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Buchbinder EI, Giobbie-Hurder A, Haq R, Ott PA. A phase I/II study of LY3022855 with BRAF/MEK inhibition in patients with Melanoma. Invest New Drugs 2023; 41:551-555. [PMID: 37247116 DOI: 10.1007/s10637-023-01374-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
BRAF/MEK targeted therapies and immune checkpoint inhibition have dramatically improved disease control and survival of patients with advanced melanoma. However, most patients do not have durable benefit from either of these therapies. BRAF targeted therapy often has a limited duration of efficacy due to the development of resistance. Pre-clinical data suggest that one possible way to overcome resistance to BRAF/MEK targeted therapy may be the addition of CSF1R inhibition. In this phase I/II study we evaluated the safety and efficacy of LY3022855, an anti-colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) monoclonal antibody in combination with the BRAF inhibitor vemurafenib and the MEK inhibitor cobimetinib in patients with BRAF V600E/K mutant metastatic melanoma. The trial was terminated early due to discontinuation of the development program for LY3022855 by the sponsor. Between August 2017 and May 2018 five pts were enrolled. Three patients experienced grade 3 events that were deemed possibly related to LY3022855. There were no grade 4 or grade 5 events related to LY3022855. One of the 5 patients had a complete response (CR), whereas the other 4 had progressive disease (PD). Median progression free survival was 3.9 months (90% CI: 1.9-37.2 mos). CSF1R inhibition with LY3022855 in combination with BRAF/MEK inhibition with vemurafenib and cobimetinib was difficult to tolerate in a small melanoma population. One response was observed in this small sample of patients suggesting this combination might be worthy of further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth I Buchbinder
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- , 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
| | - Anita Giobbie-Hurder
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Data Sciences, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rizwan Haq
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Patrick A Ott
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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2
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Buchbinder EI, Giobbie-Hurder A, Ott PA. A phase I/II study of MCS110 with BRAF/MEK inhibition in patients with melanoma after progression on BRAF/MEK inhibition. Invest New Drugs 2023:10.1007/s10637-023-01364-5. [PMID: 37097370 DOI: 10.1007/s10637-023-01364-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prognosis for patients with metastatic melanoma has been improved dramatically with the development of BRAF/MEK directed therapy and immune checkpoint inhibition. However, resistance to therapy remains a challenge, particularly with BRAF/MEK targeted therapy which often has a limited duration of efficacy. Pre-clinical data suggest that adding CSF1 inhibition to BRAF/MEK targeted therapy may reduce resistance and increase efficacy. METHODS We performed a phase I/II study to determine the safety and efficacy of CSF1 inhibition with MCS110 in combination with BRAF/MEK inhibition with dabrafenib/trametinib in patients with BRAF V600E/K mutant metastatic melanoma. The trial was terminated early due to a decision by the study sponsor to cease further development of MCS110. RESULTS Between September 2018 to July 2019 six patients were enrolled on the study. Patients were evenly split between female (50%) and male (50%) with a median age of 59.5 yrs. (26-71). Five patients experienced grade 3 toxicities that were possibly related to one of the therapies, there were no grade 4 or grade 5 events. One patient had a partial response (PR) by RECIST 1.1, one patient had stable disease (SD), 3 patients had disease progression (PD). Median progression free survival was 2.3 months (90% CI: 1.3 mos to not reached). CONCLUSION MCS110 in combination with dabrafenib and trametinib was reasonably well tolerated in a small melanoma population. One response was observed in this small sample of patients suggesting this combination might be worthy of further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth I Buchbinder
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Anita Giobbie-Hurder
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Data Sciences, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Patrick A Ott
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Abstract
Tumour progression is modulated by the local microenvironment. This environment is populated by many immune cells, of which macrophages are among the most abundant. Clinical correlative data and a plethora of preclinical studies in mouse models of cancers have shown that tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a cancer-promoting role. Within the primary tumour, TAMs promote tumour cell invasion and intravasation and tumour stem cell viability and induce angiogenesis. At the metastatic site, metastasis-associated macrophages promote extravasation, tumour cell survival and persistent growth, as well as maintain tumour cell dormancy in some contexts. In both the primary and metastatic sites, TAMs are suppressive to the activities of cytotoxic T and natural killer cells that have the potential to eradicate tumours. Such activities suggest that TAMs will be a major target for therapeutic intervention. In this Perspective article, we chronologically explore the evolution of our understanding of TAM biology put into the context of major enabling advances in macrophage biology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeffrey W Pollard
- MRC-Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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Robinson A, Burgess M, Webb S, Louwe PA, Ouyang Z, Skola D, Han CZ, Batada NN, González-Huici V, Cassetta L, Glass CK, Jenkins SJ, Pollard JW. Systemic Influences of Mammary Cancer on Monocytes in Mice. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:833. [PMID: 35159100 PMCID: PMC8834227 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14030833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence that cancer causes systemic changes. These influences are most evident in the bone marrow and the blood, particularly in the myeloid compartment. Here, we show that there is an increase in the number of bone marrow, circulating and splenic monocytes by using mouse models of breast cancer caused by the mammary epithelial expression of the polyoma middle T antigen. Cancer does not affect ratios of classical to non-classical populations of monocytes in the circulation nor does it affect their half-lives. Single cell RNA sequencing also indicates that cancer does not induce any new monocyte populations. Cancer does not change the monocytic progenitor number in the bone marrow, but the proliferation rate of monocytes is higher, thus providing an explanation for the expansion of the circulating numbers. Deep RNA sequencing of these monocytic populations reveals that cancer causes changes in the classical monocyte compartment, with changes evident in bone marrow monocytes and even more so in the blood, suggesting influences in both compartments, with the down-regulation of interferon type 1 signaling and antigen presentation being the most prominent of these. Consistent with this analysis, down-regulated genes are enriched with STAT1/STAT2 binding sites in their promoter, which are transcription factors required for type 1 interferon signaling. However, these transcriptome changes in mice did not replicate those found in patients with breast cancer. Consequently, this mouse model of breast cancer may be insufficient to study the systemic influences of human cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Robinson
- MRC-Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; (A.R.); (S.W.); (L.C.)
| | - Matthew Burgess
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; (M.B.); (P.A.L.)
| | - Sheila Webb
- MRC-Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; (A.R.); (S.W.); (L.C.)
| | - Pieter A. Louwe
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; (M.B.); (P.A.L.)
| | - Zhengyu Ouyang
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of San Diego, LA Jolla, CA 92037, USA; (Z.O.); (D.S.); (C.Z.H.); (C.K.G.)
| | - Dylan Skola
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of San Diego, LA Jolla, CA 92037, USA; (Z.O.); (D.S.); (C.Z.H.); (C.K.G.)
| | - Claudia Z. Han
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of San Diego, LA Jolla, CA 92037, USA; (Z.O.); (D.S.); (C.Z.H.); (C.K.G.)
| | - Nizar N. Batada
- Institute of Genetic and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK; (N.N.B.); (V.G.-H.)
| | - Víctor González-Huici
- Institute of Genetic and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK; (N.N.B.); (V.G.-H.)
| | - Luca Cassetta
- MRC-Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; (A.R.); (S.W.); (L.C.)
| | - Chris K. Glass
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of San Diego, LA Jolla, CA 92037, USA; (Z.O.); (D.S.); (C.Z.H.); (C.K.G.)
| | - Stephen J. Jenkins
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; (M.B.); (P.A.L.)
| | - Jeffery W. Pollard
- MRC-Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; (A.R.); (S.W.); (L.C.)
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Riaz N, Burugu S, Cheng AS, Leung SCY, Gao D, Nielsen TO. Prognostic Significance of CSF-1R Expression in Early Invasive Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:5769. [PMID: 34830923 PMCID: PMC8616299 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13225769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) signaling promotes an immune suppressive microenvironment enriched in M2 macrophages. Given that CSF-1R inhibitors are under investigation in clinical trials, including in breast cancer, CSF-1R expression and association with immune biomarkers could identify patients who derive greater benefit from combination with immunotherapies. TIMER2.0 and bc-GenExMiner v4.7 were used to assess the correlation of CSF1R mRNA with immune infiltrates and prognosis. Following a prespecified training-validation approach, an optimized immunohistochemistry assay was applied to assess CSF-1R on carcinoma cells and macrophages on breast cancer tissue microarray series representing 2384 patients, coupled to comprehensive clinicopathological, biomarker, and outcome data. Significant positive correlations were observed between CSF1R mRNA and immune infiltrates. High carcinoma CSF-1R correlated with grade 3 tumors >2 cm, hormone receptor negativity, high Ki67, immune checkpoint biomarkers, and macrophages expressing CSF-1R and CD163. High carcinoma CSF-1R was significantly associated with poor survival in univariate and multivariate analyses. Adverse prognostic associations were retained in ER+ cases regardless of the presence of CD8+ T cells. CSF-1R+ macrophages were not prognostic. High carcinoma CSF-1R is associated with aggressive breast cancer biology and poor prognosis, particularly in ER+ cases, and identifies patients in whom biomarker-directed CSF-1R therapies may yield superior therapeutic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazia Riaz
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z7, Canada; (N.R.); (S.B.); (A.S.C.); (S.C.Y.L.); (D.G.)
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
| | - Samantha Burugu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z7, Canada; (N.R.); (S.B.); (A.S.C.); (S.C.Y.L.); (D.G.)
| | - Angela S. Cheng
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z7, Canada; (N.R.); (S.B.); (A.S.C.); (S.C.Y.L.); (D.G.)
| | - Samuel C. Y. Leung
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z7, Canada; (N.R.); (S.B.); (A.S.C.); (S.C.Y.L.); (D.G.)
| | - Dongxia Gao
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z7, Canada; (N.R.); (S.B.); (A.S.C.); (S.C.Y.L.); (D.G.)
| | - Torsten O. Nielsen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z7, Canada; (N.R.); (S.B.); (A.S.C.); (S.C.Y.L.); (D.G.)
