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Seo JA, Cho SA, Park CE, Seo DH, Choi M, An S, Kim BH. Pre-validation study of spectrophotometric direct peptide reactivity assay (Spectro-DPRA) as a modified in chemico skin sensitization test method. Toxicol Res 2022; 38:531-544. [PMID: 36277359 PMCID: PMC9532475 DOI: 10.1007/s43188-022-00130-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin sensitization is induced when certain chemicals bind to skin proteins. Direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA) has been adopted by the OECD as an alternative method to evaluate skin sensitization by assessing a substance's reaction to two model peptides. A modified spectrophotometric method, Spectro-DPRA, can evaluate skin sensitization, in a high throughput fashion, to obviate some limitations of DPRA. Pre-validation studies for Spectro-DPRA were conducted to determine transferability and proficiency, within- and between-laboratory reproducibility, and predictive ability based on GLP principles at three laboratories (AP, KTR, and KCL). All laboratories confirmed high (> 90%) concordance for evaluating the sensitivity induced by ten chemical substances. The concordance among the three tests performed by each laboratory was 90% for AP, 100% for KTR, and 100% for KCL. The mean accuracy of the laboratories was 93.3% [compared to the standard operating procedure (SOP)]. The reproducibility among the three laboratories was as high as 86.7%; the accuracy was 86.7% for AP, 100% for KTR, and 86.7% for KCL (compared to the SOP). An additional 54 substances were assessed in 3 separate labs to verify the prediction rate. Based on the result, 29 out of 33 substances were classified as sensitizers, and 19 out of 21 identified as non-sensitizers; the corresponding sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy values were 87.9%, 90.5%, and 88.9%, respectively. These findings indicate that the Spectro-DPRA can address the molecular initiating event with improved predictability and reproducibility, while saving time and cost compared to DPRA or ADRA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Ah Seo
- Department of Public Health, Keimyung University, 1095 Dalgubeol-daero, Dalseo-gu, Daegu, 42601 Republic of Korea
| | - Sun-A Cho
- Safety and Microbiology Lab, Amorepacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Eon Park
- Korea Testing and Research Institute, Hwasun, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hyuk Seo
- Korea Conformity Laboratories, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Myungsuk Choi
- Department of Public Health Science, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Susun An
- Safety and Microbiology Lab, Amorepacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Bae-Hwan Kim
- Department of Public Health, Keimyung University, 1095 Dalgubeol-daero, Dalseo-gu, Daegu, 42601 Republic of Korea
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2
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Monnot AD, Towle KM, Ahmed SS, Dickinson AM, Fung ES. An in vitro human assay for evaluating immunogenic and sensitization potential of a personal care and cosmetic product. Toxicol Mech Methods 2021; 31:205-211. [PMID: 33371753 DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2020.1868640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
With the reduction or elimination of animal testing, manufacturers are left with limited options, as few robust in vitro tests are available and human studies are costly. Recently, concerns have been raised regarding potential adverse health effects associated with use of WEN by Chaz Dean (WCD) cleansing conditioners. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the immunogenic potential of a WCD hair cleansing conditioner by utilizing a novel in vitro human skin explant test. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and human skin biopsies were obtained from healthy volunteers. Monocyte derived dendritic cells (MoDCs) were generated, primed by 0.01% WCD cleansing conditioner exposure for 24 h, co-cultured with autologous lymphocytes for 4 days, and then cultured with skin biopsies for 3 days. The skin biopsies then underwent histopathological evaluation, and T cell proliferation and IFNγ levels were determined. Overall, this study showed that treatment with 0.01% WCD cleansing conditioner resulted in a negative prediction for in vivo immune response. Further, this analysis shows that the skin explant test is a viable alternative to animal testing for complex mixtures or commercially available products.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Anne M Dickinson
- Alcyomics Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Newcastle University Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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3
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Jeon B, Kim MO, Kim YS, Han HY, Yun JH, Kim J, Huang Y, Choi Y, Cho CH, Kang BC, Kim S, Choi TH. Optimization and validation of a method to identify skin sensitization hazards using IL-1 α and IL-6 secretion from HaCaT. Toxicol In Vitro 2019; 61:104589. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2019.104589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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4
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Corsini E, Engin AB, Neagu M, Galbiati V, Nikitovic D, Tzanakakis G, Tsatsakis AM. Chemical-induced contact allergy: from mechanistic understanding to risk prevention. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:3031-3050. [PMID: 30097700 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2283-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Chemical allergens are small molecules able to form a sensitizing complex once they bound to proteins. One of the most frequent manifestations of chemical allergy is contact hypersensitivity, which can have serious impact on quality of life. Allergic contact dermatitis is a predominantly CD8 + T cell-mediated immune disease, resulting in erythema and eczema. Chemical allergy is of considerable importance to the toxicologist, who has the responsibility of identifying and characterizing the allergenic potential of chemicals, and estimating the risk they pose to human health. This review aimed at exploring the phenomena of chemical-induced contact allergy starting from a mechanistic understanding, immunoregulatory mechanisms, passing through the potency of contract allergen until the hazard identification, pointing out the in vitro models for assessing contact allergen-induced cell activation and the risk prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Corsini
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental and Political Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Ayşe Başak Engin
- Gazi Üniversitesi, Eczacılık Fakültesi, Toksikoloji, Hipodrom, 06330, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Monica Neagu
- Immunology Department, "Victor Babes" National Institute of Pathology, 99-101 Splaiul Independentei, 050096, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Valentina Galbiati
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental and Political Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy.
