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Valentini R, Grant-Kels JM, Falcone M, Stewart CL. Merkel cell carcinoma and the eye. Clin Dermatol 2024; 42:381-389. [PMID: 38325726 DOI: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2024.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare cutaneous neuroendocrine tumor with a poor five-year survival rate. Yearly cases have risen nearly 350% since the early 1980s, and these are predicted to increase as the overall US population ages. MCC of the eyelid is uncommon and can be misdiagnosed as other benign inflammatory and neoplastic eyelid disorders. Although MCC of the head and neck is often more aggressive than it is at other sites, eyelid MCC shows a lower disease-specific mortality rate. A biopsy is essential for accurate diagnosis, including an immunohistochemical panel of CK20 and TTF-1, although other markers may be necessary. Staging can be assessed clinically through physical examination findings and imaging and/or pathologically with sentinel lymph node biopsy or fine-needle aspiration. Pathologic staging more accurately predicts the prognosis. Eyelid MCC treatments include Mohs micrographic surgery to allow for complete clearance and adequate reconstruction of lost tissue, followed by adjuvant radiotherapy. In advanced disease, immunotherapies are preferred over traditional chemotherapy and are a subject of ongoing research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolfo Valentini
- University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Jane M Grant-Kels
- Department of Dermatology, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA; Department of Dermatology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Madina Falcone
- Department of Surgery, Division of Ophthalmology, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Campbell L Stewart
- Department of Dermatology, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA.
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2
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Emilius L, Bremm F, Binder AK, Schaft N, Dörrie J. Tumor Antigens beyond the Human Exome. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4673. [PMID: 38731892 PMCID: PMC11083240 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25094673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
With the advent of immunotherapeutics, a new era in the combat against cancer has begun. Particularly promising are neo-epitope-targeted therapies as the expression of neo-antigens is tumor-specific. In turn, this allows the selective targeting and killing of cancer cells whilst healthy cells remain largely unaffected. So far, many advances have been made in the development of treatment options which are tailored to the individual neo-epitope repertoire. The next big step is the achievement of efficacious "off-the-shelf" immunotherapies. For this, shared neo-epitopes propose an optimal target. Given the tremendous potential, a thorough understanding of the underlying mechanisms which lead to the formation of neo-antigens is of fundamental importance. Here, we review the various processes which result in the formation of neo-epitopes. Broadly, the origin of neo-epitopes can be categorized into three groups: canonical, noncanonical, and viral neo-epitopes. For the canonical neo-antigens that arise in direct consequence of somatic mutations, we summarize past and recent findings. Beyond that, our main focus is put on the discussion of noncanonical and viral neo-epitopes as we believe that targeting those provides an encouraging perspective to shape the future of cancer immunotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisabeth Emilius
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (L.E.); (F.B.); (A.K.B.); (J.D.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Bavarian Cancer Research Center (BZKF), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Franziska Bremm
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (L.E.); (F.B.); (A.K.B.); (J.D.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Bavarian Cancer Research Center (BZKF), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Amanda Katharina Binder
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (L.E.); (F.B.); (A.K.B.); (J.D.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Bavarian Cancer Research Center (BZKF), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Niels Schaft
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (L.E.); (F.B.); (A.K.B.); (J.D.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Bavarian Cancer Research Center (BZKF), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jan Dörrie
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (L.E.); (F.B.); (A.K.B.); (J.D.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie (DZI), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Bavarian Cancer Research Center (BZKF), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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3
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Zhu G, Xie L, Hu X. Imaging of Merkel cell carcinoma of the eyelid: A case report. Oncol Lett 2024; 27:119. [PMID: 38312913 PMCID: PMC10835335 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2024.14252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare primary neuroendocrine carcinoma commonly found in older adults in areas of the skin that are susceptible to ultraviolet ray damage. The current study reports the case of a 79-year-old woman who presented to the Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University (Zunyi, China) with a painless lump in the lower eyelid of the left eye accompanied by photophobic tears for 4 months. Head computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a space-occupying lesion ~2.8×2.4 cm in size outside the left orbital muscle cone, which was poorly demarcated from the surrounding normal tissues. Markedly intense and tortuous walking vascular shadows were observed within the tumor tissues. Fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (18F-FDG PET)/CT revealed increased 18F-FDG uptake in the corresponding lesions. Based on these imaging features, a malignant tumor was suspected. The patient subsequently underwent surgery. Postoperative pathology and immunohistochemistry revealed MCC. The clinical presentation of MCC is usually a painless soft-tissue nodule or mass that grows rapidly over a short period and is flesh-colored, bluish red or purple. A slightly hyperdense mass on CT, with equal T1-weighted and slightly longer T2-weighted MRI signals, and mild enhancement on contrast-enhanced scans, accompanied by significantly enhanced distorted vascular shadows and increased 18F-FDG uptake on PET/CT, are valuable in the diagnosis of eyelid MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangwen Zhu
- Department of Endocrinology, Zunyi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zunyi, Guizhou 563003, P.R. China
| | - Liting Xie
- Department of Gynecology, Zunyi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Zunyi, Guizhou 563000, P.R. China
| | - Xianwen Hu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou 563000, P.R. China
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Kervarrec T, Appenzeller S, Tallet A, Jullie ML, Sohier P, Guillonneau F, Rütten A, Berthon P, Le Corre Y, Hainaut-Wierzbicka E, Blom A, Beneton N, Bens G, Nardin C, Aubin F, Dinulescu M, Visée S, Herfs M, Touzé A, Guyétant S, Samimi M, Houben R, Schrama D. Detection of wildtype Merkel cell polyomavirus genomic sequence and VP1 transcription in a subset of Merkel cell carcinoma. Histopathology 2024; 84:356-368. [PMID: 37830288 DOI: 10.1111/his.15068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is frequently caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Characteristic for these virus-positive (VP) MCC is MCPyV integration into the host genome and truncation of the viral oncogene Large T antigen (LT), with full-length LT expression considered as incompatible with MCC growth. Genetic analysis of a VP-MCC/trichoblastoma combined tumour demonstrated that virus-driven MCC can arise from an epithelial cell. Here we describe two further cases of VP-MCC combined with an adnexal tumour, i.e. one trichoblastoma and one poroma. METHODS AND RESULTS Whole-genome sequencing of MCC/trichoblastoma again provided evidence of a trichoblastoma-derived MCC. Although an MCC-typical LT-truncating mutation was detected, we could not determine an integration site and we additionally detected a wildtype sequence encoding full-length LT. Similarly, Sanger sequencing of the combined MCC/poroma revealed coding sequences for both truncated and full-length LT. Moreover, in situ RNA hybridization demonstrated expression of a late region mRNA encoding the viral capsid protein VP1 in both combined as well as in a few cases of pure MCC. CONCLUSION The data presented here suggest the presence of wildtype MCPyV genomes and VP1 transcription in a subset of MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Kervarrec
- Department of Pathology, Université de Tours, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Tours, Tours, France
- "Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus" Team, UMR INRAE ISP 1282, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Silke Appenzeller
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anne Tallet
- Platform of Somatic Tumor Molecular Genetics, Université de Tours, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Marie-Laure Jullie
- Department of Pathology, Hôpital Haut-Lévêque, CHU de Bordeaux, CARADERM Network, Pessac, France
| | - Pierre Sohier
- Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Department of Pathology, Hôpital Cochin, AP-HP.Centre-Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Francois Guillonneau
- 3P5 Proteomics, Hôpital Cochin, AP-HP, Centre-Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | | | - Patricia Berthon
- "Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus" Team, UMR INRAE ISP 1282, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Yannick Le Corre
- Dermatology Department, LUNAM Université, CHU Angers, Angers, France
| | | | - Astrid Blom
- Department of General and Oncologic Dermatology, CARADERM Network Ambroise-Paré hospital, APHP & Research Unit EA 4340, University of Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Paris-Saclay University, Boulogne-Billancourt, France
| | | | - Guido Bens
- Dermatology Department, CHR d'Orléans, Orléans, France
- Dermatology Department, CH de Blois, Blois, France
| | - Charline Nardin
- Dermatology Department, Inserm 1098, Université de Franche Comté, CHU Besançon, Besançon, France
| | - Francois Aubin
- Dermatology Department, Inserm 1098, Université de Franche Comté, CHU Besançon, Besançon, France
| | - Monica Dinulescu
- Dermatology Department, CHR Rennes, Rennes, France
- Institut Dermatologique du Grand Ouest (IDGO), Rennes, France
| | - Sebastien Visée
- Department of Pathology, Centre Hospitalier d'Angoulème, Angoulème, France
| | - Michael Herfs
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathology, GIGA-Cancer, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Antoine Touzé
- "Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus" Team, UMR INRAE ISP 1282, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Serge Guyétant
- Department of Pathology, Université de Tours, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Tours, Tours, France
- "Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus" Team, UMR INRAE ISP 1282, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Mahtab Samimi
- "Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus" Team, UMR INRAE ISP 1282, Université de Tours, Tours, France
- Departement of Dermatology, Université de Tours, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Roland Houben
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - David Schrama
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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5
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Moens U, Passerini S, Falquet M, Sveinbjørnsson B, Pietropaolo V. Phosphorylation of Human Polyomavirus Large and Small T Antigens: An Ignored Research Field. Viruses 2023; 15:2235. [PMID: 38005912 PMCID: PMC10674619 DOI: 10.3390/v15112235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are the most common post-translational modifications mediated by protein kinases and protein phosphatases, respectively. These reversible processes can modulate the function of the target protein, such as its activity, subcellular localization, stability, and interaction with other proteins. Phosphorylation of viral proteins plays an important role in the life cycle of a virus. In this review, we highlight biological implications of the phosphorylation of the monkey polyomavirus SV40 large T and small t antigens, summarize our current knowledge of the phosphorylation of these proteins of human polyomaviruses, and conclude with gaps in the knowledge and a proposal for future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugo Moens
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway; (M.F.); (B.S.)