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Knight AC, Varlow C, Zi T, Liang SH, Josephson L, Schmidt K, Patel S, Vasdev N. In Vitro Evaluation of [ 3H]CPPC as a Tool Radioligand for CSF-1R. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:998-1006. [PMID: 33667059 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play a role in several central nervous system (CNS) diseases and are a highly sought target for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and therapeutic intervention. 5-Cyano-N-(4-(4-[11C]methylpiperazin-1-yl)-2-(piperidin-1-yl)phenyl)furan-2-carboxamide ([11C]CPPC) is a radiopharmaceutical designed to selectively target microglia via macrophage colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) in the CNS. Herein, we report the first preclinical evaluation of [3H]CPPC using radioligand binding methods for the evaluation of putative CSF-1R inhibitors in rodent models of neuroinflammation. The distribution of [3H]CPPC by autoradiography did not align with 18 kDa translocator protein (TSPO) distribution using [3H]PBR28 and IBA-1 staining for microglia. In the CNS, [3H]CPPC had considerable nonspecific binding, as indicated by a low displacement of the tritiated ligand by unlabeled CPPC and the known CSF1R inhibitors BLZ-945 and PLX3397. Spleen was identified as a tissue that provided an adequate signal-to-noise ratio to enable screening with [3H]CPPC and a library of 20 novel PLX3397 derivatives. However, unlabeled CPPC lacked selectivity and showed off-target binding to a substantial number of kinase targets (204 out of 403 tested) at a concentration relevant to in vitro radioligand binding assays (10 μM). These findings suggest that, while [3H]CPPC may have utility as a radioligand tool for the evaluation of peripheral targets and screening of CSF-1R inhibitors, it may have limited utility as an in vivo CNS imaging probe on the basis of the current evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C. Knight
- Azrieli Centre for Neuro-Radiochemistry, Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Cassis Varlow
- Azrieli Centre for Neuro-Radiochemistry, Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Tong Zi
- Codiak Biosciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140, United States
| | - Steven H. Liang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Lee Josephson
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- MedChem Imaging, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts 02210, United States
| | - Karl Schmidt
- Codiak Biosciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140, United States
| | - Shil Patel
- Codiak Biosciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140, United States
| | - Neil Vasdev
- Azrieli Centre for Neuro-Radiochemistry, Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- MedChem Imaging, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts 02210, United States
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Rattanaburee T, Tipmanee V, Tedasen A, Thongpanchang T, Graidist P. Inhibition of CSF1R and AKT by (±)-kusunokinin hinders breast cancer cell proliferation. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 129:110361. [PMID: 32535390 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Kusunokinin, a lignan compound, inhibits cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis; however, the role of kusunokinin is not fully understood. Here, we aimed to identify a target protein of (-)-kusunokinin and determine the protein levels of its downstream molecules. We found that (-)-kusunokinin bound 5 possible target proteins, including CSF1R, MMP-12, HSP90-α, CyclinB1 and MEK1 with ΔGbind less than -10.40 kcal/mol. MD simulation indicated (-)-kusunokinin and pexidartinib (P31, a specific CSF1R binding compound) shared some extents of functional similarity in which (-)-kusunokinin bound CSF1R at the juxtamembrane (JM) region with aromatic amino acids similar to pexidartinib using π-π interaction, as well as hydrogen bond. Both P31 and (-)-kusunokinin moved into the same CSF1R region and W7 was a mutual key residue. However, the P31 binding site differed from the (-)-kusunokinin binding site. For in vitro study, the synthetic (±)-kusunokinin exhibited stronger cytotoxicity than picropodophyllotoxin, silibinin and etoposide on MCF-7 cells and represented less toxicity than picropodophyllotoxin and doxorubicin on L-929 and MCF-12A cells. Knocking down CSF1R using a specific siRNA combination with (±)-kusunokinin demonstrated levels of cell proliferation proteins slightly higher than siRNA-CSF1R treatment. However, siRNA-CSF1R combination with P31 represented the number of cell viability and cell proliferation proteins, like in the control groups (Lipofectamine and siRNA-Luciferase). Moreover, (±)-kusunokinin suppressed CSF1R and its downstream proteins, including AKT, CyclinD1 and CDK1. Meanwhile, both P31 and siRNA-CSF1R dramatically suppressed CSF1R, MEK1, AKT, ERK, CyclinB1, CyclinD1 and CDK1. Our overall results indicate that the mechanism of (±)-kusunokinin differed fairly from P31. We have concluded that (±)-kusunokinin inhibited breast cancer cell proliferation partially through the binding and suppression of CSF1R, which consequently affected AKT and its downstream molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thidarath Rattanaburee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand.
| | - Varomyalin Tipmanee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand.
| | - Aman Tedasen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand; Medical Technology Program, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhonsithammarat, 80161, Thailand.
| | - Tienthong Thongpanchang
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.
| | - Potchanapond Graidist
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand; The Excellent Research Laboratory of Cancer Molecular Biology, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand.
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Law AMK, Valdes-Mora F, Gallego-Ortega D. Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells as a Therapeutic Target for Cancer. Cells 2020; 9:cells9030561. [PMID: 32121014 PMCID: PMC7140518 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of immunotherapy has been an astounding breakthrough in cancer treatments. In particular, immune checkpoint inhibitors, targeting PD-1 and CTLA-4, have shown remarkable therapeutic outcomes. However, response rates from immunotherapy have been reported to be varied, with some having pronounced success and others with minimal to no clinical benefit. An important aspect associated with this discrepancy in patient response is the immune-suppressive effects elicited by the tumour microenvironment (TME). Immune suppression plays a pivotal role in regulating cancer progression, metastasis, and reducing immunotherapy success. Most notably, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), a heterogeneous population of immature myeloid cells, have potent mechanisms to inhibit T-cell and NK-cell activity to promote tumour growth, development of the pre-metastatic niche, and contribute to resistance to immunotherapy. Accumulating research indicates that MDSC can be a therapeutic target to alleviate their pro-tumourigenic functions and immunosuppressive activities to bolster the efficacy of checkpoint inhibitors. In this review, we provide an overview of the general immunotherapeutic approaches and discuss the characterisation, expansion, and activities of MDSCs with the current treatments used to target them either as a single therapeutic target or synergistically in combination with immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M. K. Law
- Tumour Development Group, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
- Correspondence: (A.M.K.L.); (F.V.-M.); (D.G.-O.); Tel.: +61-(0)2-9355-5894 (A.M.K.L); +61-(0)2-9385-0143 (F.V.-M); +61-(0)2-9355-5776 (D.G.-O)
| | - Fatima Valdes-Mora
- Histone Variants Group, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
- St. Vincent’s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Correspondence: (A.M.K.L.); (F.V.-M.); (D.G.-O.); Tel.: +61-(0)2-9355-5894 (A.M.K.L); +61-(0)2-9385-0143 (F.V.-M); +61-(0)2-9355-5776 (D.G.-O)
| | - David Gallego-Ortega
- Tumour Development Group, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
- St. Vincent’s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Correspondence: (A.M.K.L.); (F.V.-M.); (D.G.-O.); Tel.: +61-(0)2-9355-5894 (A.M.K.L); +61-(0)2-9385-0143 (F.V.-M); +61-(0)2-9355-5776 (D.G.-O)
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9
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Schnellhardt S, Erber R, Büttner-Herold M, Rosahl MC, Ott OJ, Strnad V, Beckmann MW, King L, Hartmann A, Fietkau R, Distel L. Accelerated Partial Breast Irradiation: Macrophage Polarisation Shift Classification Identifies High-Risk Tumours in Early Hormone Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E446. [PMID: 32075091 PMCID: PMC7072550 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12020446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have demonstrated correlations between accumulations of tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs), especially of M2-like phenotype, and increased mortality in advanced breast cancer. We investigated the prognostic potential of both main macrophage phenotypes in early hormone receptor-positive (HR+) breast cancer. The studied cohort of 136 patients participated in an institutional APBI phase II trial. Patient selection was characterized by HR+, small tumour size and no metastasis. Tissue microarrays from pre-RT resection samples were double stained for CD68/CD163 using immunohistochemistry. CD68+/CD163- cells were considered M1-like macrophages and CD68+/CD163+ was representative of M2-like macrophages. M1 and M2 macrophage densities were analysed semi-automatically in the stromal and intraepithelial tumour compartment. Low M1 and high M2 densities were strongly associated with decreased disease-free survival (DFS). Combined TAM phenotype densities were studied after defining a macrophage shift classification: M1-shifted (M1 high, M2 low) and non-shifted (M1 low, M2 low; M1 high, M2 high) tumours entailed a favourable outcome. In contrast, M2-shifted (M1 low, M2 high) TAM populations were associated with extremely reduced DFS. Thus, the full predictive potential of TAMs was revealed in a combined analysis of both phenotypes. The M2-shifted subgroup of tumours is classified as high-risk and probably not suitable for partial breast irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sören Schnellhardt
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstraße 27, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (S.S.); (M.-C.R.); (O.J.O.); (V.S.); (R.F.)
| | - Ramona Erber
- Institute of Pathology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Krankenhausstraße 8-10, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (R.E.); (A.H.)
| | - Maike Büttner-Herold
- Department of Nephropathology, Institute of Pathology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Krankenhausstraße 8-10, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Marie-Charlotte Rosahl
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstraße 27, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (S.S.); (M.-C.R.); (O.J.O.); (V.S.); (R.F.)
| | - Oliver J. Ott
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstraße 27, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (S.S.); (M.-C.R.); (O.J.O.); (V.S.); (R.F.)
| | - Vratislav Strnad
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstraße 27, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (S.S.); (M.-C.R.); (O.J.O.); (V.S.); (R.F.)
| | - Matthias W. Beckmann
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstraße 21, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Lillian King
- Intensive Care Unit, Redcliffe Hospital; University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Queensland, Australia;
| | - Arndt Hartmann
- Institute of Pathology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Krankenhausstraße 8-10, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (R.E.); (A.H.)
| | - Rainer Fietkau
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstraße 27, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (S.S.); (M.-C.R.); (O.J.O.); (V.S.); (R.F.)
| | - Luitpold Distel
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstraße 27, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany; (S.S.); (M.-C.R.); (O.J.O.); (V.S.); (R.F.)
