A new process for electrocoagulation

Impacts of applied voltage on forward osmosis process harvesting microalgae: Filtration behaviors and lipid extraction efficiency

Microalgae are promising source of biofuels, while harvesting process is the obstacle for the further development. Herein, a treatment system that combined electrochemical process with forward osmosis (FO) membrane filtration process was developed to achieve microalgae harvesting. The conductive FO membranes were used as both electrode materials and basic separation system. With -5 V electric field being applied, 57.6% of reduction in water flux loss was observed, while microalgae recovery efficiency increased by 17.3%. The lipid content also increased to nearly 38%. Meanwhile, the inevitable reverse diffusion of solutes in the FO process and the concentration process of the microalgae solution increased the salinity of the microalgae solution, which is generally regarded as an obstacle for the application of FO. However, in the electrically-assisted FO system, it not only improved the efficiency of the electrochemical process, but also can increase the lipid content. The lipid extraction efficiency of the -5 V electric field increased from 17.7% and 28.5% to 20.4% and 31.1%, respectively, with one and two times extractions. The synergistic effect of the reverse diffusion of Cl^- and electrochemical process was conducive for the improvement of the lipid extraction efficiency, and is expected to reduce the energy consumption of the lipid extraction process.

Pilot-scale iron electrocoagulation treatment for natural organic matter removal

The efficacy of electrocoagulation at a pilot-scale as an alternative drinking water treatment technology to conventional coagulation is explored. A novel reactor was integrated into a pilot plant at the surface water supply of a small, remote community. Using iron anodes, the effect of metal loading (ML), current density and inter-electrode gap on the reduction of natural organic matter (NOM) was studied. Dissolved organics were characterized by large fractions of low molecular weight (<750 Da) hydrophilic carbon structures with lower charge density. A greater reduction in UV254 was yielded compared to dissolved organic carbon, indicating better removal of larger molecular weight fractions of NOM. As ML dosages increased from 27.8 to 60.8 mg/L, specific ultraviolet absorbance decreased from 1.92 ± 0.14 to 1.60 ± 0.10 L/m•mg respectively, from an initial raw water value of 2.21 L/m•mg. No clear trend was observed for the effect of current density and inter-electrode gap for NOM, however ML was the primary variable dictating the process' effectiveness. Energy requirements were observed to vary greatly and were highly dependent on ML, current density and inter-electrode gap; variables that all effect the operating potential and resistance. In general, conditions that yielded the greatest reduction of NOM, a 1 mm gap and 4-cell configuration, had energy requirements between 0.480 and 0.602 kWh/m³ of water treated.

Decontamination of radioactive metal surfaces by electrocoagulation

The decontamination of noncompactable radioactive wastes, such as tools and equipment, aims to reduce the waste volume to be conditioned and stored. The electrocoagulation (EC) application in the decontamination of noncompactable radioactive waste from stainless steel containing uranium, was studied to evaluate its technical viability. The first studies were carried out with stainless steel plates coated with WO₃ to simulate a fixed contamination and to determine the best tungsten removal conditions via EC considering pH, electrolyte support, distance between the electrodes, cell potential and counter-electrode material. The best removal conditions for WO₃ were applied to plates contaminated with UO₂(NO₃)₂ to evaluate the viability of the EC decontamination process. Uranium removal efficiencies of 90% were obtained in 1 h, at pH of 1, 2.4 V and 1 cm of distance between anode / cathode in a circular array. The EC process, under the previously obtained conditions, was applied to two metallic pieces contaminated with U. It proved feasible to decontaminate metallic pieces through the EC process, thus being able to obtain up to 90% U removal efficiency; however, it is important that the surfaces of the parts are free of grease and dust.

