Metastatic Niche

Metastasis is considered the latest stage of cancer development; however, metastasis occurs earlier than it can be detected. Metastatic sites are actively remodeled by secretory factors including growth factors, chemokines and cytokines, extracellular matrix (ECM) enzymes, and exosomes produced by the primary cancer tissues. Many of the associated-secretory factors are abundantly induced by inflammation and hypoxia. These secretory factors modify the ECM, immune composition, and blood vessel permeability of the future metastatic sites, a process termed 'metastatic niche formation.' In general, ECM is modified to enhance the attachment of other cell types or cancer cells to establish a growth-factor rich metastatic niche. Immune-suppressive cells such as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and regulatory T cells (Tregs) dominate the metastatic niche to allow metastatic cancer cells to bypass immune surveillance and propagate. Endothelial cell-to-cell junctions of blood vessels are loosened to enhance the penetrance of metastatic cancer cells to the metastatic sites. Different metastatic tissues have unique ECM constituents, resident immune cells, and anatomical positions linked with the circulatory system; therefore, many cancer types have their own metastatic pattern, and they favor metastasis to specific organs. Some of the remodeling events represent the earliest step of metastasis, even preceding the detachment of cancer cells from the primary tumor site. Understanding how the metastatic niche is formed is important for the development of drugs to prevent the earliest step of metastasis and advance our understanding of organotrophic metastasis. This review summarizes the major findings in the field of metastatic niche highlighting the role of hypoxia.

CCL5-deficiency enhances intratumoral infiltration of CD8+ T cells in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common solid tumor in the world and shows resistance to several immunotherapies, particularly immune checkpoint blockade which has therapeutic effects on many other types of cancer. Cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cell has been considered as one of the main populations of effector immune cells in antitumor immunity; however, the absence of CD8⁺ T cells in the central tumor area has become a major obstacle for solid tumor immunotherapy, particularly for CRC. Thus, novel therapeutic strategies that could promote CD8⁺ T cells to accumulate in the central tumor area are urgently needed. Here, we demonstrated that CCL5-deficiency delayed tumor growth and metastasis via facilitating CD8⁺ T cells to accumulate into tumor site in CRC mouse models. Furthermore, CCL5-deficiency could upregulate PD-1 and PD-L1 expression and reduce the resistance to anti-PD-1 antibody therapy in CRC mouse model. Mechanically, the results of RNA-sequencing, in vitro coculture system and hypoxia measurements demonstrated that knockdown of CCL5 could result in the metabolic disorders in CD11b^hiF4/80^low TAMs and suppress the expression of S100a9 to promote the migration of CD8⁺ T cells in the tumor microenvironment. These findings were verified by the data of clinical samples from CRC patients, suggesting that CCL5 may provide a potential therapeutic target for the combined PD-1-immunotherapy of CRC.

Fatty Acids and Calcium Regulation in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is a widespread malignancy characterized by a comparative ease of primary diagnosis and difficulty in choosing the individualized course of treatment. Management of prostate cancer would benefit from a clearer understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the transition to the lethal, late-stage forms of the disease, which could potentially yield new biomarkers for differential prognosis and treatment prioritization in addition to possible new therapeutic targets. Epidemiological research has uncovered a significant correlation of prostate cancer incidence and progression with the intake (and often co-intake) of fatty acids and calcium. Additionally, there is evidence of the impact of these nutrients on intracellular signaling, including the mechanisms mediated by the calcium ion as a second messenger. The present review surveys the recent literature on the molecular mechanisms associated with the critical steps in the prostate cancer progression, with special attention paid to the regulation of these processes by fatty acids and calcium homeostasis. Testable hypotheses are put forward that integrate some of the recent results in a more unified picture of these phenomena at the interface of cell signaling and metabolism.