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10
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Farag AK, Hassan AHE, Ahn BS, Park KD, Roh EJ. Reprofiling of pyrimidine-based DAPK1/CSF1R dual inhibitors: identification of 2,5-diamino-4-pyrimidinol derivatives as novel potential anticancer lead compounds. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2019; 35:311-324. [PMID: 31809612 PMCID: PMC6913669 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2019.1699554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hybridization of reported weakly active antiproliferative hit 5-amino-4-pyrimidinol derivative with 2-anilino-4-phenoxypyrimidines suggests a series of 2,5-diamino-4-pyrimidinol derivatives as potential antiproliferative agents. Few compounds belonging to the proposed series were reported as CSF1R/DAPK1 inhibitors as anti-tauopathies. However, the correlation between CSF1R/DAPK1 signalling pathways and cancer progression provides motives to reprofile them against cancer therapy. The compounds were synthesised, characterized, and evaluated against M-NFS-60 cells and a kinase panel which bolstered predictions of their antiproliferative activity and suggested the involvement of diverse molecular targets. Compound 6e, the most potent in the series, showed prominent broad-spectrum antiproliferative activity inhibiting the growth of hematological, NSCLC, colon, CNS, melanoma, ovarian, renal, prostate and breast cancers by 84.1, 52.79, 72.15, 66.34, 66.48, 51.55, 55.95, 61.85, and 60.87%, respectively. Additionally, it elicited an IC50 value of 1.97 µM against M-NFS-60 cells and good GIT absorption with Pe value of 19.0 ± 1.1 × 10−6 cm/s (PAMPA-GIT). Molecular docking study for 6e with CSF1R and DAPK1 was done to help to understand the binding mode with both kinases. Collectively, compound 6e could be a potential lead compound for further development of anticancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed K Farag
- RI Translational Research Team, Division of Applied RI, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences (KIRAMS), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ahmed H E Hassan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Byung Sun Ahn
- Chemical Kinomics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, University of Science and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Duk Park
- Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, University of Science and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Joo Roh
- Chemical Kinomics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, University of Science and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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11
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SIRPα expression delineates subsets of intratumoral monocyte/macrophages with different functional and prognostic impact in follicular lymphoma. Blood Cancer J 2019; 9:84. [PMID: 31611550 PMCID: PMC6791879 DOI: 10.1038/s41408-019-0246-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Signal regulatory protein-α (SIRPα) is a key member of the “do-not-eat-me” signaling pathway, but its biological role and clinical relevance in B-cell NHL is relatively unknown. Using biopsy specimens from follicular lymphoma (FL), we identified three subsets (CD14+SIRPαhi, CD14−SIRPαlow, and CD14−SIRPαneg) of monocyte/macrophages (Mo/MΦ) based on CD14 and SIRPα expression. CD14+SIRPαhi cells expressed common Mo/MΦ markers; exhibited characteristic differentiation, migration, and phagocytosis; and suppressed T-cell function. CD14−SIRPαlow cells expressed fewer typical Mo/MΦ markers; migrated less and phagocytosed tumor cells less efficiently; and stimulated rather than suppressed T-cell function. Interestingly, the CD14−SIRPαneg subset expressed distinct Mo/MΦ markers compared to the other two subsets; had limited ability to migrate and phagocytose; but stimulated T-cell function. When using SIRPα-Fc to block the interaction between SIRPα and CD47, alone or in combination with rituximab, phagocytosis of tumor cells was differentially increased in the three Mo/MΦ subsets. Clinically, increased numbers of CD14+SIRPαhi cells were associated with an inferior survival in FL. In contrast, increased numbers of the CD14−SIRPαlow subset appeared to correlate with a better survival. Taken together, our results show that SIRPα expression delineates unique subsets of intratumoral Mo/MΦs with differing prognostic importance.
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12
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Abstract
Infiltration of macrophages in solid tumours is associated with poor prognosis and correlates with chemotherapy resistance in most cancers. In mouse models of cancer, macrophages promote cancer initiation and malignant progression by stimulating angiogenesis, increasing tumour cell migration, invasion and intravasation and suppressing antitumour immunity. At metastatic sites, macrophages promote tumour cell extravasation, survival and subsequent growth. Each of these pro-tumoural activities is promoted by a subpopulation of macrophages that express canonical markers but have unique transcriptional profiles, which makes tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) good targets for anticancer therapy in humans through either their ablation or their re-differentiation away from pro-tumoural towards antitumoural states. In this Review, we evaluate the state of the art of TAM-targeting strategies, focusing on the limitations and potential side effects of the different therapies such as toxicity, rebound effects and compensatory mechanisms. We provide an extensive overview of the different types of therapy used in the clinic and their limitations in light of known macrophage biology and propose new strategies for targeting TAMs.
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13
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Giricz O, Mo Y, Dahlman KB, Cotto-Rios XM, Vardabasso C, Nguyen H, Matusow B, Bartenstein M, Polishchuk V, Johnson DB, Bhagat TD, Shellooe R, Burton E, Tsai J, Zhang C, Habets G, Greally JM, Yu Y, Kenny PA, Fields GB, Pradhan K, Stanley ER, Bernstein E, Bollag G, Gavathiotis E, West BL, Sosman JA, Verma AK. The RUNX1/IL-34/CSF-1R axis is an autocrinally regulated modulator of resistance to BRAF-V600E inhibition in melanoma. JCI Insight 2018; 3:120422. [PMID: 30046005 PMCID: PMC6124424 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.120422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to current therapies still impacts a significant number of melanoma patients and can be regulated by epigenetic alterations. Analysis of global cytosine methylation in a cohort of primary melanomas revealed a pattern of early demethylation associated with overexpression of oncogenic transcripts. Loss of methylation and associated overexpression of the CSF 1 receptor (CSF1R) was seen in a majority of tumors and was driven by an alternative, endogenous viral promoter in a subset of samples. CSF1R was particularly elevated in melanomas with BRAF and other MAPK activating mutations. Furthermore, rebound ERK activation after BRAF inhibition was associated with RUNX1-mediated further upregulation of CSF-1R and its ligand IL-34. Importantly, increased CSF-1R and IL-34 overexpression were detected in an independent cohort of resistant melanomas. Inhibition of CSF-1R kinase or decreased CSF-1R expression by RNAi reduced 3-D growth and invasiveness of melanoma cells. Coinhibition of CSF-1R and BRAF resulted in synergistic efficacy in vivo. To our knowledge, our data unveil a previously unknown role for the autocrine-regulated CSF-1R in BRAF V600E resistance and provide a preclinical rationale for targeting this pathway in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orsi Giricz
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Yongkai Mo
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Chiara Vardabasso
- Departments of Oncological Sciences & Dermatology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Matthias Bartenstein
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Veronika Polishchuk
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | | | - Tushar D. Bhagat
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yiting Yu
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Paraic A. Kenny
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Gregg B. Fields
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida Atlantic University, Florida, USA
| | - Kith Pradhan
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - E. Richard Stanley
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Emily Bernstein
- Departments of Oncological Sciences & Dermatology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Evripidis Gavathiotis
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | | | | | - Amit K. Verma
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
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14
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Webb MW, Sun J, Sheard MA, Liu WY, Wu HW, Jackson JR, Malvar J, Sposto R, Daniel D, Seeger RC. Colony stimulating factor 1 receptor blockade improves the efficacy of chemotherapy against human neuroblastoma in the absence of T lymphocytes. Int J Cancer 2018; 143:1483-1493. [PMID: 29665011 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.31532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages can promote growth of cancers. In neuroblastoma, tumor-associated macrophages have greater frequency in metastatic versus loco-regional tumors, and higher expression of genes associated with macrophages helps to predict poor prognosis in the 60% of high-risk patients who have MYCN-non-amplified disease. The contribution of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes to anti-neuroblastoma immune responses may be limited by low MHC class I expression and low exonic mutation frequency. Therefore, we modelled human neuroblastoma in T-cell deficient mice to examine whether depletion of monocytes/macrophages from the neuroblastoma microenvironment by blockade of CSF-1R can improve the response to chemotherapy. In vitro, CSF-1 was released by neuroblastoma cells, and topotecan increased this release. In vivo, neuroblastomas formed by subcutaneous co-injection of human neuroblastoma cells and human monocytes into immunodeficient NOD/SCID mice had fewer human CD14+ and CD163+ cells and mouse F4/80+ cells after CSF-1R blockade. In subcutaneous or intra-renal models in immunodeficient NSG or NOD/SCID mice, CSF-1R blockade alone did not affect tumor growth or mouse survival. However, when combined with cyclophosphamide plus topotecan, the CSF-1R inhibitor BLZ945, either without or with anti-human and anti-mouse CSF-1 mAbs, inhibited neuroblastoma growth and synergistically improved mouse survival. These findings indicate that depletion of tumor-associated macrophages from neuroblastomas can be associated with increased chemotherapeutic efficacy without requiring a contribution from T-lymphocytes, suggesting the possibility that combination of CSF-1R blockade with chemotherapy might be effective in patients who have limited anti-tumor T-cell responses.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology
- Apoptosis
- Benzothiazoles/pharmacology
- Biomarkers, Tumor/metabolism
- Cell Proliferation
- Cells, Cultured
- Disease Models, Animal
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Humans
- Macrophages/drug effects
- Macrophages/immunology
- Macrophages/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred NOD
- Mice, SCID
- Monocytes/drug effects
- Monocytes/immunology
- Monocytes/pathology
- Neuroblastoma/drug therapy
- Neuroblastoma/metabolism
- Neuroblastoma/pathology
- Picolinic Acids/pharmacology
- Receptors, Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/antagonists & inhibitors
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/pathology
- Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W Webb
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
| | - Jianping Sun
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
| | - Michael A Sheard
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
| | - Wei-Yao Liu
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
| | - Hong-Wei Wu
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
| | - Jeremy R Jackson
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
| | - Jemily Malvar
- Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Richard Sposto
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
- Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Dylan Daniel
- Novartis Institutes of BioMedical Research, Emeryville, CA, 94608
| | - Robert C Seeger
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027
- Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
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15
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Sapi E. The Role of CSF-1 in Normal Physiology of Mammary Gland and Breast Cancer: An Update. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 229:1-11. [PMID: 14709771 DOI: 10.1177/153537020422900101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Colony stimulating factor (CSF-1) and its receptor (CSF-1R, product of c-fms proto-oncogene) were initially implicated as essential for normal monocyte development as well as for trophoblastic implantation. However, studies have demonstrated that CSF-1 and CSF-1R have additional roles in mammary gland development during pregnancy and lactation. This apparent role for CSF-1/CSF-1R in normal mammary gland development is very intriguing because this receptor/ligand pair has also been found to be important in the biology of breast cancer in which abnormal expression of CSF-1 and its receptor correlates with tumor cell invasiveness and adverse clinical prognosis. Recent findings also implicate tumor-produced CSF-1 in promotion of bone metastasis in breast cancer, and a certain membrane-associated form of CSF-1 appears to induce immunity against tumors. This review aims to summarize recent findings on the role of CSF-1 and its receptor in normal and neoplastic mammary development that may elucidate potential relationships of growth factor–induced biological changes in the breast during pregnancy and tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Sapi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8040, USA.
