Folic acid improves acetylcholine-induced vasoconstriction of coronary vessels isolated from hyperhomocysteinemic mice: an implication to coronary vasospasm

Role of circadian clock system in the mitochondrial trans-sulfuration pathway and tissue remodeling

Previous studies from our laboratory revealed that the gaseous molecule hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a metabolic product of epigenetics, involves trans-sulfuration pathway for ensuring metabolism and clearance of homocysteine (Hcy) from body, thereby mitigating the skeletal muscle's pathological remodeling. Although the master circadian clock regulator that is known as brain and muscle aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator like protein 1 (i.e., BMAL 1) is associated with S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase (SAHH) and Hcy metabolism but how trans-sulfuration pathway is influenced by the circadian clock remains unexplored. We hypothesize that alterations in the functioning of circadian clock during sleep and wake cycle affect skeletal muscle's biology. To test this hypothesis, we measured serum matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activities using gelatin gels for analyzing the MMP-2 and MMP-9. Further, employing casein gels, we also studied MMP-13 that is known to be influenced by the growth arrest and DNA damage-45 (GADD45) protein during sleep and wake cycle. The wild type and cystathionine β synthase-deficient (CBS-/+) mice strains were treated with H2S and subjected to measurement of trans-sulfuration factors from skeletal muscle tissues. The results suggested highly robust activation of MMPs in the wake mice versus sleep mice, which appears somewhat akin to the "1-carbon metabolic dysregulation", which takes place during remodeling of extracellular matrix during muscular dystrophy. Interestingly, the levels of trans-sulfuration factors such as CBS, cystathionine γ lyase (CSE), methyl tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEMT), and Hcy-protein bound paraoxonase 1 (PON1) were attenuated in CBS-/+ mice. However, treatment with H2S mitigated the attenuation of the trans-sulfuration pathway. In addition, levels of mitochondrial peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1-α (PGC 1-α) and mitofusin-2 (MFN-2) were significantly improved by H2S intervention. Our findings suggest participation of the circadian clock in trans-sulfuration pathway that affects skeletal muscle remodeling and mitochondrial regeneration.

Excess Folic Acid Supplementation before and during Pregnancy and Lactation Alters Behaviors and Brain Gene Expression in Female Mouse Offspring

Use of folic acid (FA) during early pregnancy protects against birth defects. However, excess FA has shown gender-specific neurodevelopmental toxicity. Previously, we fed the mice with 2.5 times the recommended amount of FA one week prior to mating and during the pregnancy and lactation periods, and detected the activated expression of Fos and related genes in the brains of weaning male offspring, as well as behavioral abnormalities in the adults. Here, we studied whether female offspring were affected by the same dosage of FA. An open field test, three-chamber social approach and social novelty test, an elevated plus-maze, rotarod test and the Morris water maze task were used to evaluate their behaviors. RNA sequencing was performed to identify differentially expressed genes in the brains. Quantitative real time-PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blots were applied to verify the changes in gene expression. We found increased anxiety and impaired exploratory behavior, motor coordination and spatial memory in FA-exposed females. The brain transcriptome revealed 36 up-regulated and 79 down-regulated genes in their brains at weaning. The increase of Tlr1; Sult1a1; Tph2; Acacb; Etnppl; Angptl4 and Apold1, as well as a decrease of Ppara mRNA were confirmed by qRT-PCR. Among these genes; the mRNA levels of Etnppl; Angptl4andApold1 were increased in the both FA-exposed female and male brains. The elevation of Sult1a1 protein was confirmed by Western blots. Our data suggest that excess FA alteres brain gene expression and behaviors in female offspring, of which certain genes show apparent gender specificity.