| | - Sara Passerini
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Mar Falquet
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway; (M.F.); (B.S.)
| | - Baldur Sveinbjørnsson
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway; (M.F.); (B.S.)
| | - Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
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6
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Mazziotta C, Cervellera CF, Badiale G, Vitali I, Touzé A, Tognon M, Martini F, Rotondo JC. Distinct retinoic gene signatures discriminate Merkel cell polyomavirus-positive from -negative Merkel cell carcinoma cells. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28949. [PMID: 37436928 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Limited molecular knowledge of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV)-positive and -negative Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) subsets (MCCP/MCCN) has prevented so far the identification of the MCC origin cell type and, therefore, the development of effective therapies. The retinoic gene signature was investigated in various MCCP, MCCN, and control fibroblast/epithelial cell lines to elucidate the heterogeneous nature of MCC. Hierarchical clustering and principal component analysis indicated that MCCP and MCCN cells were clusterizable from each other and control cells, according to their retinoic gene signature. MCCP versus MCCN differentially expressed genes (n = 43) were identified. Protein-protein interaction network indicated SOX2, ISL1, PAX6, FGF8, ASCL1, OLIG2, SHH, and GLI1 as upregulated hub genes and JAG1 and MYC as downregulated hub genes in MCCP compared to MCCN. Numerous MCCP-associated hub genes were DNA-binding/-transcription factors involved in neurological and Merkel cell development and stemness. Enrichment analyses indicated that MCCP versus MCCN differentially expressed genes predominantly encode for to DNA-binding/-transcription factors involved in development, stemness, invasiveness, and cancer. Our findings suggest the neuroendocrine origin of MCCP, by which neuronal precursor cells could undergo an MCPyV-driven transformation. These overarching results might open the way to novel retinoid-based MCC therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Mazziotta
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
- Department of Medical Sciences, Center for Studies on Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | | | - Giada Badiale
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Ilaria Vitali
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Antoine Touzé
- "Biologie Des Infections À Polyomavirus" Team, UMR, University of Tours, Tours, France
| | - Mauro Tognon
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Fernanda Martini
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
- Department of Medical Sciences, Center for Studies on Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
- Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - John Charles Rotondo
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
- Department of Medical Sciences, Center for Studies on Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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7
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Houben R, Alimova P, Sarma B, Hesbacher S, Schulte C, Sarosi EM, Adam C, Kervarrec T, Schrama D. 4-[(5-Methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino]-2H-phenyl-1-phthalazinone Inhibits MCPyV T Antigen Expression in Merkel Cell Carcinoma Independent of Aurora Kinase A. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15092542. [PMID: 37174007 PMCID: PMC10177447 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15092542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is frequently caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), and MCPyV-positive tumor cells depend on expression of the virus-encoded T antigens (TA). Here, we identify 4-[(5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino]-2H-phenyl-1-phthalazinone (PHT)-a reported inhibitor of Aurora kinase A-as a compound inhibiting growth of MCC cells by repressing noncoding control region (NCCR)-controlled TA transcription. Surprisingly, we find that TA repression is not caused by inhibition of Aurora kinase A. However, we demonstrate that β-catenin-a transcription factor repressed by active glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3)-is activated by PHT, suggesting that PHT bears a hitherto unreported inhibitory activity against GSK3, a kinase known to function in promoting TA transcription. Indeed, applying an in vitro kinase assay, we demonstrate that PHT directly targets GSK3. Finally, we demonstrate that PHT exhibits in vivo antitumor activity in an MCC xenograft mouse model, suggesting a potential use in future therapeutic settings for MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Houben
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Pamela Alimova
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Bhavishya Sarma
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sonja Hesbacher
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Carolin Schulte
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Eva-Maria Sarosi
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christian Adam
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Thibault Kervarrec
- Department of Pathology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Tours, INRA UMR 1282 BIP, 37200 Tours, France
| | - David Schrama
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology und Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
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8
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Srinivas N, Song L, Lei KC, Gravemeyer J, Furtmann F, Gambichler T, Becker JC, Sriram A. The HDAC inhibitor domatinostat induces type I interferon α in Merkel cell carcinoma by HES1 repression. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2023:10.1007/s00432-023-04733-y. [PMID: 37071208 PMCID: PMC10374800 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-023-04733-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Class I selective histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have been previously demonstrated to not only increase major histocompatibility complex class I surface expression in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) cells by restoring the antigen processing and presentation machinery, but also exert anti-tumoral effect by inducing apoptosis. Both phenomena could be due to induction of type I interferons (IFN), as has been described for HDACi. However, the mechanism of IFN induction under HDACi is not fully understood because the expression of IFNs is regulated by both activating and inhibitory signaling pathways. Our own preliminary observations suggest that this may be caused by suppression of HES1. METHODS The effect of the class I selective HDACi domatinostat and IFNα on cell viability and the apoptosis of MCPyV-positive (WaGa, MKL-1) and -negative (UM-MCC 34) MCC cell lines, as well as, primary fibroblasts were assessed by colorimetric methods or measuring mitochondrial membrane potential and intracellular caspase-3/7, respectively. Next, the impact of domatinostat on IFNA and HES1 mRNA expression was measured by RT-qPCR; intracellular IFNα production was detected by flow cytometry. To confirm that the expression of IFNα induced by HDACi was due to the suppression of HES1, it was silenced by RNA interference and then mRNA expression of IFNA and IFN-stimulated genes was assessed. RESULTS Our studies show that the previously reported reduction in viability of MCC cell lines after inhibition of HDAC by domatinostat is accompanied by an increase in IFNα expression, both of mRNA and at the protein level. We confirmed that treatment of MCC cells with external IFNα inhibited their proliferation and induced apoptosis. Re-analysis of existing single-cell RNA sequencing data indicated that induction of IFNα by domatinostat occurs through repression of HES1, a transcriptional inhibitor of IFNA; this was confirmed by RT-qPCR. Finally, siRNA-mediated silencing of HES1 in the MCC cell line WaGa not only increased mRNA expression of IFNA and IFN-stimulated genes but also decreased cell viability. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate that the direct anti-tumor effect of HDACi domatinostat on MCC cells is at least in part mediated via decreased HES1 expression allowing the induction of IFNα, which in turn causes apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nalini Srinivas
- Department of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen, University Medicine Essen, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Lina Song
- Department of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen, University Medicine Essen, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Dermatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kuan Cheok Lei
- Department of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen, University Medicine Essen, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan Gravemeyer
- Department of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen, University Medicine Essen, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Frauke Furtmann
- Department of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen, University Medicine Essen, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thilo Gambichler
- Skin Cancer Center, Department of Dermatology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Jürgen C Becker
- Department of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen, University Medicine Essen, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany.
| | - Ashwin Sriram
- Department of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen, University Medicine Essen, and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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9
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Merkel Cell Polyomavirus: Infection, Genome, Transcripts and Its Role in Development of Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15020444. [PMID: 36672392 PMCID: PMC9857234 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15020444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The best characterized polyomavirus family member, i.e., simian virus 40 (SV40), can cause different tumors in hamsters and can transform murine and human cells in vitro. Hence, the SV40 contamination of millions of polio vaccine doses administered from 1955-1963 raised fears that this may cause increased tumor incidence in the vaccinated population. This is, however, not the case. Indeed, up to now, the only polyomavirus family member known to be the most important cause of a specific human tumor entity is Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). MCC is a highly deadly form of skin cancer for which the cellular origin is still uncertain, and which appears as two clinically very similar but molecularly highly different variants. While approximately 80% of cases are found to be associated with MCPyV the remaining MCCs carry a high mutational load. Here, we present an overview of the multitude of molecular functions described for the MCPyV encoded oncoproteins and non-coding RNAs, present the available MCC mouse models and discuss the increasing evidence that both, virus-negative and -positive MCC constitute epithelial tumors.