| | - Dragana Nikitovic
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | - George Tzanakakis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Aristidis M Tsatsakis
- Department of Forensic Sciences and Toxicology, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
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5
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Corvaro M, Gehen S, Andrews K, Chatfield R, Macleod F, Mehta J. A retrospective analysis of in vivo eye irritation, skin irritation and skin sensitisation studies with agrochemical formulations: Setting the scene for development of alternative strategies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 89:131-147. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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6
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Current status of alternative methods for assessing immunotoxicity: A chemical industry perspective. CURRENT OPINION IN TOXICOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cotox.2017.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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7
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Integrated Testing Strategies for Skin Sensitization Hazard and Potency Assessment—State of the Art and Challenges. COSMETICS 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/cosmetics3020016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Jaworska JS, Natsch A, Ryan C, Strickland J, Ashikaga T, Miyazawa M. Bayesian integrated testing strategy (ITS) for skin sensitization potency assessment: a decision support system for quantitative weight of evidence and adaptive testing strategy. Arch Toxicol 2015; 89:2355-83. [PMID: 26612363 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1634-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The presented Bayesian network Integrated Testing Strategy (ITS-3) for skin sensitization potency assessment is a decision support system for a risk assessor that provides quantitative weight of evidence, leading to a mechanistically interpretable potency hypothesis, and formulates adaptive testing strategy for a chemical. The system was constructed with an aim to improve precision and accuracy for predicting LLNA potency beyond ITS-2 (Jaworska et al., J Appl Toxicol 33(11):1353-1364, 2013) by improving representation of chemistry and biology. Among novel elements are corrections for bioavailability both in vivo and in vitro as well as consideration of the individual assays' applicability domains in the prediction process. In ITS-3 structure, three validated alternative assays, DPRA, KeratinoSens and h-CLAT, represent first three key events of the adverse outcome pathway for skin sensitization. The skin sensitization potency prediction is provided as a probability distribution over four potency classes. The probability distribution is converted to Bayes factors to: 1) remove prediction bias introduced by the training set potency distribution and 2) express uncertainty in a quantitative manner, allowing transparent and consistent criteria to accept a prediction. The novel ITS-3 database includes 207 chemicals with a full set of in vivo and in vitro data. The accuracy for predicting LLNA outcomes on the external test set (n = 60) was as follows: hazard (two classes)-100 %, GHS potency classification (three classes)-96 %, potency (four classes)-89 %. This work demonstrates that skin sensitization potency prediction based on data from three key events, and often less, is possible, reliable over broad chemical classes and ready for practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cindy Ryan
- Procter and Gamble Company, Mason, OH, 45040, USA
| | - Judy Strickland
- ILS/Contractor Supporting NICEATM, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | | | - Masaaki Miyazawa
- Kao Corporation, R&D Safety Science Research, Tochigi, 321-3497, Japan
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10
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Cottrez F, Boitel E, Auriault C, Aeby P, Groux H. Genes specifically modulated in sensitized skins allow the detection of sensitizers in a reconstructed human skin model. Development of the SENS-IS assay. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:787-802. [PMID: 25724174 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 02/14/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Analysis of genes modulated during the sensitization process either on mice (LLNA) or human (blisters) combined with data mining has allowed the definition of a comprehensive panel of sensitization biomarkers. This set of genes includes already identified markers such as the ARE family and others not yet associated with the sensitization process (the so-called SENS-IS gene subset). The expression of this set of genes has been measured on reconstituted human epidermis models (Episkin) exposed to various sensitizers and non-sensitizers. Fine analysis of their expression pattern indicates that it is the number of modulated genes rather than the intensity of up-regulation that correlates best with the sensitization potential of a chemical. Moreover, sensitizers that are weak inductors of ARE genes tend to be relevant modulators of the SENS-IS subset. By combining the expression data obtained with both gene subsets, it is now possible to identify a wide variety of sensitizers on a test system (in vitro reconstructed human epidermis) that is very similar to the in vivo situation and compatible with a large variety of test substance characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elodie Boitel
- ImmunoSearch, Les Cyclades, Chemin de Camperousse, Grasse, France
| | - Claude Auriault
- ImmunoSearch, Les Cyclades, Chemin de Camperousse, Grasse, France
| | - Pierre Aeby
- ImmunoSearch, Les Cyclades, Chemin de Camperousse, Grasse, France
| | - Hervé Groux
- ImmunoSearch, Les Cyclades, Chemin de Camperousse, Grasse, France.