Ability of dietary factors to affect homocysteine levels in mice: a review

Homocysteine is associated with several diseases, and a series of dietary factors are known to modulate homocysteine levels. As mice are often used as model organisms to study the effects of dietary hyperhomocysteinemia, we collected data about concentrations of vitamin B₁₂, vitamin B₆, folate, methionine, cystine, and choline in mouse diets and the associated plasma/serum homocysteine levels. In addition, we more closely examined the composition of the control diet, the impact of the mouse strain, sex and age, and the duration of the dietary intervention on homocysteine levels. In total, 113 out of 1103 reviewed articles met the inclusion criteria. In the experimental and control diets, homocysteine levels varied from 0.1 to 280 µmol/l. We found negative correlations between dietary vitamin B₁₂ (rho = − 0.125; p < 0.05), vitamin B₆ (rho = − 0.191; p < 0.01) and folate (rho = − 0.395; p < 0.001) and circulating levels of homocysteine. In contrast, a positive correlation was observed between dietary methionine and homocysteine (methionine: rho = 0.146; p < 0.05). No significant correlations were found for cystine or choline and homocysteine levels. In addition, there was no correlation between the duration of the experimental diets and homocysteine levels. More importantly, the data showed that homocysteine levels varied widely in mice fed control diets as well. When comparing control diets with similar nutrient concentrations (AIN-based), there were significant differences in homocysteine levels caused by the strain (ANOVA, p < 0.05) and age of the mice at baseline (r = 0.47; p < 0.05). When comparing homocysteine levels and sex, female mice tended to have higher homocysteine levels than male mice (9.3 ± 5.9 µmol/l vs. 5.8 ± 4.5 µmol/l; p = 0.069). To conclude, diets low in vitamin B₁₂, vitamin B₆, or folate and rich in methionine are similarly effective in increasing homocysteine levels. AIN recommendations for control diets are adequate with respect to the amounts of homocysteine-modulating dietary parameters. In addition, the mouse strain and the age of mice can affect the homocysteine level.

Transient visual acuity loss after spine surgery in the prone position: a case report and literature review

Visual loss after spine surgery in the prone position is a disastrous postoperative complication because it is almost irreversible. Additionally, the optimal treatments and recommended professional guidelines for visual loss after spine surgery are deficient. A 43-year-old man developed visual loss after spine surgery in the prone position. Immediate ophthalmic consultation confirmed central retinal artery occlusion. Therefore, combined therapies were administered, including neurotrophy, anticoagulation, vasodilation, and adequate fluid infusion, followed by hyperbaric oxygen treatment. After active treatment, his visual acuity gradually recovered from 5 hours postoperatively and continued to improve thereafter. We reviewed the literature on postoperative visual loss with a focus on spine surgery in the prone position. Because the etiology of this complication is complex and has few effective treatments, the best method for its avoidance is to pay close attention to preventing it during surgery.

Excess Folic Acid Supplementation Before and During Pregnancy and Lactation Activates Fos Gene Expression and Alters Behaviors in Male Mouse Offspring

Periconceptional folic acid (FA) supplementation is recommended to prevent neural tube defects and other birth defects. After 20 years mandate food fortification with FA, serum concentration of folate and unmetabolized FA increased significantly in the North American population. But whether excess FA intake impairs neurodevelopment and behavior is still controversial. Here, we treated mice with approximately 2.5-fold (moderate dose of FA, MFA) or 10-fold (high dose of FA, HFA) the dietary requirement of FA 1 week before mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation, and examined behaviors in adult male offspring using open field test, three-chamber sociability and social novelty test, elevated plus maze, rotarod and Morris water maze. We found that early life MFA supplementation increased long-term body weight gain in adults, elevated anxiety-like behavior, and impaired social preference, motor learning and spatial learning ability without modifying motor ability and spatial memory. In contrast, HFA supplementation only induced mild behavioral abnormality. RNA sequencing revealed that FA supplementation altered the expression of brain genes at weaning, among which Fos and related genes were significantly up-regulated in MFA mice compared with control and HFA mice. Quantitative real time-PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blots confirmed the increase of these genes. Our results suggested that FA supplementation during early life stage affected gene expression in weaning mice, and exhibited long-term impairments in adult behaviors in a dose-sensitive manner.

A maternal high-fat, high-sucrose diet alters insulin sensitivity and expression of insulin signalling and lipid metabolism genes and proteins in male rat offspring: effect of folic acid supplementation