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16
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Sapi E, Flick MB, Rodoy S, Carter D, Kacinski BM. Expression of CSF-I and CSF-I Receptor by Normal Lactating Mammary Epithelial Cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/107155769800500208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Sapi
- Department of Therapaeutic Radiology, HRT256, Yale University School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208040, New Haven, CT 06520-8040
| | | | | | | | - Barry M. Kacinski
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Obsterics and Gynecology, and Dermatology and Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
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17
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Achkova D, Maher J. Role of the colony-stimulating factor (CSF)/CSF-1 receptor axis in cancer. Biochem Soc Trans 2016; 44:333-341. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20150245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023]
Abstract
Cancer cells employ a variety of mechanisms to evade apoptosis and senescence. Pre-eminent among these is the aberrant co-expression of growth factors and their ligands, forming an autocrine growth loop that promotes tumour formation and progression. One growth loop whose transforming potential has been repeatedly demonstrated is the CSF-1/CSF-1R axis. Expression of CSF-1 and/or CSF-1R has been documented in a number of human malignancies, including breast, prostate and ovarian cancer and classical Hodgkin's lymphoma (cHL). This review summarizes the large body of work undertaken to study the role of this cytokine receptor system in malignant transformation. These studies have attributed a key role to the CSF-1/CSF-1R axis in supporting tumour cell survival, proliferation and enhanced motility. Moreover, increasing evidence implicates paracrine interactions between CSF-1 and its receptor in defining a tumour-permissive and immunosuppressive tumour-associated stroma. Against this background, we briefly consider the prospects for therapeutic targeting of this system in malignant disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Achkova
- Department of Research Oncology, King's Health Partners Integrated Cancer Centre, King's College London, Guy's Hospital Campus, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, U.K
| | - John Maher
- Department of Research Oncology, King's Health Partners Integrated Cancer Centre, King's College London, Guy's Hospital Campus, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, U.K
- Department of Immunology, Barnet Hospital, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, Barnet, Hertfordshire EN5 3DJ, U.K
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Denmark Hill, London SE5 9RS, U.K
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18
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Yoshimura T, Imamichi T, Weiss JM, Sato M, Li L, Matsukawa A, Wang JM. Induction of Monocyte Chemoattractant Proteins in Macrophages via the Production of Granulocyte/Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor by Breast Cancer Cells. Front Immunol 2016; 7:2. [PMID: 26834744 PMCID: PMC4718995 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)/CCL2 plays an important role in the initiation and progression of cancer. We previously reported that in 4T1 murine breast cancer, non-tumor stromal cells, including macrophages, were the major source of MCP-1. In the present study, we analyzed the potential mechanisms by which MCP-1 is upregulated in macrophages infiltrating 4T1 tumors. We found that cell-free culture supernatants of 4T1 cells (4T1-sup) markedly upregulated MCP-1 production by peritoneal inflammatory macrophages. 4T1-sup also upregulated other MCPs, such as MCP-3/CCL7 and MCP-5/CCL12, but modestly upregulated neutrophil chemotactic chemokines, such as KC/CXCL1 or MIP-2/CXCL2. Physicochemical analysis indicated that an approximately 20-30 kDa 4T1 cell product was responsible for the capacity of 4T1-sup to upregulate MCP-1 expression by macrophages. A neutralizing antibody against granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), but not macrophage CSF, almost completely abrogated MCP-1-inducing activity of 4T1-sup, and recombinant GM-CSF potently upregulated MCP-1 production by macrophages. The expression levels of GM-CSF in 4T1 tumors in vivo were higher than other tumors, such as Lewis lung carcinoma. Treatment of mice with anti-GM-CSF antibody significantly reduced the growth of 4T1 tumors at the injection sites but did not reduce MCP-1 production or lung metastasis in tumor-bearing mice. These results indicate that 4T1 cells have the capacity to directly upregulate MCP-1 production by macrophages by releasing GM-CSF; however, other mechanisms are also involved in increased MCP-1 levels in the 4T1 tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teizo Yoshimura
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, USA
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Tomozumi Imamichi
- Laboratory of Human Retrovirology and Immunoinformatics, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan M. Weiss
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Miwa Sato
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Liangzhu Li
- Engineering Research Center for Cell and Therapeutic Antibody of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Akihiro Matsukawa
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ji Ming Wang
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, USA
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19
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Martín-Moreno AM, Roncador G, Maestre L, Mata E, Jiménez S, Martínez-Torrecuadrada JL, Reyes-García AI, Rubio C, Tomás JF, Estévez M, Pulford K, Piris MA, García JF. CSF1R Protein Expression in Reactive Lymphoid Tissues and Lymphoma: Its Relevance in Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125203. [PMID: 26066800 PMCID: PMC4466308 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) have been associated with survival in classic Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) and other lymphoma types. The maturation and differentiation of tissue macrophages depends upon interactions between colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) and its ligands. There remains, however, a lack of consistent information on CSF1R expression in TAMs. A new monoclonal antibody, FER216, was generated to investigate CSF1R protein distribution in formalin fixed tissue samples from 24 reactive lymphoid tissues and 187 different lymphoma types. We also analysed the distribution of CSF1R+, CD68+ and CD163+ macrophages by double immunostaining, and studied the relationship between CSF1R expression and survival in an independent series of 249 cHL patients. CSF1R+ TAMs were less frequent in B-cell lymphocytic leukaemia and lymphoblastic B-cell lymphoma than in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, peripheral T-cell lymphoma, angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma and cHL. HRS cells in cHL and, with the exception of three cases of anaplastic large cell lymphoma, the neoplastic cells in NHLs, lacked detectable CSF1R protein. A CSF1R+ enriched microenvironment in cHL was associated with shorter survival in an independent series of 249 cHL patients. CSF1R pathway activation was evident in the cHL and inactivation of this pathway could be a potential therapeutic target in cHL cases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giovanna Roncador
- Monoclonal Antibodies Unit, Spanish National Cancer Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Lorena Maestre
- Monoclonal Antibodies Unit, Spanish National Cancer Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Mata
- Pathology Department, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Madrid, Spain
| | - Scherezade Jiménez
- Monoclonal Antibodies Unit, Spanish National Cancer Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Ana I. Reyes-García
- Monoclonal Antibodies Unit, Spanish National Cancer Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Rubio
- Pathology Department, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Madrid, Spain
| | - José F. Tomás
- Haematology Department, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mónica Estévez
- Haematology Department, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Madrid, Spain
| | - Karen Pulford
- Nuffield Division of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Miguel A. Piris
- Pathology Department, Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla, Santander, Spain
| | - Juan F. García
- Pathology Department, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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20
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Shiao SL, Ruffell B, DeNardo DG, Faddegon BA, Park CC, Coussens LM. TH2-Polarized CD4(+) T Cells and Macrophages Limit Efficacy of Radiotherapy. Cancer Immunol Res 2015; 3:518-25. [PMID: 25716473 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-14-0232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Radiotherapy and chemotherapy following surgery are mainstays of treatment for breast cancer. Although multiple studies have recently revealed the significance of immune cells as mediators of chemotherapy response in breast cancer, less is known regarding roles for leukocytes as mediating outcomes following radiotherapy. To address this question, we utilized a syngeneic orthotopic murine model of mammary carcinogenesis to investigate if response to radiotherapy could be improved when select immune cells or immune-based pathways in the mammary microenvironment were inhibited. Treatment of mammary tumor-bearing mice with either a neutralizing mAb to colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) or a small-molecule inhibitor of the CSF-1 receptor kinase (i.e., PLX3397), resulting in efficient macrophage depletion, significantly delayed tumor regrowth following radiotherapy. Delayed tumor growth in this setting was associated with increased presence of CD8(+) T cells and reduced presence of CD4(+) T cells, the main source of the TH2 cytokine IL4 in mammary tumors. Selective depletion of CD4(+) T cells or neutralization of IL4 in combination with radiotherapy phenocopied results following macrophage depletion, whereas depletion of CD8(+) T cells abrogated improved response to radiotherapy following these therapies. Analogously, therapeutic neutralization of IL4 or IL13, or IL4 receptor alpha deficiency, in combination with the chemotherapy paclitaxel, resulted in slowed primary mammary tumor growth by CD8(+) T-cell-dependent mechanisms. These findings indicate that clinical responses to cytotoxic therapy in general can be improved by neutralizing dominant TH2-based programs driving protumorigenic and immune-suppressive pathways in mammary (breast) tumors to improve outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen L Shiao
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Brian Ruffell
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology and Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - David G DeNardo
- Department of Medicine, Department of Pathology and Immunology, and Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Bruce A Faddegon
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Catherine C Park
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Lisa M Coussens
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology and Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon.