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11
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Development of a prediction method for skin sensitization using novel cysteine and lysine derivatives. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2014; 70:94-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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12
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Goebel C, Troutman J, Hennen J, Rothe H, Schlatter H, Gerberick GF, Blömeke B. Introduction of a methoxymethyl side chain into p-phenylenediamine attenuates its sensitizing potency and reduces the risk of allergy induction. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2013; 274:480-7. [PMID: 24333256 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2013.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The strong sensitizing potencies of the most important primary intermediates of oxidative hair dyes, p-phenylenediamine (PPD) and p-toluylenediamine (PTD, i.e. 2-methyl-PPD) are well established. They are considered as the key sensitizers in hair dye allergic contact dermatitis. While modification of their molecular structure is expected to alter their sensitizing properties, it may also impair their color performance. With introduction of a methoxymethyl side chain we found the primary intermediate 2-methoxymethyl-p-phenylenediamine (ME-PPD) with excellent hair coloring performance but significantly reduced sensitizing properties compared to PPD and PTD: In vitro, ME-PPD showed an attenuated innate immune response when analyzed for its protein reactivity and dendritic cell activation potential. In vivo, the effective concentration of ME-PPD necessary to induce an immune response 3-fold above vehicle control (EC3 value) in the local lymph node assay (LLNA) was 4.3%, indicating a moderate skin sensitizing potency compared to values of 0.1 and 0.17% for PPD and PTD, respectively. Finally, assessing the skin sensitizing potency of ME-PPD under consumer hair dye usage conditions through a quantitative risk assessment (QRA) indicated an allergy induction risk negligible compared to PPD or PTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Goebel
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety and Communications, Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - John Troutman
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jenny Hennen
- Dept. of Environmental Toxicology, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Helga Rothe
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety and Communications, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Harald Schlatter
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety and Communications, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - G Frank Gerberick
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Central Product Safety, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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Basketter D, Alépée N, Casati S, Crozier J, Eigler D, Griem P, Hubesch B, de Knecht J, Landsiedel R, Louekari K, Manou I, Maxwell G, Mehling A, Netzeva T, Petry T, Rossi LH. Skin sensitisation – Moving forward with non-animal testing strategies for regulatory purposes in the EU. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2013; 67:531-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Revised: 10/05/2013] [Accepted: 10/07/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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14
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The sensitivity of the KeratinoSens™ assay to evaluate plant extracts: A pilot study. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 27:1220-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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15
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Jaworska J, Dancik Y, Kern P, Gerberick F, Natsch A. Bayesian integrated testing strategy to assess skin sensitization potency: from theory to practice. J Appl Toxicol 2013; 33:1353-64. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.2869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Jaworska
- Procter & Gamble NV; 100 Temselaan,; 1853; Strombeek - Bever; Belgium
| | - Yuri Dancik
- Procter & Gamble NV; 100 Temselaan,; 1853; Strombeek - Bever; Belgium
| | - Petra Kern
- Procter & Gamble NV; 100 Temselaan,; 1853; Strombeek - Bever; Belgium
| | | | - Andreas Natsch
- Givaudan Schweiz AG; Ueberlandstrasse 138,; CH-8600,; Dübendorf; Switzerland
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16
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Natsch A, Ryan CA, Foertsch L, Emter R, Jaworska J, Gerberick F, Kern P. A dataset on 145 chemicals tested in alternative assays for skin sensitization undergoing prevalidation. J Appl Toxicol 2013; 33:1337-52. [PMID: 23576290 DOI: 10.1002/jat.2868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Skin sensitization is a key endpoint for cosmetic ingredients, with a forthcoming ban for animal testing in Europe. Four alternative tests have so far been submitted to ECVAM prevalidation: (i) MUSST and (ii) h-Clat assess surface markers on dendritic cell lines, (iii) the direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA) measures reactivity with model peptides and (iv) the KeratinoSens(TM) assay which is based on detection of Nrf2-induced luciferase. It is anticipated that only an integrated testing strategy (ITS) based on a battery of tests might give a full replacement providing also a sensitization potency assessment, but this concept should be tested with a data-driven analysis. Here we report a database on 145 chemicals reporting the quantitative endpoints measured in a U937- test, the DPRA and KeratinoSens(TM) . It can serve to develop data-driven ITS approaches as we show in a parallel paper and provides a view as to the current ability to predict with in vitro tests as we are entering 2013. It may also serve as reference database when benchmarking new molecules with in vitro based read-across and find use as a reference database when evaluating new tests. The tests and combinations thereof were evaluated for predictivity, and overall a similar predictivity was found as before on three-fold smaller datasets. Analysis of the dose-response parameters of the individual tests indicates a correlation to sensitization potency. Detailed analysis of chemicals false-negative and false-positive in two tests helped to define limitations in the tests but also in the database derived from animal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Natsch