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10
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Loke ASW, Lambert PF, Spurgeon ME. Current In Vitro and In Vivo Models to Study MCPyV-Associated MCC. Viruses 2022; 14:2204. [PMID: 36298759 PMCID: PMC9607385 DOI: 10.3390/v14102204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the only human polyomavirus currently known to cause human cancer. MCPyV is believed to be an etiological factor in at least 80% of cases of the rare but aggressive skin malignancy Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). In these MCPyV+ MCC tumors, clonal integration of the viral genome results in the continued expression of two viral proteins: the viral small T antigen (ST) and a truncated form of the viral large T antigen. The oncogenic potential of MCPyV and the functional properties of the viral T antigens that contribute to neoplasia are becoming increasingly well-characterized with the recent development of model systems that recapitulate the biology of MCPyV+ MCC. In this review, we summarize our understanding of MCPyV and its role in MCC, followed by the current state of both in vitro and in vivo model systems used to study MCPyV and its contribution to carcinogenesis. We also highlight the remaining challenges within the field and the major considerations related to the ongoing development of in vitro and in vivo models of MCPyV+ MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Megan E. Spurgeon
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, School of Medicine & Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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11
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Therapeutic Potential of 5'-Methylschweinfurthin G in Merkel Cell Polyomavirus-Positive Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Viruses 2022; 14:v14091848. [PMID: 36146655 PMCID: PMC9506461 DOI: 10.3390/v14091848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but aggressive form of skin cancer predominantly caused by the human Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Treatment for MCC includes excision and radiotherapy of local disease, and chemotherapy or immunotherapy for metastatic disease. The schweinfurthin family of natural compounds previously displayed potent and selective growth inhibitory activity against the NCI-60 panel of human-derived cancer cell lines. Here, we investigated the impact of schweinfurthin on human MCC cell lines. Treatment with the schweinfurthin analog, 5'-methylschweinfurth G (MeSG also known as TTI-3114), impaired metabolic activity through induction of an apoptotic pathway. MeSG also selectively inhibited PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK pathways in the MCPyV-positive MCC cell line, MS-1. Interestingly, expression of the MCPyV small T (sT) oncogene selectively sensitizes mouse embryonic fibroblasts to MeSG. These results suggest that the schweinfurthin family of compounds display promising potential as a novel therapeutic option for virus-induced MCCs.
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12
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Lee PC, Klaeger S, Le PM, Korthauer K, Cheng J, Ananthapadmanabhan V, Frost TC, Stevens JD, Wong AY, Iorgulescu JB, Tarren AY, Chea VA, Carulli IP, Lemvigh CK, Pedersen CB, Gartin AK, Sarkizova S, Wright KT, Li LW, Nomburg J, Li S, Huang T, Liu X, Pomerance L, Doherty LM, Apffel AM, Wallace LJ, Rachimi S, Felt KD, Wolff JO, Witten E, Zhang W, Neuberg D, Lane WJ, Zhang G, Olsen LR, Thakuria M, Rodig SJ, Clauser KR, Starrett GJ, Doench JG, Buhrlage SJ, Carr SA, DeCaprio JA, Wu CJ, Keskin DB. Reversal of viral and epigenetic HLA class I repression in Merkel cell carcinoma. J Clin Invest 2022; 132:e151666. [PMID: 35775490 PMCID: PMC9246387 DOI: 10.1172/jci151666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancers avoid immune surveillance through an array of mechanisms, including perturbation of HLA class I antigen presentation. Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive, HLA-I-low, neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin often caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Through the characterization of 11 newly generated MCC patient-derived cell lines, we identified transcriptional suppression of several class I antigen presentation genes. To systematically identify regulators of HLA-I loss in MCC, we performed parallel, genome-scale, gain- and loss-of-function screens in a patient-derived MCPyV-positive cell line and identified MYCL and the non-canonical Polycomb repressive complex 1.1 (PRC1.1) as HLA-I repressors. We observed physical interaction of MYCL with the MCPyV small T viral antigen, supporting a mechanism of virally mediated HLA-I suppression. We further identify the PRC1.1 component USP7 as a pharmacologic target to restore HLA-I expression in MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C. Lee
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Susan Klaeger
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Phuong M. Le
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Keegan Korthauer
- Department of Statistics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jingwei Cheng
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Varsha Ananthapadmanabhan
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Thomas C. Frost
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jonathan D. Stevens
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Alan Y.L. Wong
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - J. Bryan Iorgulescu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Anna Y. Tarren
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Translational Immunogenomics Laboratory, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Vipheaviny A. Chea
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Translational Immunogenomics Laboratory, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Isabel P. Carulli
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Translational Immunogenomics Laboratory, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Camilla K. Lemvigh
- Section for Bioinformatics, Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Christina B. Pedersen
- Section for Bioinformatics, Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- Center for Genomic Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ashley K. Gartin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Siranush Sarkizova
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kyle T. Wright
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Letitia W. Li
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jason Nomburg
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Translational Immunogenomics Laboratory, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Teddy Huang
- Translational Immunogenomics Laboratory, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Xiaoxi Liu
- Department of Cancer Biology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology
| | - Lucas Pomerance
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Immunology, and
| | - Laura M. Doherty
- Department of Cancer Biology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology
- Department of Systems Biology and Laboratory of Systems Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Annie M. Apffel
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Luke J. Wallace
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Suzanna Rachimi
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | | | - Elizabeth Witten
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Wandi Zhang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Donna Neuberg
- Department of Data Science, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - William J. Lane
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Guanglan Zhang
- Department of Computer Science, Metropolitan College, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Lars R. Olsen
- Section for Bioinformatics, Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- Center for Genomic Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Manisha Thakuria
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Merkel Cell Carcinoma Center of Excellence, Dana-Farber/Brigham Cancer Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Scott J. Rodig
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Center for Immuno-Oncology and
| | - Karl R. Clauser
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gabriel J. Starrett
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - John G. Doench
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sara J. Buhrlage
- Department of Cancer Biology and the Linde Program in Cancer Chemical Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology
| | - Steven A. Carr
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - James A. DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Merkel Cell Carcinoma Center of Excellence, Dana-Farber/Brigham Cancer Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Catherine J. Wu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Derin B. Keskin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Translational Immunogenomics Laboratory, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Section for Bioinformatics, Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- Department of Computer Science, Metropolitan College, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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13
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Spurgeon ME, Cheng J, Ward-Shaw E, Dick FA, DeCaprio JA, Lambert PF. Merkel cell polyomavirus large T antigen binding to pRb promotes skin hyperplasia and tumor development. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010551. [PMID: 35560034 PMCID: PMC9132321 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Clear evidence supports a causal link between Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) and the highly aggressive human skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Integration of viral DNA into the human genome facilitates continued expression of the MCPyV small tumor (ST) and large tumor (LT) antigens in virus-positive MCCs. In MCC tumors, MCPyV LT is truncated in a manner that renders the virus unable to replicate yet preserves the LXCXE motif that facilitates its binding to and inactivation of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (pRb). We previously developed a MCPyV transgenic mouse model in which MCC tumor-derived ST and truncated LT expression were targeted to the stratified epithelium of the skin, causing epithelial hyperplasia, increased proliferation, and spontaneous tumorigenesis. We sought to determine if any of these phenotypes required the association between the truncated MCPyV LT and pRb. Mice were generated in which K14-driven MCPyV ST/LT were expressed in the context of a homozygous RbΔLXCXE knock-in allele that attenuates LT-pRb interactions through LT's LXCXE motif. We found that many of the phenotypes including tumorigenesis that develop in the K14-driven MCPyV transgenic mice were dependent upon LT's LXCXE-dependent interaction with pRb. These findings highlight the importance of the MCPyV LT-pRb interaction in an in vivo model for MCPyV-induced tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E. Spurgeon
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jingwei Cheng
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Ella Ward-Shaw
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Frederick A. Dick
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Children’s Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
- London Regional Cancer Program, London Health Sciences Centre, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - James A. DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Paul F. Lambert
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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14
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Merkel cell carcinoma and immune evasion: Merkel cell polyomavirus small T-antigen induced surface changes can be reverted by therapeutic intervention. J Invest Dermatol 2022; 142:3071-3081.e13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2022.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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15
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Temblador A, Topalis D, van den Oord J, Andrei G, Snoeck R. Organotypic Epithelial Raft Cultures as a Three-Dimensional In Vitro Model of Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14041091. [PMID: 35205840 PMCID: PMC8870341 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14041091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare type of skin cancer for which an in vitro model is still lacking. MCC tumorigenesis is associated either with the integration of Merkel cell polyomavirus into the host genome, or with the accumulation of somatic mutations upon chronic exposure to UV light. Transgenic animals expressing the viral oncoproteins, which are constitutively expressed in virus-related MCC, do not fully recapitulate MCC. Although cell-line-derived xenografts have been established for the two subtypes of MCC, they still present certain limitations. Here, we generated organotypic epithelial raft cultures (OERCs) of MCC by using primary human keratinocytes and both virus-positive and virus-negative MCC cell lines. The primary human keratinocytes and the tumor cells were grown on top of a dermal equivalent. Histological and immunohistochemical examination of the rafts confirmed the growth of MCC cells. Furthermore, gene expression analysis revealed differences in the expression profiles of the distinct tumor cells and the keratinocytes at the transcriptional level. In summary, considering the limited availability of patient samples, OERCs of MCC may constitute a suitable model for evaluating the efficacy and selectivity of new drug candidates against MCC; moreover, they are a potential tool to study the oncogenic mechanisms of this malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Temblador
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (A.T.); (D.T.); (R.S.)
| | - Dimitrios Topalis
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (A.T.); (D.T.); (R.S.)
| | - Joost van den Oord
- Laboratory of Translational Cell and Tissue Research, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Graciela Andrei
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (A.T.); (D.T.); (R.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Robert Snoeck
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (A.T.); (D.T.); (R.S.)