Presence of S100A8/Gr1-Positive Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Primary Tumors and Visceral Organs Invaded by Breast Carcinoma Cells

BACKGROUND

Increased S100A8/A9 expression in Gr1-positive cells has been shown in myeloid-derived suppressor cells and may play a role in the formation of a metastatic milieu. We aimed to determine S100A8/A9 expression alone and with coexpression of Gr1 (a myeloid marker) in primary tumor and visceral tissues invaded by metastatic breast carcinoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female BALB/c mice were injected with 4TLM, 4THM, and 67NR orthotopically. Confluent cells (75%-80%) were used. Primary tumor, lung, liver, and spleen tissue samples were removed 26 days after injection. Peripheral blood smears and metastasis assay were performed, as was immunohistochemistry and staining.

RESULTS

S100A8/A9 immunoreactivity alone or coexpressed with Gr1 was found in primary tumors formed by 4TLM and 4THM cells, which was markedly higher than in primary tumors formed by nonmetastatic 67NR cells. Similarly, liver and lung tissues obtained from mice injected with 4TLM or 4THM cells were invaded by S100A8/A9-positive and Gr1-positive cells. Double-positive cells were markedly fewer in liver and lung tissues of animals injected with 67NR cells. S100A8/A9-positive cells were mostly localized in red pulp of spleens. We observed an increased number of neutrophils in the peripheral blood of mice injected with metastatic breast carcinoma cells.

CONCLUSION

Tumor-derived factors may increase S100A8/A9-positive cells locally and systemically, and S100A8/A9-positive cells may provide an appropriate milieu for the formation of metastasis.

Hypoxia-Induced Signaling Promotes Prostate Cancer Progression: Exosomes Role as Messenger of Hypoxic Response in Tumor Microenvironment

Prostate cancer (PCA) is the leading malignancy in men and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Hypoxia (low O2 condition) is considered an early event in prostate carcinogenesis associated with an aggressive phenotype. In fact, clinically, hypoxia and hypoxia-related biomarkers are associated with treatment failure and disease progression. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is the key factor that is activated under hypoxia, and mediates adaptation of cells to hypoxic conditions through regulating the expression of genes associated with angiogenesis, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), metastasis, survival, proliferation, metabolism, sternness, hormone-refractory progression, and therapeutic resistance. Besides HIF-1, several other signaling pathways including PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NADPH oxidase (NOX), Wnt/b-catenin, and Hedgehog are activated in cancer cells under hypoxic conditions, and also contribute in hypoxia-induced biological effects in HIF-1-dependent and -independent manners. Hypoxic cancer cells cause extensive changes in the tumor microenvironment both local and distant, and recent studies have provided ample evidence supporting the crucial role of nanosized vesicles "exosomes" in mediating hypoxia-induced tumor microenvironment remodeling. Exosomes' role has been reported in hypoxia-induced angiogenesis, sternness, activation of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and EMT. Together, existing literature suggests that hypoxia plays a predominant role in PCA growth and progression, and PCA could be effectively prevented and treated via targeting hypoxia/hypoxia-related signaling pathways.

S100A8/A9: From basic science to clinical application

Neutrophils and monocytes belong to the first line of immune defence cells and are recruited to sites of inflammation during infection or sterile injury. Both cells contain huge amounts of the heterodimeric protein S100A8/A9 in their cytoplasm. S100A8/A9 belongs to the Ca²⁺ binding S100 protein family and has recently gained a lot of interest as a critical alarmin modulating the inflammatory response after its release (extracellular S100A8/A9) from neutrophils and monocytes. Extracellular S100A8/A9 interacts with the pattern recognition receptors Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and Receptor for Advanced Glycation Endproducts (RAGE) promoting cell activation and recruitment. Besides its biological function, S100A8/A9 (also known as myeloid related protein 8/14, MRP8/14) was identified as interesting biomarker to monitor disease activity in chronic inflammatory disorders including inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis. Furthermore, S100A8/A9 has been tested successfully in pre-clinical imaging studies to localize sites of infection or sterile injury. Finally, recent evidence using small molecule inhibitors for S100A8/A9 also suggests that blocking S100A8/A9 activity exerts beneficial effects on disease activity in animal models of autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. This review will provide a comprehensive and detailed overview into the structure and biological function of S100A8/A9 and also will give an outlook in terms of diagnostic and therapeutic applications targeting S100A8/A9.