- Givaudan Schweiz AG, Ueberlandstrasse 138, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Kimber I, Dearman RJ, Basketter DA. Dendritic cells and the assessment in vitro of skin sensitizing potential. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2012; 32:54-9. [PMID: 22668204 DOI: 10.3109/15569527.2012.692135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
It is now well established that dendritic cells (DC) play pivotal roles in the initiation and orchestration of adaptive immune responses, including cutaneous immune responses to chemical allergens that drive the acquisition of skin sensitization. It is not unexpected, therefore, that a large number, and wide variety, of proposed approaches for the identification of skin sensitizing chemicals in vitro are based upon the use of cultured DC or DC-like cells. The use of DC in this context is legitimate. However, with our rapidly increasing understanding of the diversity of cutaneous DC with respect to both phenotype and function, it is timely now to review briefly the potential limitations and interpretive difficulties that are associated with the use of DC-based assays. Among the important considerations are the fact that chemical-induced changes in the characteristics and function of cultured DC will not necessarily reflect accurately the events that that support the development of skin sensitization in vivo. In addition, most DC-based assays are predicated on a view that cutaneous DC have as their primary function the initiation of adaptive immune responses. However, it is now appreciated that cutaneous DC, and in particular epidermal Langerhans cells (LC), may also play important immunoregulatory roles that serve to limit and contain skin immune responses. Notwithstanding these considerations there is reason to believe that at least some in vitro DC-based assays are of value, and indeed some are currently the subject of a formal validation process. However, it is appropriate that such assays are configured and interpreted carefully, and with an appreciation of the complexity of DC biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Kimber
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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18
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Goebel C, Aeby P, Ade N, Alépée N, Aptula A, Araki D, Dufour E, Gilmour N, Hibatallah J, Keller D, Kern P, Kirst A, Marrec-Fairley M, Maxwell G, Rowland J, Safford B, Schellauf F, Schepky A, Seaman C, Teichert T, Tessier N, Teissier S, Weltzien HU, Winkler P, Scheel J. Guiding principles for the implementation of non-animal safety assessment approaches for cosmetics: skin sensitisation. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2012; 63:40-52. [PMID: 22374415 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Revised: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Characterisation of skin sensitisation potential is a key endpoint for the safety assessment of cosmetic ingredients especially when significant dermal exposure to an ingredient is expected. At present the mouse local lymph node assay (LLNA) remains the 'gold standard' test method for this purpose however non-animal test methods are under development that aim to replace the need for new animal test data. COLIPA (the European Cosmetics Association) funds an extensive programme of skin sensitisation research, method development and method evaluation and helped coordinate the early evaluation of the three test methods currently undergoing pre-validation. In May 2010, a COLIPA scientific meeting was held to analyse to what extent skin sensitisation safety assessments for cosmetic ingredients can be made in the absence of animal data. In order to propose guiding principles for the application and further development of non-animal safety assessment strategies it was evaluated how and when non-animal test methods, predictions based on physico-chemical properties (including in silico tools), threshold concepts and weight-of-evidence based hazard characterisation could be used to enable safety decisions. Generation and assessment of potency information from alternative tools which at present is predominantly derived from the LLNA is considered the future key research area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Goebel
- Procter & Gamble, Berliner Allee 65, 64274 Darmstadt, Germany
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Allergic contact dermatitis: a commentary on the relationship between T lymphocytes and skin sensitising potency. Toxicology 2011; 291:18-24. [PMID: 22120538 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2011.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2011] [Revised: 11/10/2011] [Accepted: 11/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
T lymphocytes mediate skin sensitisation and allergic contact dermatitis. Not unexpectedly, therefore, there is considerable interest in the use of T lymphocyte-based assays as alternative strategies for the identification of skin sensitising chemicals. However, in addition to accurate identification of hazards the development of effective risk assessments requires that information is available about the relative skin sensitising potency of contact allergens. The purpose of this article is to consider the relationships that exist between the characteristics of T lymphocyte responses to contact allergens and the effectiveness/potency of sensitisation. We propose that there are 3 aspects of T lymphocyte responses that have the potential to impact on the potency of sensitisation. These are: (a) the magnitude of response, and in particular the vigour and duration of proliferation and the clonal expansion of allergen-reactive T lymphocytes, (b) the quality of response, including the balance achieved between effector and regulatory cells, and (c) the breadth of response and the clonal diversity of T lymphocyte responses. A case is made that there may be opportunities to exploit an understanding of T lymphocyte responses to contact allergens to develop novel paradigms for predicting skin sensitising potency and new approaches to risk assessment.