Advances in coagulation technique for treatment of fluoride-contaminated water: a critical review

Fluoride contamination of groundwater has become a major concern worldwide, resulting in serious medical conditions such as dental and skeletal fluorosis. Consequently, the WHO recommends that drinking water should not contain more than 1.5 mg/l of fluoride. Various defluoridation techniques such as coagulation, reverse osmosis, activated alumina adsorption, and biosorbent adsorption have been developed. Adsorption through the activated alumina and biosorbent process is not cost effective and has regeneration problems, and the reverse osmosis process has the high initial cost which makes it unacceptable for developing countries. Coagulation is a commonly employed field technology for defluoridation, which involves the addition of aluminum salts, lime, and bleaching powder followed by rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration but suffers from a limitation of high residual aluminum in treated water. This paper critically reviews the recent developments in the coagulation technique for defluoridation along with its comparison to other defluoridation techniques. The review describes the pertinent gaps in the process and throws open suggestions for extending research by citing the recent studies which may lead to the revival of the process. The description about the suspension of alumino-fluoro complexes that constitute a substantial part of the residual aluminum after alum treatment has been narrated in the paper that helps in a deeper understanding of the defluoridation mechanism. To make the process highly suitable for communities, appropriate technological interventions, such as converting it to a continuous mode of operation, replacing alum with poly-aluminum chloride (PAC), and attaching a micro-filtration unit in series of the existing process, can be done. Also, using PAC as a coagulant with sand filtration has to be considered for making the process more efficient.

Comparative study of humic acid removal and floc characteristics by electrocoagulation and chemical coagulation

The current study aims at investigating the efficiency of electrocoagulation for the removal of humic acid from contaminated waters. In parallel, conventional chemical coagulation was conducted to asses humic acid removal patterns. The effect of varying contributing parameters (matrix pH, humic acid concentration, type of electrode (aluminum vs. iron), current density, solution conductivity, and distance between electrodes) was considered to optimize the electrocoagulation process for the best attainable humic acid removal efficiencies. Optimum removals were recorded at pH of 5.0-5.5, an electrical conductivity of 3000 μS/cm at 25 °C, and an electrode distance of 1 cm for both electrode types. With aluminum electrodes, a current density of 0.05 mA/cm2 outperformed 0.1 mA/cm2 yet not higher densities, whereas a current density of 0.8 mA/cm2 was needed for iron electrodes to exhibit comparable performance. With both electrode types, higher initial humic acid concentrations were removed at a slower rate but ultimately attained almost complete removals. On the other hand, the best humic acid removals (∼90%) by chemical coagulation were achieved at 4 mg/L for both coagulants. Also, higher removals were attained at elevated initial humic acid concentrations. Humic acid removals of 90% or higher at an initial HA concentration of 40 mg/L were exhibited, yet alum performed better at the highest experimented concentration. It was evident that iron flocs were larger, denser, and more geometrical in shape compared to aluminum flocs.

Aluminium removal from water after defluoridation with the electrocoagulation process

Fluoride is the most electronegative element and has a strong affinity for aluminium. Owing to this fact, most of the techniques used for fluoride removal utilized aluminium compounds, which results in high concentrations of aluminium in treated water. In the present paper, a new approach is presented to meet the WHO guideline for residual aluminium concentration as 0.2 mg/L. In the present work, the electrocoagulation (EC) process was used for fluoride removal. It was found that aluminium content in water increases with an increase in the energy input. Therefore, experiments were optimized for a minimum energy input to achieve the target value (0.7 mg/L) of fluoride in resultant water. These optimized sets were used for further investigations of aluminium control. The experimental investigations revealed that use of bentonite clay as coagulant in clariflocculation brings down the aluminium concentration of water below the WHO guideline. Bentonite dose of 2 g/L was found to be the best for efficient removal of aluminium.

Metal type and natural organic matter source for direct filtration electrocoagulation of drinking water

Electrocoagulation (EC) was combined with immediate microfiltration as direct filtration electrocoagulation (DFEC) for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal in drinking water from synthetic and natural highly natural organic matter (NOM) impacted waters from three different sources: Suwannee River (Georgia, USA DOC(0)=13.79 mg/L), Nordic Reservoir (Vallsjøen, Norway DOC(0)=9.03 mg/L), and a natural source (Lost Lagoon, Vancouver, Canada DOC(0)=13.31 mg/L). Three anode materials were investigated: iron, aluminum, and zinc, in a batch EC process without rapid mixing, flocculation, or settling. Fifteen seconds of process time with the iron electrode (36 mg Fe/L) led to DOC removal of 44%. After 1 min of process time, DOC reduction was 65% (zinc)-73 (iron)%, with ~ 85% reduction (all metals) in UV-abs-254 (UV-abs-254 final=0.06 cm(-1)) for Suwannee NOM. Specific UV absorbance (SUVA-L/mgm) values decreased from 3.1 to 4.2 to under 2.0, indicating removal of high MW fractions of NOM. High performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) fractionation supported SUVA results, showing reductions from 76% of DOC>1450 Da to approximately 40% after EC for all metals and Suwannee NOM. EC performed equally well for two different initial DOC concentrations of 13.79 and 21.59 mg/L DOC, showing 75% DOC and 89% UV-abs-254 reductions.