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16
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Inhibition of T-antigen expression promoting glycogen synthase kinase 3 impairs merkel cell carcinoma cell growth. Cancer Lett 2022; 524:259-267. [PMID: 34715251 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2021.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma is an aggressive skin cancer frequently caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Since proliferation of MCPyV-positive MCC tumor cells strictly depends on expression of the virus-encoded T antigens (TA), these proteins theoretically represent ideal targets for different kinds of therapeutic approaches. Here we developed a cell-based assay to identify compounds which specifically inhibit growth of MCC cells by repressing TA expression. Applying this technique we screened a kinase inhibitor library and identified six compounds targeting glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) such as CHIR99021 as suppressors of TA transcription in MCC cells. Involvement of GSK3α and -β in the regulation of TA-expression was confirmed by combining GSK3A knockout with inducible GSK3B shRNA knockdown since double knockouts could not be generated. Finally, we demonstrate that CHIR99021 exhibits in vivo antitumor activity in an MCC xenograft mouse model suggesting GSK3 inhibitors as potential therapeutics for the treatment of MCC in the future.
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17
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Ahmed MM, Cushman CH, DeCaprio JA. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus: Oncogenesis in a Stable Genome. Viruses 2021; 14:v14010058. [PMID: 35062263 PMCID: PMC8781562 DOI: 10.3390/v14010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) is the causative agent for the majority of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) cases. Polyomavirus-associated MCC (MCCP) is characterized by the integration of MCV DNA into the tumor genome and a low tumor mutational burden. In contrast, nonviral MCC (MCCN) is characterized by a high tumor mutational burden induced by UV damage. Since the discovery of MCV, much work in the field has focused on understanding the molecular mechanisms of oncogenesis driven by the MCV tumor (T) antigens. Here, we review our current understanding of how the activities of large T (LT) and small T (ST) promote MCC oncogenesis in the absence of genomic instability. We highlight how both LT and ST inhibit tumor suppressors to evade growth suppression, an important cancer hallmark. We discuss ST interactions with cellular proteins, with an emphasis on those that contribute to sustaining proliferative signaling. Finally, we examine active areas of research into open questions in the field, including the origin of MCC and mechanisms of viral integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona M. Ahmed
- Program in Virology, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; (M.M.A.); (C.H.C.)
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Camille H. Cushman
- Program in Virology, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; (M.M.A.); (C.H.C.)
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - James A. DeCaprio
- Program in Virology, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; (M.M.A.); (C.H.C.)
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Correspondence:
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18
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Rotondo JC, Mazziotta C, Lanzillotti C, Tognon M, Martini F. Epigenetic Dysregulations in Merkel Cell Polyomavirus-Driven Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11464. [PMID: 34768895 PMCID: PMC8584046 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a small DNA virus with oncogenic potential. MCPyV is the causative agent of Merkel Cell Carcinoma (MCC), a rare but aggressive tumor of the skin. The role of epigenetic mechanisms, such as histone posttranslational modifications (HPTMs), DNA methylation, and microRNA (miRNA) regulation on MCPyV-driven MCC has recently been highlighted. In this review, we aim to describe and discuss the latest insights into HPTMs, DNA methylation, and miRNA regulation, as well as their regulative factors in the context of MCPyV-driven MCC, to provide an overview of current findings on how MCPyV is involved in the dysregulation of these epigenetic processes. The current state of the art is also described as far as potentially using epigenetic dysregulations and related factors as diagnostic and prognostic tools is concerned, in addition to targets for MCPyV-driven MCC therapy. Growing evidence suggests that the dysregulation of HPTMs, DNA methylation, and miRNA pathways plays a role in MCPyV-driven MCC etiopathogenesis, which, therefore, may potentially be clinically significant for this deadly tumor. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms and related factors may improve diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy for MCPyV-driven MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Charles Rotondo
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.M.); (C.L.); (M.T.)
- Center for Studies on Gender Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 64/b, Fossato di Mortara Street, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Chiara Mazziotta
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.M.); (C.L.); (M.T.)
- Center for Studies on Gender Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 64/b, Fossato di Mortara Street, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Carmen Lanzillotti
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.M.); (C.L.); (M.T.)
- Center for Studies on Gender Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 64/b, Fossato di Mortara Street, Ferrara 44121, Italy
| | - Mauro Tognon
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.M.); (C.L.); (M.T.)
| | - Fernanda Martini
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.M.); (C.L.); (M.T.)
- Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
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19
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Dellambra E, Carbone ML, Ricci F, Ricci F, Di Pietro FR, Moretta G, Verkoskaia S, Feudi E, Failla CM, Abeni D, Fania L. Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Biomedicines 2021; 9:718. [PMID: 34201709 PMCID: PMC8301416 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9070718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and extremely aggressive neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin, with increasing incidence worldwide. This review intends to propose a comprehensive evaluation of MCC epidemiology, clinical features, pathogenetic mechanisms, diagnosis, and therapies. A section is dedicated to immunological aspects and another to the involvement of angiogenesis and angiogenic growth factors in MCC progression, proposing novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Advanced MCC tumors have been treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors with effective results. Therefore, the state of art of this immunotherapy is also examined, reporting on the most recent clinical trials in the field. We conclude by underlining the achievements in the understanding of MCC pathology and indicating the present needs for effective diagnosis and therapeutic management of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Dellambra
- Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy;
| | - Maria Luigia Carbone
- Experimental Immunology Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy; (E.F.); (C.M.F.)
| | | | - Francesco Ricci
- Dermatology Department, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy; (F.R.); (G.M.); (L.F.)
| | | | - Gaia Moretta
- Dermatology Department, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy; (F.R.); (G.M.); (L.F.)
| | - Sofia Verkoskaia
- Oncology Department, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy; (F.R.D.P.); (S.V.)
| | - Elisa Feudi
- Experimental Immunology Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy; (E.F.); (C.M.F.)
| | - Cristina M. Failla
- Experimental Immunology Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy; (E.F.); (C.M.F.)
| | - Damiano Abeni
- Clinical Epidemiology Unit, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy;
| | - Luca Fania
- Dermatology Department, IDI-IRCCS, 00167 Rome, Italy; (F.R.); (G.M.); (L.F.)
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20
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Viral Manipulation of the Host Epigenome as a Driver of Virus-Induced Oncogenesis. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9061179. [PMID: 34070716 PMCID: PMC8227491 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumorigenesis due to viral infection accounts for a high fraction of the total global cancer burden (15–20%) of all human cancers. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which viral infection leads to tumor development is extremely important. One of the main mechanisms by which viruses induce host cell proliferation programs is through controlling the host’s epigenetic machinery. In this review, we dissect the epigenetic pathways through which oncogenic viruses can integrate their genome into host cell chromosomes and lead to tumor progression. In addition, we highlight the potential use of drugs based on histone modifiers in reducing the global impact of cancer development due to viral infection.
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21
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Zwijnenburg EM, Lubeek SF, Werner JE, Amir AL, Weijs WL, Takes RP, Pegge SA, van Herpen CM, Adema GJ, Kaanders JHAM. Merkel Cell Carcinoma: New Trends. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13071614. [PMID: 33807446 PMCID: PMC8036880 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13071614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In this review, we discuss a rare skin cancer that occurs mostly in elderly people called “Merkel cell carcinoma” (MCC). The incidence is increasing due to ageing of the population, increased sun exposure, and the use of medication that inhibits the immune system. Unlike most other skin cancers, MCC grows rapidly and forms metastases easily. We discuss the biology and treatment of MCC. Management should be by an experienced and multidisciplinary team, and treatment must start quickly. The standard practice of MCC treatment is surgery followed by radiotherapy. However, because it concerns an elderly and often frail population, (extensive) surgery may not always be feasible due to the associated morbidity. In those situations, radiotherapy alone is a good alternative. An important new development is immunotherapy that can cause long-lasting responses in a significant proportion of the patients with recurrent or metastatic MCC. Abstract Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare neuroendocrine tumor of the skin mainly seen in the elderly. Its incidence is rising due to ageing of the population, increased sun exposure, and the use of immunosuppressive medication. Additionally, with the availability of specific immunohistochemical markers, MCC is easier to recognize. Typically, these tumors are rapidly progressive and behave aggressively, emphasizing the need for early detection and prompt diagnostic work-up and start of treatment. In this review, the tumor biology and immunology, current diagnostic and treatment modalities, as well as new and combined therapies for MCC, are discussed. MCC is a very immunogenic tumor which offers good prospects for immunotherapy. Given its rarity, the aggressiveness, and the frail patient population it concerns, MCC should be managed in close collaboration with an experienced multidisciplinary team.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen M. Zwijnenburg
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (E.M.Z.); (G.J.A.)