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Natsch A, Haupt T, Laue H. Relating Skin Sensitizing Potency to Chemical Reactivity: Reactive Michael Acceptors Inhibit NF-κB Signaling and Are Less Sensitizing than SNAr- and SN2- Reactive Chemicals. Chem Res Toxicol 2011; 24:2018-27. [DOI: 10.1021/tx2003678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Klein SG, Hennen J, Serchi T, Blömeke B, Gutleb AC. Potential of coculture in vitro models to study inflammatory and sensitizing effects of particles on the lung. Toxicol In Vitro 2011; 25:1516-34. [PMID: 21963807 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2011.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2011] [Revised: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to particulate matter (PM) like nanoparticles (NPs) has increased in the last century due to increased combustion processes, road traffic, etc. In addition, the progress in chemical and cosmetic industry led to many new compounds, e.g. fragrances, which humans are exposed to every day. Many chemicals are known to act as contact and some as respiratory sensitizers, causing allergic reactions. Exposure to small particles of less than 100 nm in diameter is linked with an increased risk of respiratory diseases, such as asthma or rhinitis. To date already more than 1000 customer products contain eNPs without knowing much about the health effects. In comparison to chemicals, the mechanisms by which PM and eNPs can cause sensitization are still not fully understood. Validated and regulatory accepted in vitro models to assess this hazard in its full range are still missing. While a huge number of animal studies contributed to our knowledge about sensitization processes, knowledge on involved cellular mechanisms is still limited. In this review relevant in vitro models to study and elucidate these mechanisms in more detail are presented and their potential to serve as part of a tiered testing strategy is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian G Klein
- Department Environment and Agro-biotechnologies (EVA), Centre de Recherche Public, Gabriel Lippmann, 41 rue du Brill, L-4422 Belvaux, Luxembourg
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Delaine T, Niklasson IB, Emter R, Luthman K, Karlberg AT, Natsch A. Structure–Activity Relationship between the in Vivo Skin Sensitizing Potency of Analogues of Phenyl Glycidyl Ether and the Induction of Nrf2-Dependent Luciferase Activity in the KeratinoSens in Vitro Assay. Chem Res Toxicol 2011; 24:1312-8. [DOI: 10.1021/tx200196s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Delaine
- Department of Chemistry, Dermatochemistry and Skin Allergy, University of Gothenburg, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ida B. Niklasson
- Department of Chemistry, Dermatochemistry and Skin Allergy, University of Gothenburg, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Roger Emter
- Givaudan Schweiz AG, Ueberlandstrasse 138, CH-8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Kristina Luthman
- Department of Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry, University of Gothenburg, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ann-Therese Karlberg
- Department of Chemistry, Dermatochemistry and Skin Allergy, University of Gothenburg, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Andreas Natsch
- Givaudan Schweiz AG, Ueberlandstrasse 138, CH-8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
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24
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Hennen J, Aeby P, Goebel C, Schettgen T, Oberli A, Kalmes M, Blömeke B. Cross talk between keratinocytes and dendritic cells: impact on the prediction of sensitization. Toxicol Sci 2011; 123:501-10. [PMID: 21742781 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mechanistic aspects involved in sensitization by chemicals will help to develop relevant preventive strategies. Many potential sensitizers are not directly immunogenic but require activation outside or inside the skin by nonenzymatic oxidation (prehaptens) or metabolic transformation (prohaptens) prior to being able to induce an immune response. This necessary activation step has not yet been actively integrated into a cell line-based prediction approach. We cocultured HaCaT keratinocytes with THP-1 as dendritic cell-like cells allowing intercellular interactions. The sensitizing potential was determined by analyzing differences in the expression of CD86, CD40, and CD54 on cocultured THP-1 cells. This new assay setup allowed (1) to distinguish irritants from allergens without influencing cell viability and (2) to discriminate pre/prohaptens from haptens. Under coculture conditions, the prohaptens eugenol, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol, and benzo[a]pyrene induced a significantly higher upregulation of CD86 expression on THP-1. In agreement with the hapten concept, responses to 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene, Bandrowski's base, and the prehapten isoeugenol were not significantly modified. Inhibition of cytochrome P450 or NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) activity reduced the prohapten-mediated upregulation of CD86 on cocultured THP-1 cells. This coculture assay allowing cross talk between HaCaT and THP-1 cells appears to be suitable for the detection of prohaptens, is reproducible, easy to perform, and avoids donor variations. In addition, this assay is a promising approach to understand the impact of cross talk on the prediction of sensitization and once established may be integrated in a future in vitro toolbox to detect potential skin sensitizers and may thus contribute to reduce animal testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Hennen