Electrocoagulation of commercial naphthalene sulfonates: process optimization and assessment of implementation potential

The commercially important naphthalene sulfonate K-acid (C(10)H(9)NO(9)S(3); 2-naphthylamine 3,6,8-tri sulfonic acid) was subjected to electrocoagulation employing stainless steel electrodes. An experimental design tool was used to mathematically describe and optimize the single and combined influences of major process variables on K-acid and its organic carbon (COD and TOC) removal efficiencies as well as electrical energy consumption. Current density, followed by treatment time were found to be the parameters affecting process responses most significantly, whereas initial K-acid concentration had the least influence on the electrocoagulation performance. Process economics including sludge generation, electrode consumption, and electrochemical efficiency, as well as organically bound adsorbable halogen formation and toxicity evolution were primarily considered to question the feasibility of K-acid electrocoagulation. Considering process economics and ecotoxicological parameters, process implementation appeared to be encouraging.

Electrochemical treatment of dye-bath effluent by stainless steel electrodes: multiple response optimization and residue analysis

The aim of this article is to maximize the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and color removal, and simultaneously minimize the energy consumed per unit mass of COD removed for the treatment of dye-bath effluent (DBE) by electrochemical (EC) method using stainless steel (SS) electrode in a batch EC reactor. Response surface methodology involving central composite design was employed to optimize the multiple responses. The effects of operating parameters such as pH of DBE, and important process parameters such as current density, electrolysis time and inter electrode space were studied. At the optimized condition, 91.7% COD removal and 99.8% color removal was observed with energy consumption of 7.71 kWh/kg of COD removed. Finally, the thermogravimetric analysis of the EC scum and sludge has been done in oxidizing atmosphere so as to evaluate their disposal aspects.

Comparative study of arsenic removal by iron using electrocoagulation and chemical coagulation

This research studied As(III) and As(V) removal during electrocoagulation (EC) in comparison with FeCl(3) chemical coagulation (CC). The study also attempted to verify chlorine production and the reported oxidation of As(III) during EC. Results showed that As(V) removal during batch EC was erratic at pH 6.5 and the removal was higher-than-expected based on the generation of ferrous iron (Fe(2+)) during EC. As(V) removal by batch EC was equal to or better than CC at pH 7.5 and 8.5, however soluble Fe(2+) was observed in the 0.2-μm membrane filtrate at pH 7.5 (10-45%), and is a cause for concern. Continuous steady-state operation of the EC unit confirmed the deleterious presence of soluble Fe(2+) in the treated water. The higher-than-expected As(V) removals during batch mode were presumed due to As(V) adsorption onto the iron rod oxyhydroxides surfaces prior to the attainment of steady-state operation. As(V) removal increased with decreasing pH during both CC and EC, however EC at pH 6.5 was anomalous because of erratic Fe(2+) oxidation. The best adsorption capacity was observed with CC at pH 6.5, while lower but similar adsorption capacities were observed at pH 7.5 and 8.5 with CC and EC. A comparison of As(III) adsorption showed better removals during EC compared with CC possibly due to a temporary pH increase during EC. In contrast to literature reports, As(III) oxidation was not observed during EC, and As(III) adsorption onto iron hydroxides during EC was only 5-30% that of As(V) adsorption. Also in contrast to literature, significant Cl(2) was not generated during EC, in fact, the rods actually produced a significant chlorine demand due to reduced iron oxides on the rod. Although Cl(2) generation and As(III) oxidation are possible using a graphite anode, a combination of graphite and iron rods in the same EC unit did not produce As(III) oxidation. However, a two-stage process (graphite anode followed by iron anode in separate chambers) was effective in As(III) oxidation and removal. The competing ions, silica and phosphate interfered with As(V) adsorption during both CC and EC. However, the degree of interference depends on the concentration and presence of other competing ions. In particular, the presence of silica lowered the effect of phosphate with increasing pH due to silica's own significant effect at high pHs.