Identification of Potential Anticancer Activities of Novel Ganoderma lucidum Extracts Using Gene Expression and Pathway Network Analysis

Ganoderma lucidum (lingzhi) has been used for the general promotion of health in Asia for many centuries. The common method of consumption is to boil lingzhi in water and then drink the liquid. In this study, we examined the potential anticancer activities of G. lucidum submerged in two commonly consumed forms of alcohol in East Asia: malt whiskey and rice wine. The anticancer effect of G. lucidum, using whiskey and rice wine-based extraction methods, has not been previously reported. The growth inhibition of G. lucidum whiskey and rice wine extracts on the prostate cancer cell lines, PC3 and DU145, was determined. Using Affymetrix gene expression assays, several biologically active pathways associated with the anticancer activities of G. lucidum extracts were identified. Using gene expression analysis (real-time polymerase chain reaction [RT-PCR]) and protein analysis (Western blotting), we confirmed the expression of key genes and their associated proteins that were initially identified with Affymetrix gene expression analysis.

Explanation of Metastasis by Homeostatic Inflammation

If inflammation caused by either non-self or self molecules can disseminate throughout the body and inflammatory sites actively allow entry of circulating tumor cells and assist regrowth, then circulating tumor cells metastasize to the sites of inflammation. However, disrupted sites of homeostatic inflammation do not necessarily guarantee metastatic spread and subsequent regrowth.

Overexpression of S100A14 in human serous ovarian carcinoma

S100 calcium binding protein A14 (S100A14) is a member of the S100 protein family that plays an important role in the progression of several types of cancer. In the present study, the expression and clinical effect of S100A14 was evaluated in serous ovarian carcinoma (SOC). SOC tissue specimens and a panel of normal ovarian and fallopian tubal tissue specimens were obtained between November 2008 and August 2012 from the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to detect the expression of S100A14 in the SOC and normal control tissues. In addition, ELISA was performed to assess S100A14 expression in a subset of serum samples. The association between the expression of S100A14 in SOC and the corresponding clinical and pathological data was analyzed. The IHC results revealed that S100A14 was mainly located in the cytoplasm of the majority of SOC cells, and the expression levels of S100A14 in the tumor tissues were significantly increased compared with the levels identified in normal ovarian specimens (P<0.001). Consistently, the serum levels of S100A14 in patients with SOC were also increased compared with the levels in healthy individuals (P<0.001). S100A14 expression was similar in the epithelium of SOC lesions and the fallopian tube, which supported the dualistic model for ovarian serous carcinogenesis. Additional analysis of the expression of S100A14 and corresponding clinical and pathological data revealed the correlation between the elevated expression of S100A14 and resistance to platinum-based chemotherapy. However, the protein level of S100A14 was not associated with the pathological stage, differentiation or metastasis of SOC. Overall, the present results demonstrate that S100A14 is likely to be involved in the resistance of SOC to platinum-based chemotherapy.

Anti-cancer potency of tasquinimod is enhanced via albumin-binding facilitating increased uptake in the tumor microenvironment

Tasquinimod, an orally active quinoline-3-carboxamide, binds with high affinity to HDAC4 and S100A9 in cancer and infiltrating host cells within compromised tumor microenvironment inhibiting adaptive survival pathways needed for an angiogenic response. Clinical trials document that as low as 0.5-1mg tasquinimod/day is therapeutic against castrate resistant metastatic prostate cancer. Tasquinimod is metabolized via cytochrome P4503A4, but ketoconazole at a dose which completely inhibits CYP3A metabolism does not affect tasquinimod's ability to inhibit endothelial “sprouting” in vitro or anti-cancer efficacy against human prostate cancer xenografts in vivo.