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21
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Sullivan AR, Pixley FJ. CSF-1R signaling in health and disease: a focus on the mammary gland. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:149-59. [PMID: 24912655 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-014-9320-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), also known as macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), is the primary growth factor regulating survival, proliferation and differentiation of macrophages. It is also a potent chemokine for macrophages and monocytes. Signaling via the CSF-1 receptor (CSF-1R) is necessary for the production of almost all tissue resident macrophage populations and these macrophages participate, via trophic mechanisms, in the normal development and homeostasis of tissues and organs in which they reside, including the mammary gland. The drawback of this close interaction between macrophages and parenchymal cells is that dysregulation of macrophage trophic functions assists in the development and progression of many cancers, including breast cancer. Furthermore, tumour cells secrete CSF-1 to attract more macrophages to the tumour microenvironment where CSF-1R signaling frequently drives the behaviour of these tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) to promote tumour progression and metastasis. Evidence is mounting that treated tumours secrete more CSF-1 and the increased recruitment of TAMs limits treatment efficacy. Thus, therapeutic targeting of the CSF-1R to inhibit TAM function is likely to enhance tumour response and improve patient outcomes in the treatment of cancer, including breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Renee Sullivan
- School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
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22
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Holton SE, Bergamaschi A, Katzenellenbogen BS, Bhargava R. Integration of molecular profiling and chemical imaging to elucidate fibroblast-microenvironment impact on cancer cell phenotype and endocrine resistance in breast cancer. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96878. [PMID: 24816718 PMCID: PMC4016150 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is known to play a key role in altering the properties and behavior of nearby cancer cells. Its influence on resistance to endocrine therapy and cancer relapse, however, is poorly understood. Here we investigate the interaction of mammary fibroblasts and estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cells in three-dimensional culture models in order to characterize gene expression, cellular changes, and the secreted protein factors involved in the cellular cross-talk. We show that fibroblasts, which are the predominant cell type found in the stroma adjacent to the cancer cells in a tumor, induce an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in the cancer cells, leading to hormone-independent growth, a more invasive phenotype, and resistance to endocrine therapy. Here, we applied a label-free chemical imaging modality, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopic imaging, to identify cells that had transitioned to hormone-independent growth. Both the molecular and chemical profiles identified here were translated from cell culture to patient samples: a secreted protein signature was used to stratify patient populations based on gene expression and FT-IR was used to characterize breast tumor patient biopsies. Our findings underscore the role of mammary fibroblasts in promoting aggressiveness and endocrine therapy resistance in ER-positive breast cancers and highlight the utility of FT-IR for the further characterization of breast cancer samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Holton
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Anna Bergamaschi
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Benita S. Katzenellenbogen
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- University of Illinois Cancer Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Rohit Bhargava
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- University of Illinois Cancer Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Departments of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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23
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Swierczak A, Cook AD, Lenzo JC, Restall CM, Doherty JP, Anderson RL, Hamilton JA. The promotion of breast cancer metastasis caused by inhibition of CSF-1R/CSF-1 signaling is blocked by targeting the G-CSF receptor. Cancer Immunol Res 2014; 2:765-76. [PMID: 25005824 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-13-0190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Treatment options are limited for patients with breast cancer presenting with metastatic disease. Targeting of tumor-associated macrophages through the inhibition of colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R), a key macrophage signaling pathway, has been reported to reduce tumor growth and metastasis, and these treatments are now in clinical trials. Here, we report that, surprisingly, treatment with neutralizing anti-CSF-1R and anti-CSF-1 antibodies, or with two different small-molecule inhibitors of CSF-1R, could actually increase spontaneous metastasis without altering primary tumor growth in mice bearing two independently derived mammary tumors. The blockade of CSF-1R or CSF-1 led to increased levels of serum G-CSF, increased frequency of neutrophils in the primary tumor and in the metastasis-associated lung, as well as increased numbers of neutrophils and Ly6C(hi) monocytes in the peripheral blood. Neutralizing antibody against the G-CSF receptor, which regulates neutrophil development and function, reduced the enhanced metastasis and neutrophil numbers that resulted from CSF-1R blockade. These results indicate that the role of the CSF-1R/CSF-1 system in breast cancer is far more complex than originally proposed, and requires further investigation as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Swierczak
- Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne; Department of Medicine, Arthritis and Inflammation Research Centre; and
| | - Andrew D Cook
- Department of Medicine, Arthritis and Inflammation Research Centre; and
| | - Jason C Lenzo
- Department of Medicine, Arthritis and Inflammation Research Centre; and
| | | | - Judy P Doherty
- Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne
| | - Robin L Anderson
- Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne; Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology; Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - John A Hamilton
- Department of Medicine, Arthritis and Inflammation Research Centre; and
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24
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Qin L, Wu YL, Toneff MJ, Li D, Liao L, Gao X, Bane FT, Tien JCY, Xu Y, Feng Z, Yang Z, Xu Y, Theissen SM, Li Y, Young L, Xu J. NCOA1 Directly Targets M-CSF1 Expression to Promote Breast Cancer Metastasis. Cancer Res 2014; 74:3477-88. [PMID: 24769444 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-2639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In breast cancer, overexpression of the nuclear coactivator NCOA1 (SRC-1) is associated with disease recurrence and resistance to endocrine therapy. To examine the impact of NCOA1 overexpression on morphogenesis and carcinogenesis in the mammary gland (MG), we generated MMTV-hNCOA1 transgenic [Tg(NCOA1)] mice. In the context of two distinct transgenic models of breast cancer, NCOA1 overexpression did not affect the morphology or tumor-forming capability of MG epithelial cells. However, NCOA1 overexpression increased the number of circulating breast cancer cells and the efficiency of lung metastasis. Mechanistic investigations showed that NCOA1 and c-Fos were recruited to a functional AP-1 site in the macrophage attractant CSF1 promoter, directly upregulating colony-simulating factor 1 (CSF1) expression to enhance macrophage recruitment and metastasis. Conversely, silencing NCOA1 reduced CSF1 expression and decreased macrophage recruitment and breast cancer cell metastasis. In a cohort of 453 human breast tumors, NCOA1 and CSF1 levels correlated positively with disease recurrence, higher tumor grade, and poor prognosis. Together, our results define an NCOA1/AP-1/CSF1 regulatory axis that promotes breast cancer metastasis, offering a novel therapeutic target for impeding this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Qin
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Ye-Lin Wu
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai
| | - Michael J Toneff
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Dabing Li
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine; Institute for Cancer Medicine and Department of Pathology, Luzhou Medical College, Luzhou, Sichuan, China; and
| | - Lan Liao
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Xiuhua Gao
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Fiona T Bane
- Endocrine Oncology Research, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jean C-Y Tien
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine; Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Yixiang Xu
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine; Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Zhen Feng
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai
| | - Zhihui Yang
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine; Institute for Cancer Medicine and Department of Pathology, Luzhou Medical College, Luzhou, Sichuan, China; and
| | - Yan Xu
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Sarah M Theissen
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Yi Li
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Leonie Young
- Endocrine Oncology Research, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jianming Xu
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine; Institute for Cancer Medicine and Department of Pathology, Luzhou Medical College, Luzhou, Sichuan, China; and
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25
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Strachan DC, Ruffell B, Oei Y, Bissell MJ, Coussens LM, Pryer N, Daniel D. CSF1R inhibition delays cervical and mammary tumor growth in murine models by attenuating the turnover of tumor-associated macrophages and enhancing infiltration by CD8 + T cells. Oncoimmunology 2013; 2:e26968. [PMID: 24498562 PMCID: PMC3902121 DOI: 10.4161/onci.26968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased numbers of tumor-infiltrating macrophages correlate with poor disease outcome in patients affected by several types of cancer, including breast and prostate carcinomas. The colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) signaling pathway drives the recruitment of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to the neoplastic microenvironment and promotes the differentiation of TAMs toward a pro-tumorigenic phenotype. Twelve clinical trials are currently evaluating agents that target the CSF1/CSF1R signaling pathway as a treatment against multiple malignancies, including breast carcinoma, leukemia, and glioblastoma. The blockade of CSF1R signaling has been shown to greatly decrease the number of macrophages in a tissue-specific manner. However, additional mechanistic insights are needed in order to understand how macrophages are depleted and the global effects of CSF1R inhibition on other tumor-infiltrating immune cells. Using BLZ945, a highly selective small molecule inhibitor of CSF1R, we show that CSF1R inhibition attenuates the turnover rate of TAMs while increasing the number of CD8+ T cells that infiltrate cervical and breast carcinomas. Specifically, we find that BLZ945 decreased the growth of malignant cells in the mouse mammary tumor virus-driven polyomavirus middle T antigen (MMTV-PyMT) model of mammary carcinogenesis. Furthermore, we show that BLZ945 prevents tumor progression in the keratin 14-expressing human papillomavirus type 16 (K14-HPV-16) transgenic model of cervical carcinogenesis. Our results demonstrate that TAMs undergo a constant turnover in a CSF1R-dependent manner, and suggest that continuous inhibition of the CSF1R pathway may be essential to maintain efficacious macrophage depletion as an anticancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brian Ruffell
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology and Knight Cancer Institute; Oregon Health and Science University; Portland, OR USA
| | - Yoko Oei
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Emeryville, CA USA
| | - Mina J Bissell
- Life Sciences Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, CA USA
| | - Lisa M Coussens
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology and Knight Cancer Institute; Oregon Health and Science University; Portland, OR USA
| | - Nancy Pryer
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Emeryville, CA USA
| | - Dylan Daniel
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Emeryville, CA USA
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26
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Cook J, Hagemann T. Tumour-associated macrophages and cancer. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2013; 13:595-601. [PMID: 23773801 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2013.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 05/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Our understanding of the complex roles and functions of tumour-associated myeloid cells has improved vastly over the last few years. Alternatively activated macrophages, TAMs, are an abundant part of solid and haematological malignancies and have been linked with progression, metastasis and resistance to therapy. Still, characterisation and TAM targeting is hindered by a lack of TAM specific markers, but advances in next generation technologies are rapidly increasing our understanding of the sheer diversity of myeloid differentiation and phenotypic regulation. These technologies help to shed light on the heterogeneous phenotypic states of myeloid cells within the tumour. Alternative approaches to influence the myeloid compartment within cancers surround inhibition of myeloid recruitment or 're-education' of the plastic TAM phenotype. Our knowledge continuously grows on how even 'established' therapies might influence the myeloid compartment within tumours. Now the promising results from elegant pre-clinical studies at first translate into the clinic and use combination therapies with myeloid inhibitors and standard chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Cook
- Centre for Cancer and Inflammation, Barts Cancer Institute, John Vane Science Centre, Charterhouse Square, London EC1M6BQ, UK
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27
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Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in human and pet tumours with special reference to breast cancer: a comparative review. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2013; 88:293-308. [PMID: 23768779 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2013.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Revised: 04/27/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tyrosine kinase receptors (TKRs) play a key role in tumour cell proliferation and survival since they are involved in endothelial cell activation leading to tumour neoangiogenesis. In particular, vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), stem cell factor receptor (c-KitR), and colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF-1) are overexpressed or constitutively activated in human and pet malignancies. A variety of small molecule inhibitors targeting specific tyrosine kinases (known as tyrosine kinase inhibitors or TKIs) have recently been approved, or are under investigation, for the treatment of human cancer. TKI application in animal cancer is however relatively recent. This review aims to illustrate the major aspects of tyrosine kinase dysfunctions, with special regard to human and animal cancer of the mammary gland, providing an update on the background of the anti-angiogenic and anti-neoplastic properties of TKIs in human and veterinary cancer.