Fluoride removal from industrial wastewater using electrocoagulation and its adsorption kinetics

Electrocoagulation (EC) process using aluminum electrodes is proposed for removing fluoride from treated industrial wastewater originated from steel industry. Effects of different operating conditions such as temperature, pH, voltage, hydraulic retention time (HRT) and number of aluminum plates between anode and cathode plates on removal efficiency are investigated. Experimental results showed that by increasing HRT, removal efficiency increases but after 5 min changes are negligible. Therefore, the total HRT required is only 5 min. The more HRT, the more electrical current is needed in order to achieve to constant voltage and temperature in system. In addition, it is found that pH value decreases from 6.91 to 4.6 during first 10 min but it increases up to 9.5 during 50 min. After treatment, the fluoride concentration was reduced from initial 4.0-6.0 mg/L to lower than 0.5 mg/L. The pH of the influent is found as a very important variable which affects fluoride removal significantly. The optimal range for the influent is 6.0-7.0 at which not only effective defluoridation can be achieved, but also no pH readjustment is needed after treatment. Moreover, increasing number of aluminum plates between anode and cathode plates in bipolar system does not significantly affect fluoride removal. Finally, the kinetic analysis is done for the system which indicates that the adsorption system obeys the second-order kinetic model.

Electrochemical removal of indium ions from aqueous solution using iron electrodes

The removal of indium ions from aqueous solution was carried out by electrocoagulation in batch mode using an iron electrode. Various operating parameters that could potentially affect the removal efficiency were investigated, including the current density, pH variation, supporting electrolyte, initial concentration, and temperature. The optimum current density, supporting electrolyte concentration, and temperature were found to be 6.4 mA/cm(2), 0.003N NaCl, and 298 K, respectively. When the pH values lower than 6.1, the removal efficiencies of indium ions via electrocoagulation were up to 5 times greater than those by adding sodium hydroxide. The indium ion removal efficiency decreased with an increase in the initial concentration. Results for the indium ion removal kinetics at various current densities show that the kinetic rates conformed to the pseudo-second-order kinetic model with good correlation. The experimental data were also tested against different adsorption isotherm models for describing the electrocoagulation process. The adsorption of indium ions preferably fitting the Langmuir adsorption isotherm suggests monolayer coverage of adsorbed molecules.

Denitrification using a monopolar electrocoagulation/flotation (ECF) process

Nitrate levels are limited due to health concerns in potable water. Nitrate is a common contaminant in water supplies, and especially prevalent in surface water supplies and shallow wells. Nitrate is a stable and highly soluble ion with low potential for precipitation or adsorption. These properties make it difficult to remove using conventional water treatment methods. A laboratory batch electrocoagulation/flotation (ECF) reactor was designed to investigate the effects of different parameters such as electrolysis time, electrolyte pH, initial nitrate concentration, and current rate on the nitrate removal efficiency. The optimum nitrate removal was observed at a pH range of between 9 and 11. It appeared that the nitrate removal rate was 93% when the initial nitrate concentration and electrolysis time respectively were 100 mg L(-1)-NO(3)(-) and 40 min. The results showed a linear relationship between the electrolysis time for total nitrate removal and the initial nitrate concentration. It is concluded that the electrocoagulation technology for denitrification can be an effective preliminary process when the ammonia byproduct must be effectively removed by the treatment facilities.