Tasquinimod's potency is facilitated by its reversible binding (K_d < 35 μM) to the IIA subdomain of albumin (Sudlow's site I). As blood vessels within the compromised cancer microenvironment are characterized by a higher degree of leakiness than those in normal tissues, this results in an enhanced uptake of tasquinimod bound to albumin in cancer tissue via a tumor specific process known as the “enhanced permeability and retention” (i.e., EPR) effect. Thus, despite plasma levels of < 1 μM, the EPR effect results in intracellular drug concentrations of 2-3 μM, levels several-fold higher than needed for inhibition of endothelial sprouting (IC₅₀ ~ 0.5 μM) or for inhibition of HDAC4 and S100A9 mediated tumor growth.

HES6 promotes prostate cancer aggressiveness independently of Notch signalling

Notch signalling is implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of cancers, but its role in prostate cancer is poorly understood. However, selected Notch pathway members are overrepresented in high-grade prostate cancers. We comprehensively profiled Notch pathway components in prostate cells and found prostate cancer-specific up-regulation of NOTCH3 and HES6. Their expression was particularly high in androgen responsive lines. Up- and down-regulating Notch in these cells modulated expression of canonical Notch targets, HES1 and HEY1, which could also be induced by androgen. Surprisingly, androgen treatment also suppressed Notch receptor expression, suggesting that androgens can activate Notch target genes in a receptor-independent manner. Using a Notch-sensitive Recombination signal binding protein for immunoglobulin kappa J region (RBPJ) reporter assay, we found that basal levels of Notch signalling were significantly lower in prostate cancer cells compared to benign cells. Accordingly pharmacological Notch pathway blockade did not inhibit cancer cell growth or viability. In contrast to canonical Notch targets, HES6, a HES family member known to antagonize Notch signalling, was not regulated by Notch signalling, but relied instead on androgen levels, both in cultured cells and in human cancer tissues. When engineered into prostate cancer cells, reduced levels of HES6 resulted in reduced cancer cell invasion and clonogenic growth. By molecular profiling, we identified potential roles for HES6 in regulating hedgehog signalling, apoptosis and cell migration. Our results did not reveal any cell-autonomous roles for canonical Notch signalling in prostate cancer. However, the results do implicate HES6 as a promoter of prostate cancer progression.

S100 proteins in cancer

In humans, the S100 protein family is composed of 21 members that exhibit a high degree of structural similarity, but are not functionally interchangeable. This family of proteins modulates cellular responses by functioning both as intracellular Ca(2+) sensors and as extracellular factors. Dysregulated expression of multiple members of the S100 family is a common feature of human cancers, with each type of cancer showing a unique S100 protein profile or signature. Emerging in vivo evidence indicates that the biology of most S100 proteins is complex and multifactorial, and that these proteins actively contribute to tumorigenic processes such as cell proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis and immune evasion. Drug discovery efforts have identified leads for inhibiting several S100 family members, and two of the identified inhibitors have progressed to clinical trials in patients with cancer. This Review highlights new findings regarding the role of S100 family members in cancer diagnosis and treatment, the contribution of S100 signalling to tumour biology, and the discovery and development of S100 inhibitors for treating cancer.

Downregulation of S100 Calcium Binding Protein A9 in Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

The development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is poorly understood and the major regulatory molecules involved in the process of tumorigenesis have not yet been identified. We had previously employed a quantitative proteomic approach to identify differentially expressed proteins in ESCC tumors. A total of 238 differentially expressed proteins were identified in that study including S100 calcium binding protein A9 (S100A9) as one of the major downregulated proteins. In the present study, we carried out immunohistochemical validation of S100A9 in a large cohort of ESCC patients to determine the expression and subcellular localization of S100A9 in tumors and adjacent normal esophageal epithelia. Downregulation of S100A9 was observed in 67% (n = 192) of 288 different ESCC tumors, with the most dramatic downregulation observed in the poorly differentiated tumors (99/111). Expression of S100A9 was restricted to the prickle and functional layers of normal esophageal mucosa and localized predominantly in the cytoplasm and nucleus whereas virtually no expression was observed in the tumor and stromal cells. This suggests the important role that S100A9 plays in maintaining the differentiated state of epithelium and suggests that its downregulation may be associated with increased susceptibility to tumor formation.