A maternal high-fat, high-sucrose (HFS) diet alters offspring glucose and lipid homoeostasis through unknown mechanisms and may be modulated by folic acid. We investigated the effect of a maternal HFS diet on glucose homoeostasis, expression of genes and proteins associated with insulin signalling and lipid metabolism and the effect of prenatal folic acid supplementation (HFS/F) in male rat offspring. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly fed control (CON), HFS or HFS/F diets. Offspring were weaned on CON; at postnatal day 70, fasting plasma insulin and glucose and liver and skeletal muscle gene and protein expression were measured. Treatment effects were assessed by one-way ANOVA. Maternal HFS diet induced higher fasting glucose in offspring v. HFS/F (P=0·027) and down-regulation (P<0·05) of genes coding for v-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 2, resistin and v-Raf-1 murine leukaemia viral oncogene homolog 1 (Raf1) in offspring skeletal muscle and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (Acaca), fatty acid synthase and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate 3-kinase, catalytic subunit β in offspring liver. Skeletal muscle neuropeptide Y and hepatic Kruppel-like factor 10 were up-regulated in HFS v. CON offspring (P<0·05). Compared with CON, Acaca and Raf1 protein expression levels were significantly lower in HFS offspring. Maternal HFS induced higher homoeostasis model of assessment index of insulin resistance v. CON (P=0·030) and HFS/F was associated with higher insulin (P=0·016) and lower glucose (P=0·025). Maternal HFS diet alters offspring insulin sensitivity and de novo hepatic lipogenesis via altered gene and protein expression, which appears to be potentiated by folate supplementation.

Role of microRNA29b in blood-brain barrier dysfunction during hyperhomocysteinemia: an epigenetic mechanism

Although blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity is maintained by the cross-talk of endothelial cells, junction proteins, and neurogliovascular network, the epigenetic mechanisms behind BBB permeability are largely unknown. We are reporting for the first time miR29b-mediated regulation of BBB, which is a novel mechanism underlying BBB integrity. We hypothesize that miR29b regulates BBB dysfunction by regulating DNMT3b, which consequently regulates the levels of metalloproteinases, that can eat up the membrane and junction proteins leading to leaky vasculature. In addition, 5'-azacytidine (5'-aza) was used to test its efficacy on BBB permeability. Blood-brain barrier disruption model was created by using homocysteine, and in the models miR29b was identified to be most affected, by using microRNA RT(2)-qPCR array. MiR29b mimics and inhibitors also confirmed that miR29b regulates the levels DNMT3b and MMP9. In hyperhomocysteinemic cystathionine-β-synthase deficient (CBS(+/-)) mice with high brain vessel permeability, miR29b levels were also high as compared with wild-type (WT) mice. Interestingly, 5'-aza improved BBB permeability by decreasing the expression of miR29b. In conclusion, our data suggested miR29b-mediated regulation of BBB dysfunction through DNMT3b and MMP9. It also potentiates the use of microRNAs as candidates for future epigenetic therapies in the improvement of BBB integrity.

Mitochondrial mitophagy in mesenteric artery remodeling in hyperhomocysteinemia

Although high levels of homocysteine also termed as hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) has been associated with inflammatory bowel disease and mesenteric artery occlusion, the mitochondrial mechanisms behind endothelial dysfunction that lead to mesenteric artery remodeling are largely unknown. We hypothesize that in HHcy there is increased mitochondrial fission due to altered Mfn‐2/Drp‐1 ratio, which leads to endothelial dysfunction and collagen deposition in the mesenteric artery inducing vascular remodeling. To test this hypothesis, we used four groups of mice: (i) WT (C57BL/6J); (ii) mice with HHcy (CBS+/−); (iii) oxidative stress resistant mice (C3H) and (iv) mice with HHcy and oxidative stress resistance (CBS+/−/C3H). For mitochondrial dynamics, we studied the expression of Mfn‐2 which is a mitochondrial fusion protein and Drp‐1 which is a mitochondrial fission protein by western blots, real‐time PCR and immunohistochemistry. We also examined oxidative stress markers, endothelial cell, and gap junction proteins that play an important role in endothelial dysfunction. Our data showed increase in oxidative stress, mitochondrial fission (Drp‐1), and collagen deposition in CBS+/− compared to WT and C3H mice. We also observed significant down regulation of Mfn‐2 (mitochondrial fusion marker), CD31, eNOS and connexin 40 (gap junction protein) in CBS+/− mice as compared to WT and C3H mice. In conclusion, our data suggested that HHcy increased mitochondrial fission (i.e., decreased Mfn‐2/Drp‐1 ratio, causing mitophagy) that leads to endothelial cell damage and collagen deposition in the mesenteric artery. This is a novel report on the role of mitochondrial dynamics alteration defining mesenteric artery remodeling.

e00283

This article is a novel report on the role of mitochondrial dynamics in mesenteric artery remodeling during hyperhomocysteinemia. The study can contribute significantly toward understanding the mesenteric mitochondrial mechanisms underpinning inflammatory bowel disease – a major clinical concern.