Study of COD and turbidity removal from real oxide-CMP wastewater by iron electrocoagulation and the evaluation of specific energy consumption

This study explores the feasibility of reducing COD and turbidity from real oxide chemical mechanical polishing (oxide-CMP) wastewater. Based on the dynamic characteristics of batch electrocoagulation, three operating stages (lag, reactive, and stabilizing) are proposed to identify the relationships among the zeta potential of the silica particles, solution turbidity, and the corresponding mean particle size. Experiment results show that the silica particles were destabilized and settled at the critical electrolysis time, which was estimated to be about 12 min under an applied voltage of 20 V and a supporting electrolyte of 200mg/L. The corresponding turbidity removal occurred mostly during the reactive stage. The process variables, including applied voltage and electrolyte concentration, were investigated in terms of COD removal efficiency and turbidity removal. In addition, the effects of applied voltage and supporting electrolyte on COD removal efficiency and specific energy consumption were evaluated. Under the optimum balance, satisfactory removal efficiency and relatively low energy consumption were obtained. The optimum electrolyte concentration and applied voltage were found to be 200mg/L NaCl and 20 V, respectively. Under the optimum conditions, COD and turbidity decreased by more than 90% and 98% in real oxide-CMP wastewater, respectively.

Ferrous and ferric ion generation during iron electrocoagulation

Our research on arsenate removal by iron electrocoagulation (EC) produced highly variable results, which appeared to be due to Fe2+ generation without subsequent oxidation to Fe3+. Because the environmental technology literature is contradictory with regard to the generation of ferric or ferrous ions during EC, the objective of this research was to establish the iron species generated during EC with iron anodes. Experimental results demonstrated that Fe2+, not Fe3+, was produced at the iron anode. Theoretical current efficiency was attained based on Fe2+ production with a clean iron rod, regardless of current, dissolved-oxygen (DO) level, or pH (6.5-8.5). The Fe2+ remaining after generation and mixing decreased with increasing pH and DO concentration due to rapid oxidation to Fe3+. At pH 8.5, Fe2+ was completely oxidized, which resulted in the desired Fe(OH)3(s)/ FeOOH(s), whereas, at pH 6.5 and 7.5, incomplete oxidation was observed, resulting in a mixture of soluble Fe2+ and insoluble Fe(OH)3(s)/FeOOH(s). When compared with Fe2+ chemical coagulation, a transient pH increase during EC led to faster Fe2+ oxidation. In summary, for EC in the pH 6.5-7.5 range and at low DO conditions, there is a likelihood of soluble Fe2+ species passing through a subsequentfiltration process resulting in secondary contamination and inefficient contaminant removals.

Review of pollutants removed by electrocoagulation and electrocoagulation/flotation processes

The word "electrocoagulation" (EC) will be sometimes used with "electroflotation" (EF) and can be considered as the electrocoagulation/flotation (ECF) process. Through the process of electrolysis, coagulating agents such as metal hydroxides are produced. When aluminium electrodes are used, the aluminium dissolves at the anode and hydrogen gas is released at the cathode. The coagulating agent combines with the pollutants to form large size flocs. As the bubbles rise to the top of the tank they adhere to particles suspended in the water and float them to the surface. In fact, a conceptual framework of the overall ECF process is linked to coagulant generation, pollutant aggregation, and pollutant removal by flotation and settling when it has been applied efficiently to various water and wastewater treatment processes. This review paper considers a significant number of common applications of EC and ECF processes which have been published in journal and conference papers.

Fluoride removal by a continuous flow electrocoagulation reactor

Long-term consumption of water containing excessive fluoride can lead to fluorosis of the teeth and bones. Electrocoagulation (EC) is an electrochemical technique, in which a variety of unwanted dissolved particles and suspended matter can be effectively removed from an aqueous solution by electrolysis. Continuous flow experiments with monopolar aluminium electrodes for fluoride removal were undertaken to investigate the effects of the different parameters such as: current density (12.5-50A/m(2)), flow rate (150-400 mL/min), initial pH (4-8), and initial fluoride concentration (5-25mg/L). The highest treatment efficiency was obtained for the largest current and the removal efficiency was found to be dependent on the current density, the flow rate and the initial fluoride concentration when the final pH ranged between 6 and 8. The composition of the sludge produced was analysed using the X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum. The strong presence of the aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH)(3)] in the above pH range, which maximizes the formation of aluminium fluoride hydroxide complex [Al(n)F(m)(OH)(3n-m)], is the main reason for defluoridation by electrocoagulation. The results obtained showed that the continuous flow electrocoagulation technology is an effective process for defluoridation of potable water supplies and could also be utilized for the defluoridation of industrial wastewater.