| | - Satish F.K. Lubeek
- Department of Dermatology, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
| | | | - Avital L. Amir
- Department of Pathology, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
| | - Willem L.J. Weijs
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, Radboudumc 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
| | - Robert P. Takes
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
| | - Sjoert A.H. Pegge
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
| | | | - Gosse J. Adema
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (E.M.Z.); (G.J.A.)
| | - Johannes H. A. M. Kaanders
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (E.M.Z.); (G.J.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-629-501-943
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Gravemeyer J, Lange A, Ritter C, Spassova I, Song L, Picard D, Remke M, Horny K, Sriram A, Gambichler T, Schadendorf D, Hoffmann D, Becker JC. Classical and Variant Merkel Cell Carcinoma Cell Lines Display Different Degrees of Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition. J Invest Dermatol 2021; 141:1675-1686.e4. [PMID: 33600825 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2021.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer characterized by high invasiveness, early metastases, and high mortality. Because of the lack of suitable animal models, most functional studies are performed using cell lines, some of which lack classical neuroendocrine growth characteristics. Here, we scrutinized the molecular characteristics of classical MCC and variant MCC cell lines by differential gene expression and the respective epigenetic regulation by microRNAs and DNA methylation. Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma cell lines were used for comparison. The most striking observation was a lower expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related genes in classical MCCs, which was accompanied by higher expression of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition-regulating microRNA clusters miR-200c-141 and miR-183-96-182 and hypomethylation of the respective microRNA loci. Experimental expression of the MCC lineage factor ATOH1 in variant MCCs resulted in an increased expression of miR-200c-141 paralleled by a reduction of genes associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition, thus demonstrating a connection between neuroendocrine characteristics and the lack of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Together, our observations not only reinforce concerns about the use of variant MCCs as proper MCC representatives, but also suggest variant MCCs as cells locked in an intermediate state between neuroendocrine and epithelial differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Gravemeyer
- Group of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) & German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anja Lange
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Cathrin Ritter
- Group of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) & German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ivelina Spassova
- Group of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Lina Song
- Group of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Daniel Picard
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) & German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marc Remke
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) & German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Kai Horny
- Group of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) & German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ashwin Sriram
- Group of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) & German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thilo Gambichler
- Skin Cancer Center, Department for Dermatology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Dirk Schadendorf
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Daniel Hoffmann
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Jürgen C Becker
- Group of Translational Skin Cancer Research (TSCR), University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) & German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany.
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Merkel cell polyomavirus small tumour antigen activates the p38 MAPK pathway to enhance cellular motility. Biochem J 2021; 477:2721-2733. [PMID: 32639530 PMCID: PMC7398664 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer with high rates of recurrence and metastasis. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is associated with the majority of MCC cases. MCPyV-induced tumourigenesis is largely dependent on the expression of the small tumour antigen (ST). Recent findings implicate MCPyV ST expression in the highly metastatic nature of MCC by promoting cell motility and migration, through differential expression of cellular proteins that lead to microtubule destabilisation, filopodium formation and breakdown of cell-cell junctions. However, the molecular mechanisms which dysregulate these cellular processes are yet to be fully elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that MCPyV ST expression activates p38 MAPK signalling to drive cell migration and motility. Notably, MCPyV ST-mediated p38 MAPK signalling occurs through MKK4, as opposed to the canonical MKK3/6 signalling pathway. In addition, our results indicate that an interaction between MCPyV ST and the cellular phospatase subunit PP4C is essential for its effect on p38 MAPK signalling. These results provide novel opportunities for the treatment of metastatic MCC given the intense interest in p38 MAPK inhibitors as therapeutic agents.
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Mutational Landscape of Virus- and UV-Associated Merkel Cell Carcinoma Cell Lines Is Comparable to Tumor Tissue. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13040649. [PMID: 33562873 PMCID: PMC7914758 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive, rare skin cancer which is caused either by a virus or chronic UV exposure. For both forms, distinct genetic alterations have been described; however, these observations were mostly made in tumor tissue. Since cancer cell lines are frequently used as preclinical models to investigate biological function, we considered it necessary to establish the genomic landscape of MCC cell lines by whole-exome sequencing. We confirmed the presence of UV-induced DNA damage, a high number of mutations and several coding mutations in virus-negative cell lines which were absent in virus-positive cell lines; these, however, harbored characteristic copy number variations, suggesting some virally caused genetic instability. Knowing the genomic features of MCC cell lines validates previous, and facilitates upcoming, experimental studies to discover their biological and translational relevance. Abstract Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, highly aggressive cutaneous malignancy that is either associated with the integration of the Merkel cell polyomavirus or chronic UV exposure. These two types of carcinogenesis are reflected in characteristic mutational features present in MCC tumor lesions. However, the genomic characteristics of MCC cell lines used as preclinical models are not well established. Thus, we analyzed the exomes of three virus-negative and six virus-positive MCC cell lines, all showing a classical neuroendocrine growth pattern. Virus-negative cell lines are characterized by a high tumor mutational burden (TMB), UV-light-induced DNA damage, functionally relevant coding mutations, e.g., in RB1 and TP53, and large amounts of copy number variations (CNVs). In contrast, virus-positive cell lines have a low TMB with few coding mutations and lack prominent mutational signatures, but harbor characteristic CNVs. One of the virus-negative cell lines has a local MYC amplification associated with high MYC mRNA expression. In conclusion, virus-positive and -negative MCC cell lines with a neuroendocrine growth pattern resemble mutational features observed in MCC tissue samples, which strengthens their utility for functional studies.
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Loke ASW, Longley BJ, Lambert PF, Spurgeon ME. A Novel In Vitro Culture Model System to Study Merkel Cell Polyomavirus-Associated MCC Using Three-Dimensional Organotypic Raft Equivalents of Human Skin. Viruses 2021; 13:138. [PMID: 33478104 PMCID: PMC7835998 DOI: 10.3390/v13010138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a human polyomavirus causally linked to the development of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), an aggressive malignancy that largely arises within the dermis of the skin. In this study, we recapitulate the histopathology of human MCC tumors in vitro using an organotypic (raft) culture system that is traditionally used to recapitulate the dermal and epidermal equivalents of skin in three dimensions (3D). In the optimal culture condition, MCPyV+ MCC cells were embedded in collagen between the epidermal equivalent comprising human keratinocytes and a dermal equivalent containing fibroblasts, resulting in MCC-like lesions arising within the dermal equivalent. The presence and organization of MCC cells within these dermal lesions were characterized through biomarker analyses. Interestingly, co-culture of MCPyV+ MCC together with keratinocytes specifically within the epidermal equivalent of the raft did not reproduce human MCC morphology, nor were any keratinocytes necessary for MCC-like lesions to develop in the dermal equivalent. This 3D tissue culture system provides a novel in vitro platform for studying the role of MCPyV T antigens in MCC oncogenesis, identifying additional factors involved in this process, and for screening potential MCPyV+ MCC therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda S. W. Loke
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine & Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - B. Jack Longley
- Department of Dermatology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine & Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Paul F. Lambert
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine & Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Megan E. Spurgeon
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine & Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
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26
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Spurgeon ME, Liem A, Buehler D, Cheng J, DeCaprio JA, Lambert PF. The Merkel Cell Polyomavirus T Antigens Function as Tumor Promoters in Murine Skin. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13020222. [PMID: 33435392 PMCID: PMC7827793 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13020222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Merkel cell polyomavirus, a recently discovered human virus, is linked to the development of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma. The virus does not replicate in cancer cells, yet there is continued expression of viral proteins known as T antigens. The T antigens are believed to contribute to Merkel cell carcinoma development, yet how they do so remains an active area of research. In this study, we used transgenic mice expressing the viral T antigens in their skin to determine at which stage of skin cancer development these viral proteins function. We discovered that the Merkel cell polyomavirus T antigens function as tumor promoters, rather than tumor initiators, in the skin. These findings suggest that other tumor-initiating events may cooperate with the tumor-promoting activities of the viral T antigens, thus providing important insight into how Merkel cell polyomavirus can cause cancer in human skin. Abstract Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) causes the majority of human Merkel cell carcinomas (MCC), a rare but highly aggressive form of skin cancer. We recently reported that constitutive expression of MCC tumor-derived MCPyV tumor (T) antigens in the skin of transgenic mice leads to hyperplasia, increased proliferation, and spontaneous epithelial tumor development. We sought to evaluate how the MCPyV T antigens contribute to tumor formation in vivo using a classical, multi-stage model for squamous cell carcinoma development. In this model, two chemical carcinogens, DMBA and TPA, contribute to two distinct phases of carcinogenesis—initiation and promotion, respectively—that are required for tumors to develop. By treating the MCPyV transgenic mice with each chemical carcinogen, we determined how the viral oncogenes contributed to carcinogenesis. We observed that the MCPyV T antigens synergized with the tumor initiator DMBA, but not with the tumor promoter TPA, cause tumors. Therefore, the MCPyV tumor antigens function primarily as tumor promoters, similar to that seen with human papillomavirus (HPV) oncoproteins. These studies provide insight into the role of MCPyV T antigen expression in tumor formation in vivo and contribute to our understanding of how MCPyV may function as a human DNA tumor virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E. Spurgeon
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
- Correspondence: (M.E.S.); (P.F.L.)
| | - Amy Liem
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Darya Buehler
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Jingwei Cheng
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA;
| | - James A. DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA;
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Paul F. Lambert
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
- Correspondence: (M.E.S.); (P.F.L.)