Coronary Vasospastic Angina: Current Understanding and the Role of Inflammation

Coronary vasospastic angina (CVsA) plays an important role in myocardial ischemia including stable angina, acute coronary syndromes, and sudden cardiac death. Inflammation status from either endothelium or adventitia can cause endothelial dysfunction. Thereafter, the endothelial dysfunction further induces vascular smooth muscle hypercontraction through the enhanced rho-kinase with the resultant clinical event. With better understanding of the interactions between inflammation, endothelium, and smooth muscle cells, we and other investigators have provided new insights into the basic pathophysiology of CVsA. Apart from calcium channel blockers, nitrates, and the rho-kinase inhibitor fasudil, anti-inflammatory treatment is helpful in some patients with refractory CVsA. Additional studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms of recurrent CVsA.

KEY WORDS

Anticoagulants; Deep vein thrombosis; Diagnosis; Treatment.

Folic acid supplementation attenuates hyperhomocysteinemia-induced preeclampsia-like symptoms in rats

Folic acid participates in the metabolism of homocysteine and lowers plasma homocysteine levels directly or indirectly. To establish a hyperhomocysteinemic pregnant rat model, 2 mL of DL-homocysteine was administered daily by intraperitoneal injection at a dose of 200 mg/kg from day 10 to day 19 of gestation. Folic acid was administered by intragastric administration at a dose of 20 mg/kg during the period of preeclampsia induction. Results showed that systolic blood pressure, proteinuria/creatinine ratio, and plasma homocysteine levels in the hyperhomocysteinemic pregnant rats increased significantly, and that body weight and brain weight of rat pups significantly decreased. Folic acid supplementation markedly reversed the above-mentioned abnormal changes of hyperhomocysteinemic pregnant rats and rat pups. These findings suggest that folic acid can alleviate the symptoms of hyperhomocysteinemia- induced preeclampsia in pregnant rats without influencing brain development of rat pups.

Salutary effect of NFκB inhibitor and folacin in hyperhomocysteinemia-hyperlipidemia induced vascular dementia

Dementia of vascular origin or vascular dementia (VaD) is considered as the second commonest form of dementia after Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the last ten years various researchers have reported a strong association of hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy), hyperlipidemia (HL) and dementia. This study investigates the salutary effect of natrium diethyl dithio carbamate trihydrate (NDDCT), a nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) inhibitor as well as folacin (Vitamin-B(9)) in HHcy-HL induced VaD. l-methionone was used to induce HHcy-HL and associated VaD. Morris water-maze (MWM) was used for testing learning and memory. Vascular system assessment was done by testing endothelial function. Biochemical estimations were performed to assess HHcy (serum homocysteine), HL (serum cholesterol), oxidative stress (aortic superoxide anion, serum and brain thiobarbituric acid reactive species and brain glutathione), nitric oxide levels (serum nitrite/nitrate) and cholinergic activity (brain acetyl cholinesterase activity). L-methionine treated animals have shown HHcy-HL, endothelial dysfunction, impairment of learning, memory, reduction in serum nitrite/nitrate levels and brain glutathione (GSH) along with increase in serum and brain thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS), and brain acetylcholinesterase activity. NDDCT, folacin and donepezil (positive control) significantly improved HHcy-HL induced impairment of learning, memory, endothelial dysfunction, and changes in various biochemical parameters. l-methionine induced HHcy-HL has caused VaD development in rats. NFκ-B inhibitors and folacin may be considered as potential agents for the management of HHcy-HL induced VaD.

Nutrition, epigenetics, and metabolic syndrome

SIGNIFICANCE

Epidemiological and animal studies have demonstrated a close link between maternal nutrition and chronic metabolic disease in children and adults. Compelling experimental results also indicate that adverse effects of intrauterine growth restriction on offspring can be carried forward to subsequent generations through covalent modifications of DNA and core histones.