Silica particles settling characteristics and removal performances of oxide chemical mechanical polishing wastewater treated by electrocoagulation technology

The purpose of this study was to explore the feasibility of removing silica particles and reducing turbidity from oxide chemical mechanical polishing (oxide-CMP) wastewater. Based on the dynamic characteristics of batch electrocoagulation, three operating stages (lag, reactive, and stabilizing) are proposed to identify the relationships among the zeta potential of the silica particles, solution turbidity, and the corresponding mean particle size of the silica. Experimental results show that the silica particles were destabilized and settled at the critical mean particle size, which was estimated to be above 520nm after 10min, and the corresponding turbidity removal mostly occurred during the reactive stage. Furthermore, the corresponding mean particle size varied from 520 to 1900nm as the treatment time progressed from 10 to 20min, which also occurred during the reactive stage. Several parameters, including different electrode pairs, electrolyte concentration, applied voltage, and the optimum condition of power input were investigated. Experimental results indicate that a Fe/Al electrode pair is the most efficient choice of the four electrode pair combinations in terms of energy consumption. The optimum electrolyte concentration and applied voltage were found to be 200ppm NaCl and 30V, respectively.

Electrocoagulation study for the removal of arsenic and chromium from aqueous solution

This study was undertaken to investigate the removal of arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) from aqueous solution using electrocoagulation (EC) technique. Batch EC studies were performed using iron electrodes to evaluate the influence of various experimental parameters on the removal of metal ions. The parameters were initial pH (pH(0)), electrolysis time (t), initial concentration (C(0)), electrode gap (g), stirring rate (r) and current density (j). Effect of pH(0) was studied in the range 2.0 to 8.0 while C(0) was varied from 10 to 100 mg/L. As and Cr removal by EC was governed by the chemical dissolution of iron, and the formation of metal-hydrous ferric oxide complexes, which in turn was strongly, influenced by pH(0) and j. Optimum value of pH(0) and j for As and Cr removal were found to be 4.0 and 2.0; and 75 and 50 A/m(2), respectively. Removal efficiency increased with decrease in the value of C(0) and g. The r value of 100 rpm produced sufficient agitation for the proper agglomeration of flocs and optimum removal of ions.

Characteristics of aggregates formed by electroflocculation of a colloidal suspension

Electroflocculation (EF) is becoming recognized as an alternative process to conventional coagulation/flocculation, although both are somewhat different. The electrical current applied in EF to generate the active coagulant species creates a unique chemical/physical environment which affects coagulation mechanisms and subsequent aggregate formation. The chemical and physical characteristics of an electroflocculated kaolin suspension and the morphology/fractal dimension of the resulting aggregates were examined. An EF cell was operated in batch mode and comprised of two concentric electrodes--a stainless steel cathode (outer electrode) and an aluminum anode (inner electrode). The cell was run at constant current between 0.05 and 0.3A, velocity gradients were 0-30s(-1). The results show that the simultaneous hydrolysis occurring has a profound effect on the final pH and consequently on the coagulation mechanisms as indicated by differences in zeta potential measured. Moreover, the electrical field induced by passage of a current has an apparent effect on particle transport. A linear correlation between floc size and current was observed and lower fractal dimensions were obtained for larger floc sizes. The fractal dimensions of the flocs obtained in EF are on average lower than those reported for conventional coagulation.

Comparison of electrocoagulation and chemical coagulation pretreatment for enhanced virus removal using microfiltration membranes

This research studied virus removal by iron electrocoagulation (EC) followed by microfiltration (MF) in water treatment using the MS2 bacteriophage as a tracer virus. In the absence of EC, MF alone achieved less than a 0.5-log removal of MS2 virus, but, as the iron-coagulant dosage increased, the log virus removal increased dramatically. More than 4-log virus removal, as required by the Surface Water Treatment Rule, was achieved with 6-9 mg/L Fe(3+). The experimental data indicated that at lower iron dosages and pH (< approximately 8 mgFe/L and pH 6.3 and 7.3) negatively charged MS2 viruses first adsorbed onto the positively charged iron hydroxide floc particles before being removed by MF. At higher iron dosages and pH (> approximately 9 mgFe/L and pH 8.3), virus removal was attributed predominantly to enmeshment and subsequent removal by MF. Additionally, the experimental data showed no obvious influence of ionic strength in the natural water range of 10(-7)-10(-2)M on MS2 virus removal by EC-MF. Finally, EC pretreatment significantly outperformed chemical coagulation pretreatment for virus removal. The proposed mechanism for this improved performance by EC is that locally higher iron and virus concentrations and locally lower pH near the anode improved MS2 enmeshment by iron flocs as well as adsorption of MS2 viruses onto the iron floc particles.