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Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Encodes Circular RNAs (circRNAs) Enabling a Dynamic circRNA/microRNA/mRNA Regulatory Network. mBio 2020; 11:mBio.03059-20. [PMID: 33323517 PMCID: PMC7773998 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03059-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral noncoding RNAs have acquired increasing prominence as important regulators of infection and mediators of pathogenesis. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) generated by backsplicing events have been identified in several oncogenic human DNA viruses. Here, we show that Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV), the etiologic cause of ∼80% of Merkel cell carcinomas (MCCs), also expresses circular RNAs. By RNase R-resistant RNA sequencing, four putative circRNA backsplice junctions (BSJs) were identified from the MCV early region (ER). The most abundantly expressed MCV circRNA, designated circMCV-T, is generated through backsplicing of all of ER exon II to form a 762-nucleotide (nt) circular RNA molecule. Curiously, circMCV-T, as well as two other less abundantly expressed putative MCV circRNAs, overlaps in a complementary fashion with the MCV microRNA (miRNA) locus that encodes MCV-miR-M1. circMCV-T is consistently detected in concert with linear T antigen transcripts throughout infection, suggesting a crucial role for this RNA molecule in the regulatory functions of the early region, known to be vital for viral replication. Knocking out the hairpin structure of MCV-miR-M1 in genomic early region expression constructs and using a new high-efficiency, recombinase-mediated, recircularized MCV molecular clone demonstrates that circMCV-T levels decrease in the presence of MCV-miR-M1, underscoring the interplay between MCV circRNA and miRNA. Furthermore, circMCV-T partially reverses the known inhibitory effect of MCV-miR-M1 on early gene expression. RNase R-resistant RNA sequencing of lytic rat polyomavirus 2 (RatPyV2) identified an analogously located circRNA, stipulating a crucial, conserved regulatory function of this class of RNA molecules in the family of polyomaviruses.IMPORTANCE Covalently closed circular RNAs were recently described in the human DNA tumor viruses Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human papillomavirus (HPV). Here, we show that MCV, another DNA tumor virus, generates circRNAs from its early regulatory region in concert with T antigen linear transcripts. MCV circMCV-T interacts with another MCV noncoding RNA, miR-M1, to functionally modulate early region transcript expression important for viral replication and long-term episomal persistence. This work describes a dynamic regulatory network integrating circRNA/miRNA/mRNA biomolecules and underscores the intricate functional modulation between several classes of polyomavirus-encoded RNAs in the control of viral replication.
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DeCaprio JA. Molecular Pathogenesis of Merkel Cell Carcinoma. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2020; 16:69-91. [PMID: 33228463 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012419-032817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin with two distinct etiologies. Clonal integration of Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA into the tumor genome with persistent expression of viral T antigens causes at least 60% of all MCC. UV damage leading to highly mutated genomes causes a nonviral form of MCC. Despite these distinct etiologies, both forms of MCC are similar in presentation, prognosis, and response to therapy. At least three oncogenic transcriptional programs feature prominently in both forms of MCC driven by the virus or by mutation. Both forms of MCC have a high proliferative growth rate with increased levels of cell cycle-dependent genes due to inactivation of the tumor suppressors RB and p53, a strong MYC signature due to MYCL activation by the virus or gene amplification, and an attenuated neuroendocrine differentiation program driven by the ATOH1 transcription factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA; .,Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Large T Antigen is Dispensable in G2 and M-Phase to Promote Proliferation of Merkel Cell Carcinoma Cells. Viruses 2020; 12:v12101162. [PMID: 33066686 PMCID: PMC7602435 DOI: 10.3390/v12101162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer frequently caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), and proliferation of MCPyV-positive MCC tumor cells depends on the expression of a virus-encoded truncated Large T antigen (LT) oncoprotein. Here, we asked in which phases of the cell cycle LT activity is required for MCC cell proliferation. Hence, we generated fusion-proteins of MCPyV-LT and parts of geminin (GMMN) or chromatin licensing and DNA replication factor1 (CDT1). This allowed us to ectopically express an LT, which is degraded either in the G1 or G2 phase of the cell cycle, respectively, in MCC cells with inducible T antigen knockdown. We demonstrate that LT expressed only in G1 is capable of rescuing LT knockdown-induced growth suppression while LT expressed in S and G2/M phases fails to support proliferation of MCC cells. These results suggest that the crucial function of LT, which has been demonstrated to be inactivation of the cellular Retinoblastoma protein 1 (RB1) is only required to initiate S phase entry.
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The HDAC Inhibitor Domatinostat Promotes Cell-Cycle Arrest, Induces Apoptosis, and Increases Immunogenicity of Merkel Cell Carcinoma Cells. J Invest Dermatol 2020; 141:903-912.e4. [PMID: 33002502 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2020.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, highly aggressive skin cancer for which immune modulation by immune checkpoint inhibitors shows remarkable response rates. However, primary or secondary resistance to immunotherapy prevents benefits in a significant proportion of patients. For MCC, one immune escape mechanism is insufficient for recognition by T cells owing to the downregulation of major histocompatibility complex I surface expression. Histone deacetylase inhibitors have been demonstrated to epigenetically reverse the low major histocompatibility complex I expression caused by the downregulation of the antigen-processing machinery. Domatinostat, an orally available small-molecule inhibitor targeting histone deacetylase class I, is currently in clinical evaluation to overcome resistance to immunotherapy. In this study, we present preclinical data on domatinostat's efficacy and mode of action in MCC. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed a distinct gene expression signature of antigen processing and presentation, cell-cycle arrest, and execution phase of apoptosis on treatment. Accordingly, functional assays showed that domatinostat induced G2M arrest and apoptosis. In the surviving cells, antigen-processing machinery component gene transcription and translation were upregulated, consequently resulting in increased major histocompatibility complex I surface expression. Altogether, domatinostat not only exerts direct antitumoral effects but also restores HLA class I surface expression on MCC cells, therefore, restoring surviving MCC cells' susceptibility to recognition and elimination by cognate cytotoxic T cells.
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31
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive skin cancer, which is associated in 80% of cases with the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Advanced stages respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors in 50% of cases. Major issues remain unanswered regarding its oncogenesis and optimal treatment. RECENT FINDINGS MCPyV-negative and MCPyV-positive MCCs have been hypothesized to derive from distinct cells, although the cell of origin remains a matter of debate. The crucial role the MCPyV small T oncoprotein was recently confirmed by its ability to inactivate p53, together with its contribution to the metastatic progression. In advanced cases, tumoral microenvironment may adequately predict responses to immunotherapies, and several mechanisms of primary and secondary resistance have been investigated. SUMMARY Identifying the mechanisms of oncogenesis allow experimentation of new therapeutic targets, which remain mandatory even at the era of immunotherapies. Although new insights in the mechanisms of primary and secondary resistance pave the way for development of further immunotherapy strategies, neoadjuvant strategies may challenge our whole approach of the disease.
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32
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Arora R, Choi JE, Harms PW, Chandrani P. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Integration Sites and Involvement of the KMT2D Tumor Suppressor Gene. Viruses 2020; 12:v12090966. [PMID: 32878339 PMCID: PMC7552051 DOI: 10.3390/v12090966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an uncommon, lethal cancer of the skin caused by either Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) or UV-linked mutations. MCPyV is found integrated into MCC tumor genomes, accompanied by truncation mutations that render the MCPyV large T antigen replication incompetent. We used the open access HPV Detector/Cancer-virus Detector tool to determine MCPyV integration sites in whole-exome sequencing data from five MCC cases, thereby adding to the limited published MCPyV integration site junction data. We also systematically reviewed published data on integration for MCPyV in the human genome, presenting a collation of 123 MCC cases and their linked chromosomal sites. We confirmed that there were no highly recurrent specific sites of integration. We found that chromosome 5 was most frequently involved in MCPyV integration and that integration sites were significantly enriched for genes with binding sites for oncogenic transcription factors such as LEF1 and ZEB1, suggesting the possibility of increased open chromatin in these gene sets. Additionally, in one case we found, for the first time, integration involving the tumor suppressor gene KMT2D, adding to previous reports of rare MCPyV integration into host tumor suppressor genes in MCC.