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University Trier, 54286 Trier, Germany
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25
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Safford R, Aptula A, Gilmour N. Refinement of the Dermal Sensitisation Threshold (DST) approach using a larger dataset and incorporating mechanistic chemistry domains. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2011; 60:218-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 03/22/2011] [Accepted: 03/22/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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26
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Adler S, Basketter D, Creton S, Pelkonen O, van Benthem J, Zuang V, Andersen KE, Angers-Loustau A, Aptula A, Bal-Price A, Benfenati E, Bernauer U, Bessems J, Bois FY, Boobis A, Brandon E, Bremer S, Broschard T, Casati S, Coecke S, Corvi R, Cronin M, Daston G, Dekant W, Felter S, Grignard E, Gundert-Remy U, Heinonen T, Kimber I, Kleinjans J, Komulainen H, Kreiling R, Kreysa J, Leite SB, Loizou G, Maxwell G, Mazzatorta P, Munn S, Pfuhler S, Phrakonkham P, Piersma A, Poth A, Prieto P, Repetto G, Rogiers V, Schoeters G, Schwarz M, Serafimova R, Tähti H, Testai E, van Delft J, van Loveren H, Vinken M, Worth A, Zaldivar JM. Alternative (non-animal) methods for cosmetics testing: current status and future prospects-2010. Arch Toxicol 2011; 85:367-485. [PMID: 21533817 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-011-0693-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The 7th amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive prohibits to put animal-tested cosmetics on the market in Europe after 2013. In that context, the European Commission invited stakeholder bodies (industry, non-governmental organisations, EU Member States, and the Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety) to identify scientific experts in five toxicological areas, i.e. toxicokinetics, repeated dose toxicity, carcinogenicity, skin sensitisation, and reproductive toxicity for which the Directive foresees that the 2013 deadline could be further extended in case alternative and validated methods would not be available in time. The selected experts were asked to analyse the status and prospects of alternative methods and to provide a scientifically sound estimate of the time necessary to achieve full replacement of animal testing. In summary, the experts confirmed that it will take at least another 7-9 years for the replacement of the current in vivo animal tests used for the safety assessment of cosmetic ingredients for skin sensitisation. However, the experts were also of the opinion that alternative methods may be able to give hazard information, i.e. to differentiate between sensitisers and non-sensitisers, ahead of 2017. This would, however, not provide the complete picture of what is a safe exposure because the relative potency of a sensitiser would not be known. For toxicokinetics, the timeframe was 5-7 years to develop the models still lacking to predict lung absorption and renal/biliary excretion, and even longer to integrate the methods to fully replace the animal toxicokinetic models. For the systemic toxicological endpoints of repeated dose toxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity, the time horizon for full replacement could not be estimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Adler
- Centre for Documentation and Evaluation of Alternatives to Animal Experiments (ZEBET), Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
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27
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Andreas N, Caroline B, Leslie F, Frank G, Kimberly N, Allison H, Heather I, Robert L, Stefan O, Hendrik R, Andreas S, Roger E. The intra- and inter-laboratory reproducibility and predictivity of the KeratinoSens assay to predict skin sensitizers in vitro: results of a ring-study in five laboratories. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 25:733-44. [PMID: 21195160 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Revised: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Due to regulatory constraints and ethical considerations, research on alternatives to animal testing to predict the skin sensitization potential of novel chemicals has gained a high priority. Accordingly, different in vitro, in silico and in chemico approaches have been described in the scientific literature to achieve this goal. To replace regulatory approved animal tests, these alternatives need to be transferable to other labs, their within and between laboratory reproducibility must be assured, and their predictivity should be high. The KeratinoSens assay is a cell-based reporter gene assay to screen substances with a full dose-response assessment. It is based on a stable transgenic keratinocyte cell line. The induction of a luciferase gene under the control of the antioxidant response element (ARE) derived from the human AKR1C2 gene is determined. Here we report on the results of a ring-study with five laboratories performing the KeratinoSens assay on a set of 28 test substances. The assay was found to be easily transferable to all laboratories. Overall both the qualitative (sensitizer/non-sensitizer categorization) and the quantitative (concentration for significant gene induction) results were reproducible between laboratories. A detailed analysis of the transferability, the within- and between laboratory reproducibility and the predictivity is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natsch Andreas
- Givaudan Schweiz AG, Ueberlandstrasse 138, CH-8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland.