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28
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Kushchayev SV, Kushchayeva YS, Wiener PC, Scheck AC, Badie B, Preul MC. Monocyte-derived cells of the brain and malignant gliomas: the double face of Janus. World Neurosurg 2012. [PMID: 23178919 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2012.11.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Monocyte-derived cells of the brain (MDCB) are a diverse group of functional immune cells that are also highly abundant in gliomas. There is growing evidence that MDCB play essential roles in the pathogenesis of gliomas. The aim of this review was to collate and systematize contemporary knowledge about these cells as they relate to glioma progression and antiglioblastoma therapeutic modalities with a view toward improved effectiveness of therapy. METHODS We reviewed relevant studies to construct a summary of different MDCB subpopulations in steady state and in malignant gliomas and discuss their role in the development of malignant gliomas and potential future therapies. RESULTS Current studies suggest that MDCB subsets display different phenotypes and differentiation potentials depending on their milieu in the brain and exposure to tumoral influences. MDCB possess specific and unique functions, including those that are protumoral and those that are antitumoral. CONCLUSIONS Elucidating the role of mononuclear-derived cells associated with gliomas is crucial in designing novel immunotherapy strategies. Much progress is needed to characterize markers to identify cell subsets and their specific regulatory roles. Investigation of MDCB can be clinically relevant. Specific MDCB populations potentially can be used for glioma therapy as a target or as cell vehicles that might deliver cytotoxic substances or processes to the glioma microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergiy V Kushchayev
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Yevgeniya S Kushchayeva
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA; Department of Surgery, Medstar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Philip C Wiener
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Adrienne C Scheck
- Neuro-oncology Research Laboratory, Division of Neurology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Behnam Badie
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Mark C Preul
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
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29
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Szomolay B, Eubank TD, Roberts RD, Marsh CB, Friedman A. Modeling the inhibition of breast cancer growth by GM-CSF. J Theor Biol 2012; 303:141-51. [PMID: 22763136 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2012.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Revised: 12/30/2011] [Accepted: 03/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
M-CSF is overexpressed in breast cancer and is known to stimulate macrophages to produce VEGF resulting in angiogenesis. It has recently been shown that the growth factor GM-CSF injected into murine breast tumors slowed tumor growth by secreting soluble VEGF receptor-1 (sVEGFR-1) that binds and inactivates VEGF. This study presents a mathematical model that includes all the components above, as well as MCP-1, tumor cells, and oxygen. The model simulations are representative of the in vivo data through predictions of tumor growth using different protocol strategies for GM-CSF for the purpose of predicting higher degrees of treatment success. For example, our model predicts that once a week dosing of GM-CSF would be less effective than daily, twice a week, or three times a week treatment because of the presence of essential factors required for the anti-tumor effect of GM-CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Szomolay
- Mathematical Biosciences Institute, The Ohio State University, USA.
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30
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Zwaenepoel O, Tzenaki N, Vergetaki A, Makrigiannakis A, Vanhaesebroeck B, Papakonstanti EA. Functional CSF-1 receptors are located at the nuclear envelope and activated via the p110δ isoform of PI 3-kinase. FASEB J 2011; 26:691-706. [PMID: 22084313 DOI: 10.1096/fj.11-189753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and its receptor (CSF-1R) are key regulators of macrophage biology, and their elevated expression in cancer cells has been linked to poor prognosis. CSF-1Rs are thought to function at the plasma membrane. We show here that functional CSF-1Rs are present at the nuclear envelope of various cell types, including primary macrophages, human cancer cell lines, and primary human carcinomas. In response to CSF-1, added to intact cells or isolated nuclei, nucleus-associated CSF-1R became phosphorylated and triggered the phosphorylation of Akt and p27 inside the nucleus. Extracellularly added CSF-1 was also found to colocalize with nucleus-associated CSF-1Rs. All these activities were found to depend selectively on the activity of the p110δ isoform of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). This finding was related to the p110δ-dependent translocation of exogenous CSF-1 to the nucleus-associated CSF-1Rs, correlating with a prominent role of p110δ in activation of the Rab5 GTPase, a key regulator of the endocytic trafficking. siRNA-silencing of Rab5a phenocopied p110δ inactivation and nuclear CSF-1 signaling. Our work demonstrates for the first time the presence of functional nucleus-associated CSF-1Rs, which are activated by extracellular CSF-1 by a mechanism that involves p110δ and Rab5 activity. These findings may have important implications in cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Zwaenepoel
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
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31
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Morandi A, Barbetti V, Riverso M, Dello Sbarba P, Rovida E. The colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) receptor sustains ERK1/2 activation and proliferation in breast cancer cell lines. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27450. [PMID: 22096574 PMCID: PMC3212567 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2011] [Accepted: 10/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in western countries. Colony-Stimulating Factor-1 (CSF-1) and its receptor (CSF-1R) regulate macrophage and osteoclast production, trophoblast implantation and mammary gland development. The expression of CSF-1R and/or CSF-1 strongly correlates with poor prognosis in several human epithelial tumors, including breast carcinomas. We demonstrate that CSF-1 and CSF-1R are expressed, although at different levels, in 16/17 breast cancer cell lines tested with no differences among molecular subtypes. The role of CSF-1/CSF-1R in the proliferation of breast cancer cells was then studied in MDAMB468 and SKBR3 cells belonging to different subtypes. CSF-1 administration induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation and enhanced cell proliferation in both cell lines. Furthermore, the inhibition of CSF-1/CSF-1R signaling, by CSF-1R siRNA or imatinib treatment, impaired CSF-1 induced ERK1/2 activation and cell proliferation. We also demonstrate that c-Jun, cyclin D1 and c-Myc, known for their involvement in cell proliferation, are downstream CSF-1R in breast cancer cells. The presence of a proliferative CSF-1/CSF-1R autocrine loop involving ERK1/2 was also found. The wide expression of the CSF-1/CSF-1R pair across breast cancer cell subtypes supports CSF-1/CSF-1R targeting in breast cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Morandi
- Dipartimento di Patologia e Oncologia Sperimentali, Università degli Studi di Firenze, and Istituto Toscano Tumori, Firenze, Italy
| | - Valentina Barbetti
- Dipartimento di Patologia e Oncologia Sperimentali, Università degli Studi di Firenze, and Istituto Toscano Tumori, Firenze, Italy
| | - Maria Riverso
- Dipartimento di Patologia e Oncologia Sperimentali, Università degli Studi di Firenze, and Istituto Toscano Tumori, Firenze, Italy
| | - Persio Dello Sbarba
- Dipartimento di Patologia e Oncologia Sperimentali, Università degli Studi di Firenze, and Istituto Toscano Tumori, Firenze, Italy
- * E-mail: (PDS); (ER)
| | - Elisabetta Rovida
- Dipartimento di Patologia e Oncologia Sperimentali, Università degli Studi di Firenze, and Istituto Toscano Tumori, Firenze, Italy
- * E-mail: (PDS); (ER)
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32
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Leukocyte complexity predicts breast cancer survival and functionally regulates response to chemotherapy. Cancer Discov 2011. [PMID: 22039576 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8274.cd-10-0028.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Immune-regulated pathways influence multiple aspects of cancer development. In this article we demonstrate that both macrophage abundance and T-cell abundance in breast cancer represent prognostic indicators for recurrence-free and overall survival. We provide evidence that response to chemotherapy is in part regulated by these leukocytes; cytotoxic therapies induce mammary epithelial cells to produce monocyte/macrophage recruitment factors, including colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) and interleukin-34, which together enhance CSF1 receptor (CSF1R)-dependent macrophage infiltration. Blockade of macrophage recruitment with CSF1R-signaling antagonists, in combination with paclitaxel, improved survival of mammary tumor-bearing mice by slowing primary tumor development and reducing pulmonary metastasis. These improved aspects of mammary carcinogenesis were accompanied by decreased vessel density and appearance of antitumor immune programs fostering tumor suppression in a CD8+ T-cell-dependent manner. These data provide a rationale for targeting macrophage recruitment/response pathways, notably CSF1R, in combination with cytotoxic therapy, and identification of a breast cancer population likely to benefit from this novel therapeutic approach. SIGNIFICANCE These findings reveal that response to chemotherapy is in part regulated by the tumor immune microenvironment and that common cytotoxic drugs induce neoplastic cells to produce monocyte/macrophage recruitment factors, which in turn enhance macrophage infiltration into mammary adenocarcinomas. Blockade of pathways mediating macrophage recruitment, in combination with chemotherapy, significantly decreases primary tumor progression, reduces metastasis, and improves survival by CD8+ T-cell-dependent mechanisms, thus indicating that the immune microenvironment of tumors can be reprogrammed to instead foster antitumor immunity and improve response to cytotoxic therapy.