Treatment of refectory oily wastewater by electro-coagulation process

Electro-coagulation was used to treat refectory wastewater with high oil and grease contents. Different operational conditions were examined, including pH, current density, reaction time, conductivity, electrode distance and inlet concentration. The optimum current density was 10-14 A m(-2) within 30 min depending on the wastewater properties tested. Conductivity had little effect on the treatment efficiency. Although the addition of extra salts (e.g., sodium chloride) to the wastewater did not help increase the pollutant removal efficiency, it could save the power consumption significantly. The COD(Cr) and oil removal efficiency descended with increasing electrode distance. The optimal electrode distance was determined to be 10 mm for this equipment in consideration of the treatment cost and efficiency together. The pH effect on the performance of the electro-coagulation process was not very significant in the range of 3-10. The removal efficiency of oil and COD(Cr) under normal condition exceeded 95% and 75%, respectively.

Removal of arsenic from water by electrocoagulation

In the present study electrocoagulation (EC) has been evaluated as a treatment technology for arsenite [As(III)] and arsenate [As(V)] removal from water. Laboratory scale experiments were conducted with three electrode materials namely, iron, aluminum and titanium to assess their efficiency. Arsenic removal obtained was highest with iron electrodes. EC was able to bring down aqueous phase arsenic concentration to less than 10 microgl(-1) with iron electrodes. Current density was varied from 0.65 to 1.53 mAcm(-2) and it was observed that higher current density achieved rapid arsenic removal. Experimental results at different current densities indicated that arsenic removal was normalized with respect to total charge passed and therefore charge density has been used to compare the results. Effect of pH on arsenic removal was not significant in the pH range 6-8. Comparative evaluation of As(III) and As(V) removal by chemical coagulation (with ferric chloride) and electrocoagulation has been done. The comparison revealed that EC has better removal efficiency for As(III), whereas As(V) removal by both processes was nearly same. The removal mechanism of As(III) by EC seems to be oxidation of As(III) to As(V) and subsequent removal by adsorption/complexation with metal hydroxides generated in the process.

Laboratory study of electro-coagulation-flotation for water treatment

An electro-coagulation-flotation process has been developed for water treatment. This involved an electrolytic reactor with aluminium electrodes and a separation/flotation tank. The water to be treated passed through the reactor and was subjected to coagulation/flotation, by Al(III) ions dissolved from the electrodes, the resulting flocs floating after being captured by hydrogen gas bubbles generated at cathode surfaces. Apparent current efficiencies for Al dissolution as aqueous Al(III) species at pH 6.5 and 7.8 were greater than unity. This was due to additional reactions occurring in parallel with Al dissolution: oxygen reduction at anodes and cathodes, and hydrogen evolution at cathodes, resulting in net (i.e. oxidation + reduction) currents at both anodes and cathodes. The specific electrical energy consumption of the reactor for drinking water treatment was as low as 20 kWh (kg Al)(-1) for current densities of 10-20A m(-2). The water treatment performance of the electrocoagulation process was found to be superior to that of conventional coagulation with aluminium sulphate for treating a model-coloured water, with 20% more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) being removed for the same Al(III) dose. However, for a lowland surface water sample, the two processes achieved a similar performance for DOC and UV-absorbance removal. In addition, an up-flow electrocoagulator configuration performed better than a horizontal flow configuration, with both bipolar and monopolar electrodes.

Electrocoagulation (EC)--science and applications

Although electrocoagulation is an evolving technology that is being effectively applied today for wastewater treatment, the paucity of scientific understanding of the complex chemical and physical processes involved is limiting future design and hindering progress. The objective of this review through a survey of the literature is to bring the chemistry and physical processes involved into perspective and to focus attention on those areas critically needing research.