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28
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Galbiati V, Mitjans M, Lucchi L, Viviani B, Galli CL, Marinovich M, Corsini E. Further development of the NCTC 2544 IL-18 assay to identify in vitro contact allergens. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 25:724-32. [PMID: 21182927 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Revised: 12/14/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Several European Union legislations request the use of in vitro methods for toxicological evaluations, including sensitization, in order to increase consumer safety but also to reduce the use of animals. The EU project SENS-IT-IV addresses the need of developing predictive in vitro tests to assess contact and respiratory hypersensitivity reactions. In this context, we have recently reported the possibility to use IL-18 production in the human keratinocyte cell line NCTC 2544 to discriminate contact sensitizer from irritants and low molecular weight respiratory allergens. The aims of the present study were to further develop this assay in order to optimize experimental conditions; to develop a 96-well plate format to establish a high throughput assay; to test the performance of other available keratinocyte cell lines, and to understand the signal transduction pathway involved in p-phenylenediamine (PPD)-induced IL-18 production. If cells reach confluence at the moment of treatment, the ability to identify contact allergens is lost; therefore a careful check for the optimal cell density using PPD as reference contact allergen is critical. In our hands, a cell density of 1-2.5 × 10(5)cells/ml gave optimal stimulation. In order to develop a high throughput test, cells seeded in 96-well plate were exposed to contact allergens (2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene, p-phenylenediamine, isoeugenol, cinnamaldehyde, tetramethylthiuram disulfite, resorcinol, cinnamic alcohol and eugenol), irritants (phenol, sodium laurel sulphate, lactic acid and salicylic acid) and respiratory allergens (hexachloroplatinate, diphenylmethane diisocyanate, trimellitic anhydride). A selective increase in total (intracellular plus released) IL-18 was observed 24h later in cells treated with contact allergens, whereas no changes were observed following treatment with respiratory allergens and irritants, confirming previous results obtained in a 24-well format assay. A selective induction of IL-18 was also obtained testing with PPD other keratinocyte cell lines, namely HPKII and HaCaT, with the HPKII showing the highest stimulation index. Regarding the signal transduction pathway, we could demonstrate using selective inhibitors a role for oxidative stress, NF-κB and p38 MAPK activation in PPD-induced IL-18 production. In conclusion, results obtained suggest that the production of IL-18 represents a promising endpoint for the screening of potential contact allergens. The assay can be performed in a 96-well plate format, different keratinocyte cell lines can be used, and a role for oxidative stress in contact allergen-induced IL-18 was demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Galbiati
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacological Science, Università degli Studi di, Milano, Italy
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29
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Martin SF, Esser PR, Schmucker S, Dietz L, Naisbitt DJ, Park BK, Vocanson M, Nicolas JF, Keller M, Pichler WJ, Peiser M, Luch A, Wanner R, Maggi E, Cavani A, Rustemeyer T, Richter A, Thierse HJ, Sallusto F. T-cell recognition of chemicals, protein allergens and drugs: towards the development of in vitro assays. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:4171-84. [PMID: 20717835 PMCID: PMC11115584 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0495-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2010] [Revised: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 07/30/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Chemicals can elicit T-cell-mediated diseases such as allergic contact dermatitis and adverse drug reactions. Therefore, testing of chemicals, drugs and protein allergens for hazard identification and risk assessment is essential in regulatory toxicology. The seventh amendment of the EU Cosmetics Directive now prohibits the testing of cosmetic ingredients in mice, guinea pigs and other animal species to assess their sensitizing potential. In addition, the EU Chemicals Directive REACh requires the retesting of more than 30,000 chemicals for different toxicological endpoints, including sensitization, requiring vast numbers of animals. Therefore, alternative methods are urgently needed to eventually replace animal testing. Here, we summarize the outcome of an expert meeting in Rome on 7 November 2009 on the development of T-cell-based in vitro assays as tools in immunotoxicology to identify hazardous chemicals and drugs. In addition, we provide an overview of the development of the field over the last two decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan F Martin
- Allergy Research Group, Department of Dermatology, University Medical Center Freiburg, Hauptstrasse 7, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.