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33
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DeNardo DG, Brennan DJ, Rexhepaj E, Ruffell B, Shiao SL, Madden SF, Gallagher WM, Wadhwani N, Keil SD, Junaid SA, Rugo HS, Hwang ES, Jirström K, West BL, Coussens LM. Leukocyte complexity predicts breast cancer survival and functionally regulates response to chemotherapy. Cancer Discov 2011; 1:54-67. [PMID: 22039576 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8274.cd-10-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1300] [Impact Index Per Article: 100.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Immune-regulated pathways influence multiple aspects of cancer development. In this article we demonstrate that both macrophage abundance and T-cell abundance in breast cancer represent prognostic indicators for recurrence-free and overall survival. We provide evidence that response to chemotherapy is in part regulated by these leukocytes; cytotoxic therapies induce mammary epithelial cells to produce monocyte/macrophage recruitment factors, including colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) and interleukin-34, which together enhance CSF1 receptor (CSF1R)-dependent macrophage infiltration. Blockade of macrophage recruitment with CSF1R-signaling antagonists, in combination with paclitaxel, improved survival of mammary tumor-bearing mice by slowing primary tumor development and reducing pulmonary metastasis. These improved aspects of mammary carcinogenesis were accompanied by decreased vessel density and appearance of antitumor immune programs fostering tumor suppression in a CD8+ T-cell-dependent manner. These data provide a rationale for targeting macrophage recruitment/response pathways, notably CSF1R, in combination with cytotoxic therapy, and identification of a breast cancer population likely to benefit from this novel therapeutic approach. SIGNIFICANCE These findings reveal that response to chemotherapy is in part regulated by the tumor immune microenvironment and that common cytotoxic drugs induce neoplastic cells to produce monocyte/macrophage recruitment factors, which in turn enhance macrophage infiltration into mammary adenocarcinomas. Blockade of pathways mediating macrophage recruitment, in combination with chemotherapy, significantly decreases primary tumor progression, reduces metastasis, and improves survival by CD8+ T-cell-dependent mechanisms, thus indicating that the immune microenvironment of tumors can be reprogrammed to instead foster antitumor immunity and improve response to cytotoxic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G DeNardo
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, USA
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Erez N, Coussens LM. Leukocytes as paracrine regulators of metastasis and determinants of organ-specific colonization. Int J Cancer 2011; 128:2536-44. [PMID: 21387299 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.26032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2010] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
It is now well recognized that tumor cell-host interactions regulate all aspects of cancer development. Amongst the various host response programs that facilitate primary cancer development, an emerging body of literature points to a critical role for leukocytes and their soluble mediators as regulating discrete events during primary tumor development and metastasis. This review focuses on the multiple aspects of leukocytes and their effector molecules as regulators of the metastatic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neta Erez
- Department of Pathology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
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Dietl K, Renner K, Dettmer K, Timischl B, Eberhart K, Dorn C, Hellerbrand C, Kastenberger M, Kunz-Schughart LA, Oefner PJ, Andreesen R, Gottfried E, Kreutz MP. Lactic acid and acidification inhibit TNF secretion and glycolysis of human monocytes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 184:1200-9. [PMID: 20026743 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
High concentrations of lactic acid (LA) are found under various pathophysiological conditions and are accompanied by an acidification of the environment. To study the impact of LA on TNF secretion, human LPS-stimulated monocytes were cultured with or without LA or the corresponding pH control. TNF secretion was significantly suppressed by low concentrations of LA (< or = 10 mM), whereas only strong acidification had a similar effect. This result was confirmed in a coculture model of human monocytes with multicellular tumor spheroids. Blocking synthesis of tumor-derived lactate by oxamic acid, an inhibitor of lactate dehydrogenase, reversed the suppression of TNF secretion in this coculture model. We then investigated possible mechanisms underlying the suppression. Uptake of [3-(13)C]lactate by monocytes was shown by hyphenated mass spectrometry. As lactate might interfere with glycolysis, the glycolytic flux of monocytes was determined. We added [1,2-(13)C(2)]glucose to the culture medium and measured glucose uptake and conversion into [2,3-(13)C(2)]lactate. Activation of monocytes increased the glycolytic flux and the secretion of lactate, whereas oxygen consumption was decreased. Addition of unlabeled LA resulted in a highly significant decrease in [2,3-(13)C(2)]lactate secretion, whereas a mere corresponding decrease in pH exerted a less pronounced effect. Both treatments increased intracellular [2,3-(13)C(2)]lactate levels. Blocking of glycolysis by 2-deoxyglucose strongly inhibited TNF secretion, whereas suppression of oxidative phosphorylation by rotenone had little effect. These results support the hypothesis that TNF secretion by human monocytes depends on glycolysis and suggest that LA and acidification may be involved in the suppression of TNF secretion in the tumor environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Dietl
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Sista AK, Knebel RJ, Tavri S, Johansson M, DeNardo DG, Boddington SE, Kishore SA, Ansari C, Reinhart V, Coakley FV, Coussens LM, Daldrup-Link HE. Optical imaging of the peri-tumoral inflammatory response in breast cancer. J Transl Med 2009; 7:94. [PMID: 19906309 PMCID: PMC2780997 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-7-94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2009] [Accepted: 11/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Peri-tumoral inflammation is a common tumor response that plays a central role in tumor invasion and metastasis, and inflammatory cell recruitment is essential to this process. The purpose of this study was to determine whether injected fluorescently-labeled monocytes accumulate within murine breast tumors and are visible with optical imaging. MATERIALS AND METHODS Murine monocytes were labeled with the fluorescent dye DiD and subsequently injected intravenously into 6 transgenic MMTV-PymT tumor-bearing mice and 6 FVB/n control mice without tumors. Optical imaging (OI) was performed before and after cell injection. Ratios of post-injection to pre-injection fluorescent signal intensity of the tumors (MMTV-PymT mice) and mammary tissue (FVB/n controls) were calculated and statistically compared. RESULTS MMTV-PymT breast tumors had an average post/pre signal intensity ratio of 1.8+/- 0.2 (range 1.1-2.7). Control mammary tissue had an average post/pre signal intensity ratio of 1.1 +/- 0.1 (range, 0.4 to 1.4). The p-value for the difference between the ratios was less than 0.05. Confocal fluorescence microscopy confirmed the presence of DiD-labeled cells within the breast tumors. CONCLUSION Murine monocytes accumulate at the site of breast cancer development in this transgenic model, providing evidence that peri-tumoral inflammatory cell recruitment can be evaluated non-invasively using optical imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhilesh K Sista
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Engineering, University of California, San Francisco, USA.
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O’Brien J, Schedin P. Macrophages in breast cancer: do involution macrophages account for the poor prognosis of pregnancy-associated breast cancer? J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2009; 14:145-57. [PMID: 19350209 PMCID: PMC2693782 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-009-9118-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophage influx is associated with negative outcomes for women with breast cancer and has been demonstrated to be required for metastasis of mammary tumors in mouse models. Pregnancy-associated breast cancer is characterized by particularly poor outcomes, however the reasons remain obscure. Recently, post-pregnancy mammary involution has been characterized as having a wound healing signature. We have proposed the involution-hypothesis, which states that the wound healing microenvironment of the involuting gland is tumor promotional. Macrophage influx is one of the prominent features of the involuting gland, identifying the macrophage a potential instigator of tumor progression and a novel target for breast cancer treatment and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenean O’Brien
- Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue Aurora, Denver, CO 80045 USA
- Program in Cancer Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue Aurora, Denver, CO 80045 USA
| | - Pepper Schedin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue Aurora, Denver, CO 80045 USA
- Program in Cancer Biology, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue Aurora, Denver, CO 80045 USA
- University of Colorado Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue Aurora, Denver, CO 80045 USA
- AMC Cancer Research Center, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue Aurora, Denver, CO 80045 USA
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Eubank TD, Roberts RD, Khan M, Curry JM, Nuovo GJ, Kuppusamy P, Marsh CB. Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor inhibits breast cancer growth and metastasis by invoking an anti-angiogenic program in tumor-educated macrophages. Cancer Res 2009; 69:2133-40. [PMID: 19223554 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-1405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-educated macrophages facilitate tumor metastasis and angiogenesis. We discovered that granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) blocked macrophages vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) activity by producing soluble VEGF receptor-1 (sVEGFR-1) and determined the effect on tumor-associated macrophage behavior and tumor growth. We show GM-CSF treatment of murine mammary tumors slowed tumor growth and slowed metastasis. These tumors had more macrophages, fewer blood vessels, and lower oxygen concentrations. This effect was sVEGFR-1 dependent. In situ hybridization and flow cytometry identified macrophages as the primary source of sVEGFR-1. These data suggest that GM-CSF can re-educate macrophages to reduce angiogenesis and metastases in murine breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim D Eubank
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Dorothy M. Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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A novel function of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor in hTERT immortalization of human epithelial cells. Oncogene 2008; 28:773-80. [PMID: 18997822 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2008.412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The receptor for macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) is a product of the proto-oncogene c-fms and a member of the class III transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor family. Earlier, we described increased mRNA expression of CSF1R in human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) immortalized human ovarian surface epithelial (IOSE) cell lines derived from a single donor. Here, we further describe that CSF1R is upregulated at both the mRNA and protein level in hTERT immortalized human normal OSE cells from two different donors and in hTERT immortalized human pancreatic ductal epithelial cells. CSF1R was not upregulated in hTERT immortalized epithelial clones that subsequently underwent senescence or in immortalized fibroblasts. Upon stimulation by the CSF1R ligand CSF1, the immortalized epithelial cell lines showed rapid internalization of CSF1R with concomitant down-modulation and colocalization of phosphorylated NFkappaBp65 with hTERT protein, hTERT translocation into the nucleus and the binding of c-Myc to the hTERT promoter region. Reducing the expression of CSF1R using short hairpin interfering RNA abolished these effects and also decreased cell survival and the number of population doublings under suboptimal culture conditions. The telomerase inhibitor GRN163L confirmed a role for telomerase in the cleavage of the intracellular domain of CSF1R. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that CSF1R may be a critical factor facilitating hTERT immortalization of epithelial cells.
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40
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Hammes LS, Tekmal RR, Naud P, Edelweiss MI, Kirma N, Valente PT, Syrjänen KJ, Cunha-Filho JS. Up-regulation of VEGF, c-fms and COX-2 expression correlates with severity of cervical cancer precursor (CIN) lesions and invasive disease. Gynecol Oncol 2008; 110:445-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ygyno.2008.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2008] [Revised: 04/23/2008] [Accepted: 04/24/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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27-Hydroxycholesterol: a potential endogenous regulator of estrogen receptor signaling. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2008; 29:510-4. [PMID: 18722677 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2008.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2008] [Revised: 07/14/2008] [Accepted: 07/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) are synthetic pharmaceuticals, the relative agonist and antagonist activities of which are not equivalent in all cells. Their discovery has raised the possibility that endogenous small molecules might exist that have similar properties and could have important physiological roles. In support of this hypothesis is the recent demonstration that the oxysterol 27-hydroxycholesterol (27HC) interacts with and modulates the transcriptional activity of both estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes and that the relative agonist and antagonist activity of 27HC is influenced by both cell and promoter context. Although there is limited information available on the role of 27HC in classical estrogen-responsive tissues, that which is available in animal models of cardiovascular disease and cellular models of breast cancer support a role for this ligand in ER signaling. These results provide an interesting potential link between cholesterol (and cholesterol metabolism) and ER function, the physiological and pathological importance of which remains to be determined.