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MESH Headings
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/genetics
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/virology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 5/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 5/metabolism
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 5/virology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Genes, Tumor Suppressor
- Humans
- Merkel cell polyomavirus/genetics
- Merkel cell polyomavirus/physiology
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/metabolism
- Polyomavirus Infections/genetics
- Polyomavirus Infections/metabolism
- Polyomavirus Infections/virology
- Tumor Virus Infections/genetics
- Tumor Virus Infections/metabolism
- Tumor Virus Infections/virology
- Virus Integration
- Zinc Finger E-box-Binding Homeobox 1/genetics
- Zinc Finger E-box-Binding Homeobox 1/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Reety Arora
- Cellular Organization and Signalling Group, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore 560065, India
- Correspondence:
| | - Jae Eun Choi
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (J.E.C.); (P.W.H.)
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- School of Medicine, University of San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Paul W. Harms
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (J.E.C.); (P.W.H.)
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Pratik Chandrani
- Medical Oncology Molecular Laboratory, Medical Oncology Department, Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai 400012, India;
- Centre for Computational Biology, Bioinformatics and Crosstalk Laboratory, ACTREC–Tata Memorial Centre, Navi Mumbai 410210, India
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Czech-Sioli M, Günther T, Therre M, Spohn M, Indenbirken D, Theiss J, Riethdorf S, Qi M, Alawi M, Wülbeck C, Fernandez-Cuesta I, Esmek F, Becker JC, Grundhoff A, Fischer N. High-resolution analysis of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Merkel Cell Carcinoma reveals distinct integration patterns and suggests NHEJ and MMBIR as underlying mechanisms. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008562. [PMID: 32833988 PMCID: PMC7470373 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the etiological agent of the majority of Merkel Cell Carcinomas (MCC). MCPyV positive MCCs harbor integrated, defective viral genomes that constitutively express viral oncogenes. Which molecular mechanisms promote viral integration, if distinct integration patterns exist, and if integration occurs preferentially at loci with specific chromatin states is unknown. We here combined short and long-read (nanopore) next-generation sequencing and present the first high-resolution analysis of integration site structure in MCC cell lines as well as primary tumor material. We find two main types of integration site structure: Linear patterns with chromosomal breakpoints that map closely together, and complex integration loci that exhibit local amplification of genomic sequences flanking the viral DNA. Sequence analysis suggests that linear patterns are produced during viral replication by integration of defective/linear genomes into host DNA double strand breaks via non-homologous end joining, NHEJ. In contrast, our data strongly suggest that complex integration patterns are mediated by microhomology-mediated break-induced replication, MMBIR. Furthermore, we show by ChIP-Seq and RNA-Seq analysis that MCPyV preferably integrates in open chromatin and provide evidence that viral oncogene expression is driven by the viral promoter region, rather than transcription from juxtaposed host promoters. Taken together, our data explain the characteristics of MCPyV integration and may also provide a model for integration of other oncogenic DNA viruses such as papillomaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manja Czech-Sioli
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Günther
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Marlin Therre
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michael Spohn
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Daniela Indenbirken
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Juliane Theiss
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sabine Riethdorf
- Institute of Tumorbiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Minyue Qi
- Bioinformatics Core, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Malik Alawi
- Bioinformatics Core, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Corinna Wülbeck
- Translational skin cancer research, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Irene Fernandez-Cuesta
- Institute of Nanostructure- and Solid State Physics (INF), Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Franziska Esmek
- Institute of Nanostructure- and Solid State Physics (INF), Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen C. Becker
- Translational skin cancer research, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
- Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (AG); (NF)
| | - Nicole Fischer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (AG); (NF)
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Kervarrec T, Samimi M, Hesbacher S, Berthon P, Wobser M, Sallot A, Sarma B, Schweinitzer S, Gandon T, Destrieux C, Pasqualin C, Guyétant S, Touzé A, Houben R, Schrama D. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus T Antigens Induce Merkel Cell-Like Differentiation in GLI1-Expressing Epithelial Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12071989. [PMID: 32708246 PMCID: PMC7409360 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12071989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer frequently caused by the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). It is still under discussion, in which cells viral integration and MCC development occurs. Recently, we demonstrated that a virus-positive MCC derived from a trichoblastoma, an epithelial neoplasia bearing Merkel cell (MC) differentiation potential. Accordingly, we hypothesized that MC progenitors may represent an origin of MCPyV-positive MCC. To sustain this hypothesis, phenotypic comparison of trichoblastomas and physiologic human MC progenitors was conducted revealing GLI family zinc finger 1 (GLI1), Keratin 17 (KRT 17), and SRY-box transcription factor 9 (SOX9) expressions in both subsets. Furthermore, GLI1 expression in keratinocytes induced transcription of the MC marker SOX2 supporting a role of GLI1 in human MC differentiation. To assess a possible contribution of the MCPyV T antigens (TA) to the development of an MC-like phenotype, human keratinocytes were transduced with TA. While this led only to induction of KRT8, an early MC marker, combined GLI1 and TA expression gave rise to a more advanced MC phenotype with SOX2, KRT8, and KRT20 expression. Finally, we demonstrated MCPyV-large T antigens’ capacity to inhibit the degradation of the MC master regulator Atonal bHLH transcription factor 1 (ATOH1). In conclusion, our report suggests that MCPyV TA contribute to the acquisition of an MC-like phenotype in epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Kervarrec
- Department of Pathology, Université de Tours, CHU de Tours, Avenue de la République, 37170 Chambray-les-Tours, France;
- “Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus” Team, UMR INRA ISP 1282, Université de Tours, 31 Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France; (M.S.); (P.B.); (T.G.); (A.T.)
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (S.H.); (M.W.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (R.H.); (D.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Mahtab Samimi
- “Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus” Team, UMR INRA ISP 1282, Université de Tours, 31 Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France; (M.S.); (P.B.); (T.G.); (A.T.)
- Dermatology Department, Université de Tours, CHU de Tours, Avenue de la République, 37170 Chambray-les-Tours, France
| | - Sonja Hesbacher
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (S.H.); (M.W.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (R.H.); (D.S.)
| | - Patricia Berthon
- “Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus” Team, UMR INRA ISP 1282, Université de Tours, 31 Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France; (M.S.); (P.B.); (T.G.); (A.T.)
| | - Marion Wobser
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (S.H.); (M.W.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (R.H.); (D.S.)
| | - Aurélie Sallot
- Plastic Surgery Department, Université de Tours, CHU de Tours, Avenue de la République, 37170 Chambray-les-Tours, France;
| | - Bhavishya Sarma
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (S.H.); (M.W.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (R.H.); (D.S.)
| | - Sophie Schweinitzer
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (S.H.); (M.W.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (R.H.); (D.S.)
| | - Théo Gandon
- “Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus” Team, UMR INRA ISP 1282, Université de Tours, 31 Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France; (M.S.); (P.B.); (T.G.); (A.T.)
| | - Christophe Destrieux
- Neurosurgery Department, UMR 1253, i Brain, Université De Tours, CHU de Tours, Boulevard Tonnelé, 37044 Tours, France;
| | - Côme Pasqualin
- CNRS ERL 7368, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, Equipe Transferts Ioniques et Rythmicité Cardiaque, Groupe Physiologie des Cellules Cardiaques et Vasculaires, Université de Tours, 31 Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France;
| | - Serge Guyétant
- Department of Pathology, Université de Tours, CHU de Tours, Avenue de la République, 37170 Chambray-les-Tours, France;
- “Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus” Team, UMR INRA ISP 1282, Université de Tours, 31 Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France; (M.S.); (P.B.); (T.G.); (A.T.)
| | - Antoine Touzé
- “Biologie des Infections à Polyomavirus” Team, UMR INRA ISP 1282, Université de Tours, 31 Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France; (M.S.); (P.B.); (T.G.); (A.T.)
| | - Roland Houben
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (S.H.); (M.W.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (R.H.); (D.S.)
| | - David Schrama
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (S.H.); (M.W.); (B.S.); (S.S.); (R.H.); (D.S.)
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Pietropaolo V, Prezioso C, Moens U. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus and Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E1774. [PMID: 32635198 PMCID: PMC7407210 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12071774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are the cause of approximately 15% of all human cancers. Both RNA and DNA human tumor viruses have been identified, with Merkel cell polyomavirus being the most recent one to be linked to cancer. This virus is associated with about 80% of Merkel cell carcinomas, a rare, but aggressive cutaneous malignancy. Despite its name, the cells of origin of this tumor may not be Merkel cells. This review provides an update on the structure and life cycle, cell tropism and epidemiology of the virus and its oncogenic properties. Putative strategies to prevent viral infection or treat virus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma patients are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (V.P.); (C.P.)
| | - Carla Prezioso
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (V.P.); (C.P.)