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30
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Kimber I, Basketter DA, Gerberick GF, Ryan CA, Dearman RJ. Chemical allergy: translating biology into hazard characterization. Toxicol Sci 2010; 120 Suppl 1:S238-68. [PMID: 21097995 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfq346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The induction by chemicals of allergic sensitization and allergic disease is an important and challenging branch of toxicology. Skin sensitization resulting in allergic contact dermatitis represents the most common manifestation of immunotoxicity in humans, and many hundreds of chemicals have been implicated as skin sensitizers. There are far fewer chemicals that have been shown to cause sensitization of the respiratory tract and asthma, but the issue is no less important because hazard identification remains a significant challenge, and occupational asthma can be fatal. In all areas of chemical allergy, there have been, and remain still, intriguing challenges where progress has required a close and productive alignment between immunology, toxicology, and clinical medicine. What the authors have sought to do here is to exemplify, within the framework of chemical allergy, how an investment in fundamental research and an improved understanding of relevant biological and biochemical mechanisms can pay important dividends in driving new innovations in hazard identification, hazard characterization, and risk assessment. Here we will consider in turn three specific areas of research in chemical allergy: (1) the role of epidermal Langerhans cells in the development of skin sensitization, (2) T lymphocytes and skin sensitization, and (3) sensitization of the respiratory tract. In each area, the aim is to identify what has been achieved and how that progress has impacted on the development of new approaches to toxicological evaluation. Success has been patchy, and there is still much to be achieved, but the journey has been fascinating and there have been some very important developments. The conclusion drawn is that continued investment in research, if coupled with an appetite for translating the fruits of that research into imaginative new tools for toxicology, should continue to better equip us for tackling the important challenges that remain to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Kimber
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
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31
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Basketter DA, Kimber I. Skin sensitization, false positives and false negatives: experience with guinea pig assays. J Appl Toxicol 2010; 30:381-6. [PMID: 20583317 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The advent of the local lymph node assay (LLNA), and efforts to develop in vitro alternatives for the identification of skin sensitizing chemicals has focused attention on the issue of false positive and false negative results. In essence, the question becomes 'what is the gold standard?' In this context, attention has focused primarily on the LLNA as this is now the preferred assay for skin sensitization testing. However, for many years prior to introduction of the LLNA, the guinea pig maximization test and the occluded patch test of Buehler were the methods of choice. In order to encourage a more informed dialogue about the relative performance, accuracy and applicability of the LLNA and guinea pig tests, we have here considered the extent to which guinea pig methods were themselves subject to false positives and negative results. We describe and discuss here well-characterized examples of instances where both false negatives (including abietic acid and eugenol) or false positives (including vanillin and sulfanilic acid) have been recorded in guinea pig tests. These and other examples are discussed with particular reference to the fabrication of a gold standard dataset that is required for the validation of in vitro alternatives.
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32
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33
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Roberts DW, Patlewicz GY. Updating the skin sensitization in vitro data assessment paradigm in 2009--a chemistry and QSAR perspective. J Appl Toxicol 2010; 30:286-8; discussion 289. [PMID: 20131408 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David W Roberts
- Liverpool John Moores University, School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK.
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34
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Schoeters G. The REACH perspective: toward a new concept of toxicity testing. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2010; 13:232-241. [PMID: 20574899 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2010.483938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
A sustainable society and a healthy society are major goals for European policymakers. Although most Europeans live a longer healthy life than ever, there is growing concern and anxiety about unknown health risks and threats of chemicals and a strong demand for more knowledge and more control. European legislation is responding to these demands. An example is the program on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), which came into force in 2007. It is a gigantic task for industry and for administrators to evaluate safety files of thousands of chemicals in a period of 12 years and to collect new data for chemicals not yet evaluated. Costs, number of toxicity tests, and number of animals that are needed are already well documented. REACH uses strict guidelines and focuses on apical endpoints that have been covered in the past by animal tests. Animal tests are slow, use unrealistic high doses, and have been shown to not always predict human toxicity correctly. The REACH program has made a clear opening for reduction of in vivo animal tests. Sharing toxicity data is a major improvement. For low tonnage levels, no further in vivo testing is allowed. The combination of scientifically valid information from alternative tests with available animal and human data into a weight-of-evidence approach is part of the integrated test strategy under REACH. Interpretation of this integrated information requires a high degree of expertise, flexibility, and openness toward scientific advances. This will be crucial for the success of the REACH program. It means a shift of attitude and will put a heavy responsibility on scientific experts and regulators, but it is also an opportunity for meeting the safety expectations of our modern society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greet Schoeters
- VITO, Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Centre for Advanced Research and Development of Alternative Methods, Mol, Belgium.
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35
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Basketter D, Kimber I. Letter to the Editor. J Appl Toxicol 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.1510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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36
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Kimber I, Basketter DA, Dearman RJ. Chemical allergens--what are the issues? Toxicology 2009; 268:139-42. [PMID: 19646501 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2009.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2009] [Revised: 07/20/2009] [Accepted: 07/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chemical allergy describes the adverse health effects that may result when exposure to a chemical elicits an immune response. Allergy develops in two phases. In the first phase, exposure of an inherently susceptible subject results in stimulation of an immune response or immunological priming. If the then sensitised subject is exposed on a subsequent occasion to the same chemical then an accelerated and more aggressive secondary immune response will be provoked resulting in inflammation and the signs and symptoms of a clinically discernible allergic reaction. The two forms of chemical allergy of greatest relevance for occupational toxicology are skin sensitisation resulting in allergic contact dermatitis, and sensitisation of the respiratory tract associated with occupational rhinitis and asthma. In this brief survey we identify what we believe currently represent the key issues and key challenges in these areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Kimber
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
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