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42
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Douglass TG, Driggers L, Zhang JG, Hoa N, Delgado C, Williams CC, Dan Q, Sanchez R, Jeffes EWB, Wepsic HT, Myers MP, Koths K, Jadus MR. Macrophage colony stimulating factor: not just for macrophages anymore! A gateway into complex biologies. Int Immunopharmacol 2008; 8:1354-76. [PMID: 18687298 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2008.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2008] [Accepted: 04/21/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF, also called colony stimulating factor-1) has traditionally been viewed as a growth/differentiation factor for monocytes, macrophages, and some female-specific tumors. As a result of alternative mRNA splicing and post-translational processing, several forms of M-CSF protein are produced: a secreted glycoprotein, a longer secreted form containing proteoglycan, and a short membrane-bound isoform. These different forms of M-CSF all initiate cell signaling in cells bearing the M-CSF receptor, called c-fms. Here we review the biology of M-CSF, which has important roles in bone physiology, the intestinal tract, cancer metastases to the bone, macrophage-mediated tumor cell killing and tumor immunity. Although this review concentrates mostly on the membrane form of human M-CSF (mM-CSF), the biology of the soluble forms and the M-CSF receptor will also be discussed for comparative purposes. The mechanisms of the biological effects of the membrane-bound M-CSF reveal that this cytokine is unexpectedly involved in many complex molecular events. Recent experiments suggest that a tumor vaccine based on membrane-bound M-CSF-transduced tumor cells, combined with anti-angiogenic therapy, should be evaluated further for use in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas G Douglass
- Biology Department, California State University Long Beach, 1250 Bellflower Blvd, Long Beach CA 90840, United States
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Pollard JW. Macrophages define the invasive microenvironment in breast cancer. J Leukoc Biol 2008; 84:623-30. [PMID: 18467655 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1107762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 329] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In many human cancers, the abundance of macrophages in the tumor microenvironment is correlated with poor prognosis. Experimental evidence for the causal relationship between macrophages and poor prognosis came from mouse models of breast cancer in which genetic ablation of macrophages resulted in attenuation of tumor progression and metastasis, and premature recruitment to hyperplastic lesions accelerated these processes. Malignancy is defined by the invasion of tumor cells into the stroma, a process that allows escape of these cells into the circulation and dissemination to distant sites. In this review, I argue that macrophages are recruited to the invasive front by expression of tumor-derived chemotactic factors and in response to the disruption of the basement membrane. At this invasive site, macrophages enhance tumor cell migration and invasion through their secretion of chemotactic and chemokinetic factors including epidermal growth factor (EGF). They promote angiogenesis by the synthesis of angiogenic factors including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and they remodel the extracellular matrix and in particular, regulate collagen fibrillogenesis. A combination of these factors provides a triple-whammy, as the more mobile and invasive tumor cells track along collagen fibers that are also anchored to blood vessels, which are fabricated at sites of invasion and through which macrophages potentiate tumor cell intravasation. All of these activities suggest that macrophage functions are significant targets for the generation of novel therapeutics that should improve the current cytotoxic armamentarium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Pollard
- Dept. Developmental and Molecular Biology, Center of Reproductive Biology and Women's Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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Tamimi RM, Brugge JS, Freedman ML, Miron A, Iglehart JD, Colditz GA, Hankinson SE. Circulating colony stimulating factor-1 and breast cancer risk. Cancer Res 2008; 68:18-21. [PMID: 18172291 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-3234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF1) and its receptor (CSF1-R) are important in mammary gland development and have been implicated in breast carcinogenesis. In a nested case-control study in the Nurses' Heath Study of 726 breast cancer cases diagnosed between June 1, 1992, and June 1, 1998, and 734 matched controls, we prospectively evaluated whether circulating levels of CSF1 (assessed in 1989-1990) are associated with breast cancer risk. The association varied by menopausal status (P(heterogeneity) = 0.009). CSF1 levels in the highest quartile (versus lowest) were associated with an 85% reduced risk of premenopausal breast cancer [relative risk (RR), 0.15; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 0.03-0.85; P(trend) = 0.02]. In contrast, CSF1 levels in the highest quartile conferred a 33% increased risk of postmenopausal breast cancer (RR, 1.33; 95% CI, 0.96-1.86; P(trend) = 0.11), with greatest risk for invasive (RR, 1.45; 95% CI, 1.02-2.07; P(trend) = 0.06) and ER+/PR+ tumors (RR, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.11-2.66; P(trend) = 0.04). Thus, the association of circulating CSF1 levels and breast cancer varies by menopausal status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rulla M Tamimi
- Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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DuSell CD, Umetani M, Shaul PW, Mangelsdorf DJ, McDonnell DP. 27-hydroxycholesterol is an endogenous selective estrogen receptor modulator. Mol Endocrinol 2007; 22:65-77. [PMID: 17872378 PMCID: PMC2194632 DOI: 10.1210/me.2007-0383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Selective estrogen receptor (ER) modulators (SERMs) are ER ligands whose relative agonist/antagonist activities vary in a cell- and promoter-dependent manner. The molecular basis underlying this selectivity can be attributed to the ability of these ligands to induce distinct alterations in ER structure leading to differential recruitment of coactivators and corepressors. Whether SERM activity is restricted to synthetic ligands or whether molecules exist in vivo that function in an analogous manner remains unresolved. However, the recent observation that oxysterols bind ER and antagonize the actions of 17beta-estradiol (E2) on the vascular wall suggests that this class of ligands may possess SERM activity. We demonstrate here that 27-hydroxycholesterol (27HC), the most prevalent oxysterol in circulation, functions as a SERM, the efficacy of which varies when assessed on different endpoints. Importantly, 27HC positively regulates both gene transcription and cell proliferation in cellular models of breast cancer. Using combinatorial peptide phage display, we have determined that 27HC induces a unique conformational change in both ERalpha and ERbeta, distinguishing it from E2 and other SERMs. Thus, as with other ER ligands, it appears that the unique pharmacological activity of 27HC relates to its ability to impact ER structure and modulate cofactor recruitment. Cumulatively, these data indicate that 27HC is an endogenous SERM with partial agonist activity in breast cancer cells and suggest that it may influence the pathology of breast cancer. Moreover, given the product-precursor relationship between 27HC and cholesterol, our findings have implications with respect to breast cancer risk in obese/hypercholesteremic individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn D DuSell
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
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Abstract
Hypoxia is an integral characteristic of the tumor microenvironment, primarily due to the microvascular defects that accompany the accelerated neoplastic growth. The presence of tumor hypoxic areas correlates with negative outcome after radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery, as hypoxia not only provides an environment directly facilitating chemo- and radio-resistance, but also encourages the evolution of phenotypic changes inducing permanent resistance to treatment and metastatic spread. Therefore, successful treatment of hypoxic cells has the potential to not only improve local control but also impact overall patient survival. Specific and selective targeting of hypoxic tumor areas can be achieved at all three steps of a gene therapy treatment: delivery of the therapeutic gene to the tumor, regulation of gene expression, and therapeutic efficacy. In this review the latest developments and innovations in hypoxia-targeted gene therapy are discussed. In particular, approaches such as hypoxia-conditionally replicating viruses, cellular vehicles, and gene therapy means to disrupt the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) signaling are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Greco
- Tumour Microcirculation Group, University of Sheffield, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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Dirkx AEM, Oude Egbrink MGA, Wagstaff J, Griffioen AW. Monocyte/macrophage infiltration in tumors: modulators of angiogenesis. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 80:1183-96. [PMID: 16997855 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0905495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of a tumor immune infiltrate in cancer progression and metastasis has been debated frequently. Although often considered to be associated with improved prognosis and leading to the enhanced survival of cancer patients, inflammatory cells have also been described to assist the tumor's capabilities to progress, proliferate, and metastasize. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), for example, have been shown to be symbiotically related to tumor cells: Tumor cells recruit TAMs and provide them with survival factors, and TAMs in turn produce a variety of angiogenic factors in response to the tumor microenvironment. This review will describe the composition of an immune infiltrate in tumors and the angiogenic and angiostatic properties of the cells present. Special emphasis will be on the angiogenesis-associated activities of TAMs. The development of immunotherapy and gene therapy using TAMs to mediate tumor cytotoxicity or to deliver gene constructs will be discussed as well. As immunotherapy has so far not been as effective as anticipated, a combination therapy in which angiostatic agents are used as well is put forward as a novel strategy to treat cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita E M Dirkx
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Maastricht, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Toulza F, Eliaou JF, Pinet V. Breast tumor cell soluble factors induce monocytes to produce angiogenic but not angiostatic CXC chemokines. Int J Cancer 2005; 115:429-36. [PMID: 15688373 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.20705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Tumor cells are known to interact closely with nontumoral infiltrating cells in order to grow and proliferate. Monocyte-derived cells constitute a major component of the tumoral infiltrate and a high level of these cells has been associated with increased tumor growth and poor prognosis in patients with breast cancer. For their growth and metastatic propagation, solid tumors are dependant on angiogenesis and accumulated evidences suggest that monocyte-derived cells could also play an important role in this phenomenon. However, the precise nature of proangiogenic factors secreted by these cells in breast carcinomas, and their direct influence on vessel formation, has not been determined. In the present study, we show that soluble factors secreted by breast tumor cells induce monocytes to produce a variety of proangiogenic CXC chemokines without secretion of angiostatic CXC chemokines. Using in vitro tubule formation in Matrigel, we demonstrated that the CXC chemokines secreted by MTSs (monocytes cultured with tumor cell supernatants) were able to induce microvessel formation. The profile of secreted CXC chemokines was characteristic for each tumor cell line or fresh tumor cells. This last result points out that a precise profiling of secreted proangiogenic factors inside the tumor, by tumor cells themselves or tumor-infiltrating monocyte-derived cells, is important for a precise targeting of therapeutic agents against neovascularization.
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Ichim CV. Revisiting immunosurveillance and immunostimulation: Implications for cancer immunotherapy. J Transl Med 2005; 3:8. [PMID: 15698481 PMCID: PMC549049 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-3-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2004] [Accepted: 02/08/2005] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Experimental and clinical experience demonstrates that the resolution of a pathogenic challenge depends not only on the presence or absence of an immune reaction, but also on the initiation of the proper type of immune reaction. The initiation of a non-protective type of immune reaction will not only result in a lack of protection, but may also exacerbate the underlying condition. For example, in cancer, constituents of the immune system have been shown to augment tumor proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastases. This review discusses the duality of the role of the immune system in cancer, from the theories of immunosurveillance and immunostimulation to current studies, which illustrate that the immune system has both a protective role and a tumor-promoting role in neoplasia. The potential of using chemotherapy to inhibit a tumor-promoting immune reaction is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine V Ichim
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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50
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Kluger HM, Dolled-Filhart M, Rodov S, Kacinski BM, Camp RL, Rimm DL. Macrophage colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor expression is associated with poor outcome in breast cancer by large cohort tissue microarray analysis. Clin Cancer Res 2004; 10:173-7. [PMID: 14734466 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-0699-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Macrophage colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor, which is abnormally expressed in invasive breast cancer. Small cohort studies have demonstrated that increased expression of CSF-1R is associated with ipsilateral breast cancer recurrence. Correlation with survival has not been reported. Our aim was to further evaluate the role of CSF-1R in breast cancer, by studying the expression of CSF-1R in a large cohort of clinical specimens. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Tissue microarrays containing 301 node-negative and 280 node-positive cases were used. Immunohistochemical staining was performed and correlated with overall survival, nodal status, and other clinicopathological data. RESULTS CSF-1R expression was strongly associated with nodal status. Of the node-negative cases, 114 (38.9%) stained positive for CSF-1R, whereas 189 (67.5%) of the node-positive cases expressed CSF-1R (P < 0.0001). CSF-1R expression is also associated with larger tumor size (P = 0.02). Positive staining was strongly associated with decreased survival (P = 0.0003). Among node-negative patients, CSF-1R expression was associated with decreased overall survival (P = 0.045), whereas among node-positive patients, it was not (P = 0.47). In multivariate analysis, CSF-1R was not independent of nodal status as a predictor of survival. CONCLUSIONS CSF-1R expression is a strong predictor of poor outcome in nonmetastatic breast cancer. It is significantly more frequently expressed in patients with nodal involvement. Among the node-negative patients, it has a stronger association with survival than among the node-positive patients. Our findings support other preclinical findings that CSF-1R may be involved in local invasion and metastasis. Thus, this receptor may be an effective target for therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet M Kluger
- Departments of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
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