Calprotectin in bile: a disease severity marker in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis

GOALS

Our aim was to evaluate the diagnostic potential of calprotectin in serum and bile of patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC).

BACKGROUND

PSC is a chronic cholestatic liver disease of unknown etiology. It is characterized by progressive inflammation and fibrosis of the bile ducts leading to biliary cirrhosis and eventually liver failure. Reliable markers for disease activity and severity are still lacking. Subunits of calprotectin, a fecal marker of inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease, have been recently identified in bile.

STUDY

Calprotectin was measured in patients with PSC (n=56), cholangiocarcinoma (CC) complicating PSC (CC/PSC) (n=13), CC (n=30), and bile duct stones in bile (n=38) and serum (n=73) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in a cross-sectional study. PSC patients were categorized by the Mayo risk score (MRS) to characterize the disease severity.

RESULTS

Calprotectin is present in bile, and the median concentration was significantly higher in PSC patients (P<0.05). Stratification of PSC patients by MRS showed significantly elevated calprotectin levels in bile in the MRS-high group (P<0.05). Calprotectin and MRS correlated significantly (P<0.05). The presence or absence of inflammatory bowel disease in PSC patients did not alter calprotectin levels in bile. Serum AP and calprotectin in bile correlated significantly (P=0.013). No significant correlation was found for other liver-related parameters. In contrast, serum calprotectin levels were significantly higher in patients with CC, but there was no association with PSC or disease activity/severity.

CONCLUSIONS

Calprotectin in bile is a promising disease marker in patients with PSC with a potential prognostic value.

Comparison of mRNA, Protein, and Urinary Nucleic Acid Levels of S100A8 and S100A9 between Prostate Cancer and BPH

BACKGROUND

Infections and inflammation in the prostate play a critical role in carcinogenesis, and S100A8 and S100A9 are key mediators in acute and chronic inflammation. Therefore, we investigated the differences of S100A8/A9 expression between prostate cancer (CaP) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) tissues, and we evaluated the possibilities of urinary nucleic acids of S100A8/A9 as diagnostic and prognostic markers.

METHODS

Tissues from 132 CaP patients who underwent prostatectomy or transurethral resection and 90 BPH patients who underwent transurethral prostatectomy were assessed.sd In addition, S100A8 and S100A9 nucleic acid levels were measured in the urine of 283 CaP patients and 363 BPH controls.

RESULTS

S100A8 and S100A9 mRNA levels were lower in CaP than BPH tissues (P < 0.001). S100A8 and S100A9 expression was increased in cancer tissues with poorer prognosis. In 69 specimens from prostatectomy patients, S100A8/A9 were the independent predictor of biochemical recurrence (hazard ratio 5.22, 95 % confidence interval 1.800-15.155, P = 0.002). Immunohistochemical staining revealed that BPH tissues stained more strongly for both S100A8 and S100A9 than CaP tissues (P < 0.001). S100A8 and S100A9 urinary nucleic acid levels were lower in CaP than in BPH (P = 0.001 and <0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

S100A8/A9 levels are lower in CaP than in BPH. Both were more highly expressed in patients with aggressive disease and shorter biochemical recurrence-free time. S100A8/A9 urinary cell-free nucleic acid levels correlated positively with expression levels obtained from tissue staining. Therefore, S100A8/A9 measurement in tissues and urine may have diagnostic and prognostic value in CaP.