- IRCSS San Raffaele Pisana, Microbiology of Chronic Neuro-Degenerative Pathologies, 00166 Rome, Italy
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
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Artesunate Affects T Antigen Expression and Survival of Virus-Positive Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12040919. [PMID: 32283634 PMCID: PMC7225937 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12040919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and highly aggressive skin cancer with frequent viral etiology. Indeed, in about 80% of cases, there is an association with Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV); the expression of viral T antigens is crucial for growth of virus-positive tumor cells. Since artesunate—a drug used to treat malaria—has been reported to possess additional anti-tumor as well as anti-viral activity, we sought to evaluate pre-clinically the effect of artesunate on MCC. We found that artesunate repressed growth and survival of MCPyV-positive MCC cells in vitro. This effect was accompanied by reduced large T antigen (LT) expression. Notably, however, it was even more efficient than shRNA-mediated downregulation of LT expression. Interestingly, in one MCC cell line (WaGa), T antigen knockdown rendered cells less sensitive to artesunate, while for two other MCC cell lines, we could not substantiate such a relation. Mechanistically, artesunate predominantly induces ferroptosis in MCPyV-positive MCC cells since known ferroptosis-inhibitors like DFO, BAF-A1, Fer-1 and β-mercaptoethanol reduced artesunate-induced death. Finally, application of artesunate in xenotransplanted mice demonstrated that growth of established MCC tumors can be significantly suppressed in vivo. In conclusion, our results revealed a highly anti-proliferative effect of the approved and generally well-tolerated anti-malaria compound artesunate on MCPyV-positive MCC cells, suggesting its potential usage for MCC therapy.
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Starrett GJ, Thakuria M, Chen T, Marcelus C, Cheng J, Nomburg J, Thorner AR, Slevin MK, Powers W, Burns RT, Perry C, Piris A, Kuo FC, Rabinowits G, Giobbie-Hurder A, MacConaill LE, DeCaprio JA. Clinical and molecular characterization of virus-positive and virus-negative Merkel cell carcinoma. Genome Med 2020; 12:30. [PMID: 32188490 PMCID: PMC7081548 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-020-00727-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly aggressive neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin caused by either the integration of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) and expression of viral T antigens or by ultraviolet-induced damage to the tumor genome from excessive sunlight exposure. An increasing number of deep sequencing studies of MCC have identified significant differences between the number and types of point mutations, copy number alterations, and structural variants between virus-positive and virus-negative tumors. However, it has been challenging to reliably distinguish between virus positive and UV damaged MCC. METHODS In this study, we assembled a cohort of 71 MCC patients and performed deep sequencing with OncoPanel, a clinically implemented, next-generation sequencing assay targeting over 400 cancer-associated genes. To improve the accuracy and sensitivity for virus detection compared to traditional PCR and IHC methods, we developed a hybrid capture baitset against the entire MCPyV genome and software to detect integration sites and structure. RESULTS Sequencing from this approach revealed distinct integration junctions in the tumor genome and generated assemblies that strongly support a model of microhomology-initiated hybrid, virus-host, circular DNA intermediate that promotes focal amplification of host and viral DNA. Using the clear delineation between virus-positive and virus-negative tumors from this method, we identified recurrent somatic alterations common across MCC and alterations specific to each class of tumor, associated with differences in overall survival. Finally, comparing the molecular and clinical data from these patients revealed a surprising association of immunosuppression with virus-negative MCC and significantly shortened overall survival. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate the value of high-confidence virus detection for identifying molecular mechanisms of UV and viral oncogenesis in MCC. Furthermore, integrating these data with clinical data revealed features that could impact patient outcome and improve our understanding of MCC risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Manisha Thakuria
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Merkel Cell Carcinoma Center of Excellence, Dana-Farber/Brigham Cancer Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tianqi Chen
- Department of Data Sciences, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christina Marcelus
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Mayer 440, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Jingwei Cheng
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Mayer 440, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jason Nomburg
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Mayer 440, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Aaron R Thorner
- Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael K Slevin
- Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Winslow Powers
- Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Robert T Burns
- Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Caitlin Perry
- Department of Informatics and Analytics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Adriano Piris
- Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Frank C Kuo
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Guilherme Rabinowits
- Merkel Cell Carcinoma Center of Excellence, Dana-Farber/Brigham Cancer Center, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Mayer 440, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
- Present Address: Miami Cancer Institute, Miami, FL, USA
| | | | - Laura E MacConaill
- Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - James A DeCaprio
- Merkel Cell Carcinoma Center of Excellence, Dana-Farber/Brigham Cancer Center, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Mayer 440, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Highly Expressed miR-375 is not an Intracellular Oncogene in Merkel Cell Polyomavirus-Associated Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12030529. [PMID: 32106526 PMCID: PMC7139599 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12030529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
miR-375 is a highly abundant miRNA in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). In other cancers, it acts as either a tumor suppressor or oncogene. While free-circulating miR-375 serves as a surrogate marker for tumor burden in patients with advanced MCC, its function within MCC cells has not been established. Nearly complete miR-375 knockdown in MCC cell lines was achieved using antagomiRs via nucleofection. The cell viability, growth characteristics, and morphology were not altered by this knockdown. miR-375 target genes and related signaling pathways were determined using Encyclopedia of RNA Interactomes (ENCORI) revealing Hippo signaling and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related genes likely to be regulated. Therefore, their expression was analyzed by multiplexed qRT-PCR after miR-375 knockdown, demonstrating only a limited change in expression. In summary, highly effective miR-375 knockdown in classical MCC cell lines did not significantly change the cell viability, morphology, or oncogenic signaling pathways. These observations render miR-375 an unlikely intracellular oncogene in MCC cells, thus suggesting that likely functions of miR-375 for the intercellular communication of MCC should be addressed.
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39
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Csoboz B, Rasheed K, Sveinbjørnsson B, Moens U. Merkel cell polyomavirus and non-Merkel cell carcinomas: guilty or circumstantial evidence? APMIS 2020; 128:104-120. [PMID: 31990105 DOI: 10.1111/apm.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the major causative factor of the rare but aggressive cancer, Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Two characteristics of MCPyV-positive MCCs are integration of the viral genome and expression of a truncated version of one of its oncogenic proteins, namely large T antigen. The strong association of MCPyV with MCC development has incited researchers to further investigate a possible role of this virus in other cancers. However, many of the examples displaying the presence of the virus in the various non-MCC cancers are not able to clearly demonstrate a direct connection between cellular transformation and the presence of the virus. The prevalence of the virus is significantly lower in non-MCC cancers compared to MCCs, with a lower level of viral load and sparse viral protein expression. Moreover, the state of the viral genome, and whether a truncated large T antigen is expressed, has rarely been investigated. Nonetheless, considering the strong oncogenic potential of MCPyV proteins in MCC, the plausible contribution of MCPyV to transformation and cancer growth in non-MCC tumors cannot be ruled out. Furthermore, the absence of MCPyV in cancers does not exclude a hit-and-run mechanism, or the oncoproteins of MCPyV may potentiate the neoplastic process mediated by co-infecting oncoviruses such as high-risk human papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr virus. The current review is focusing on the available data describing the presence of MCPyV in non-MCC tumors, with an aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the corresponding literature and to discuss the potential contribution of MCPyV to non-MCC cancer in light of this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balint Csoboz
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kashif Rasheed
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Baldur Sveinbjørnsson
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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Morphologic and immunophenotypical features distinguishing Merkel cell polyomavirus-positive and negative Merkel cell carcinoma. Mod Pathol 2019; 32:1605-1616. [PMID: 31201352 DOI: 10.1038/s41379-019-0288-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
In 2008, Feng et al. identified Merkel cell polyomavirus integration as the primary oncogenic event in ~80% of Merkel cell carcinoma cases. The remaining virus-negative Merkel cell carcinoma cases associated with a high mutational load are most likely caused by UV radiation. The current study aimed to compare the morphological and immunohistochemical features of 80 virus-positive and 21 virus-negative Merkel cell carcinoma cases. Microscopic evaluation revealed that elongated nuclei-similar to the spindle-shape variant of small cell lung cancer-were less frequent in Merkel cell polyomavirus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma compared to the virus-negative subset (p = 0.005). Moreover, virus-negative cases more frequently displayed a "large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma" phenotype with larger cell size (p = 0.0026), abundant cytoplasm (p = 4×10-7) and prominent nucleoli (p = 0.002). Analysis of immunohistochemical data revealed frequent positivity for thyroid transcription factor 1 and cytokeratin 7, either absence or overexpression of p53, as well as frequent lack of neurofilament expression in virus-negative cases. By contrast, cytokeratin 8, 18 and 20 and a CD99 with a dot pattern as well as high EMA expression were identified as characteristic features of virus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma. In particular, the CD99 dot-like expression pattern was strongly associated with presence of the Merkel cell polyomavirus in Merkel cell carcinoma (sensitivity = 81%, specificity = 90%, positive likelihood ratio = 8.08). To conclude, virus-positive and -negative Merkel cell carcinoma are characterized by distinct morphological and immunohistochemical features, which implies a significant difference in tumor biology and behavior. Importantly, we identified the CD99 staining pattern as a marker indicating the virus status of this skin cancer.
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