microRNA-18a is a genetic marker for the early diagnosis of cerebral injury induced by type 2 diabetes

The present study aimed to investigate the value of microRNA (miRNA)-18a for the early diagnosis of cerebral injury in patients with type 2 diabetes. Blood samples were collected from patients with type 2 diabetes, admitted to hospital between January and December 2013. The patients were randomly divided into three groups, which included one control and two experimental groups of severely and mildly diabetic patients (33 individuals per group). The levels of biochemical indicators in the serum, including S100 protein, neuron-specific enolase, myelin basic protein and endothelin-1, were determined. The mRNA and protein expression levels of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α in the serum were measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and western blot analysis, respectively. In addition, the serum expression levels of miRNA-18a were determined by qPCR. The concentrations of the biochemical indicators in the severe diabetes group were significantly higher compared with those from the other two groups. Furthermore, the mRNA and protein expression levels of HIF-1α in the severe diabetes group were significantly upregulated compared with the other groups. However, the levels of miRNA-18a in the severe diabetes group were significantly downregulated compared with the other groups. The present study demonstrated that the elevation of biochemical indicators in the serum and the upregulation of HIF-1α mRNA and protein expression are associated with the downregulation of miRNA-18a. Therefore, miRNA-18a may be a potential genetic marker for the early diagnosis of cerebral injury induced by type 2 diabetes.

Low- and high-grade bladder cancer appraisal via serum-based proteomics approach

OBJECTIVE

To address the shortcomings of urine cytology and cystoscopy for screening and grading of urinary bladder cancer (BC) we applied a serum-based proteomics approach as a surrogate tactic for rapid BC probing.

METHODS

This study was performed on 90 sera samples comprising of low-grade (LG, n=33) and high-grade (HG, n=32) BC, and healthy controls (HC, n=25). Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) tactic was executed to describe serum proteome. MALDI-TOF-MS (MS) was used to identify the characteristics of aberrantly expressed proteins in 2DE and validated using Western blot (WB) and ELISA approach. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve analysis was also performed to determine the clinical usefulness of these proteins to discriminate among LG, HG and HC cohorts.

RESULTS

This comprehensive approach of 2DE, MS, WB and ELISA reveals five differentially expressed proteins. Among them two biomarkers (S100A8 and S100A9) were able to accurately (ROC, 0.946) distinguish 81% of BC (LG+HG) cases compared to HC with highest sensitivity and specificity. With a comparable tactic, two biomarkers (S100A8 and S100A4) were able to precisely (ROC, 0.941) discriminate 92% of LG cases from HG with utmost sensitivity and specificity.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum proteomics probing appears to be an encouraging and least-invasive tactic for screening and grading of BC.

Transcriptional activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) in myeloid cells promotes angiogenesis through VEGF and S100A8

Emerging evidence indicates that myeloid cells are essential for promoting new blood vessel formation by secreting various angiogenic factors. Given that hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a critical regulator for angiogenesis, we questioned whether HIF in myeloid cells also plays a role in promoting angiogenesis. To address this question, we generated a unique strain of myeloid-specific knockout mice targeting HIF pathways using human S100A8 as a myeloid-specific promoter. We observed that mutant mice where HIF-1 is transcriptionally activated in myeloid cells (by deletion of the von Hippel-Lindau gene) resulted in erythema, enhanced neovascularization in matrigel plugs, and increased production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the bone marrow, all of which were completely abrogated by either genetic or pharmacological inactivation of HIF-1. We further found that monocytes were the major effector producing VEGF and S100A8 proteins driving neovascularization in matrigel. Moreover, by using a mouse model of hindlimb ischemia we observed significantly improved blood flow in mice intramuscularly injected with HIF-1-activated monocytes. This study therefore demonstrates that HIF-1 activation in myeloid cells promotes angiogenesis through VEGF and S100A8 and that this may become an attractive therapeutic strategy to treat diseases with vascular defects.