RECENT ADVANCES

DNA methylation is catalyzed by S-adenosylmethionine-dependent DNA methyltransferases. Methylation, demethylation, acetylation, and deacetylation of histone proteins are performed by histone methyltransferase, histone demethylase, histone acetyltransferase, and histone deacetyltransferase, respectively. Histone activities are also influenced by phosphorylation, ubiquitination, ADP-ribosylation, sumoylation, and glycosylation. Metabolism of amino acids (glycine, histidine, methionine, and serine) and vitamins (B6, B12, and folate) plays a key role in provision of methyl donors for DNA and protein methylation.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Disruption of epigenetic mechanisms can result in oxidative stress, obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, and vascular dysfunction in animals and humans. Despite a recognized role for epigenetics in fetal programming of metabolic syndrome, research on therapies is still in its infancy. Possible interventions include: 1) inhibition of DNA methylation, histone deacetylation, and microRNA expression; 2) targeting epigenetically disturbed metabolic pathways; and 3) dietary supplementation with functional amino acids, vitamins, and phytochemicals.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Much work is needed with animal models to understand the basic mechanisms responsible for the roles of specific nutrients in fetal and neonatal programming. Such new knowledge is crucial to design effective therapeutic strategies for preventing and treating metabolic abnormalities in offspring born to mothers with a previous experience of malnutrition.

Autophagy mechanism of right ventricular remodeling in murine model of pulmonary artery constriction

Although right ventricular failure (RVF) is the hallmark of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), the mechanism of RVF is unclear. Development of PAH-induced RVF is associated with an increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Increases in oxidative stress lead to generation of nitro-tyrosine residues in tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMPs) and liberate active matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs). To test the hypothesis that an imbalance in MMP-to-TIMP ratio leads to interstitial fibrosis and RVF and whether the treatment with folic acid (FA) alleviates ROS generation, maintains MMP/TIMP balance, and regresses interstitial fibrosis, we used a mouse model of pulmonary artery constriction (PAC). After surgery mice were given FA in their drinking water (0.03 g/l) for 4 wk. Production of ROS in the right ventricle (RV) was measured using oxidative fluorescent dye. The level of MMP-2, -9, and -13 and TIMP-4, autophagy marker (p62), mitophagy marker (LC3A/B), collagen interstitial fibrosis, and ROS in the RV wall was measured. RV function was measured by Millar catheter. Treatment with FA decreased the pressure to 35 mmHg from 50 mmHg in PAC mice. Similarly, RV volume in PAC mice was increased compared with the Sham group. A robust increase of ROS was observed in RV of PAC mice, which was decreased by treatment with FA. The protein level of MMP-2, -9, and -13 was increased in RV of PAC mice in comparison with that in the sham-operated mice, whereas supplementation with FA abolished this effect and mitigated MMPs levels. The protein level of TIMP-4 was decreased in RV of PAC mice compared with the Sham group. Treatment with FA helped PAC mice to improve the level of TIMP-4. To further support the claim of mitophagy occurrence during RVF, the levels of LC3A/B and p62 were measured by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. LC3A/B was increased in RV of PAC mice. Similarly, increased p62 protein level was observed in RV of PAC mice. Treatment with FA abolished this effect in PAC mice. These results suggest that FA treatment improves MMP/TIMP balance and ameliorates mitochondrial dysfunction that results in protection of RV failure during pulmonary hypertension.

Folic acid improves inner ear vascularization in hyperhomocysteinemic mice

More than 29 million adults in the United States have been diagnosed with hearing loss. Interestingly, elevated homocysteine (Hcy) levels, known as hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy), are also associated with impaired hearing. However, the associated mechanism remains obscure. The collagen receptor such as discoidin domain receptor 1 and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) play a significant role in inner ear structure and function. We hypothesize that HHcy increases hearing thresholds by compromise in inner ear vasculature resulted from impaired Hcy metabolism, increased oxidative stress, collagen IVa and collagen Ia turnover. The treatment with folic acid (FA) protects elevated hearing thresholds and prevents reduction in vessel density by lowering abundant collagen deposition and oxidative stress in inner ear. To test this hypothesis we employed 8 weeks old male wild type (WT), cystathionine-beta-synthase heterozygote knockout (CBS+/-) mice, WT + FA (0.0057 μg/g/day, equivalent to a 400 μg/70 kg/day human dose in drinking water); and CBS(+/-) +FA. The mice were treated for four weeks. The hearing thresholds were determined by recording the auditory brainstem responses. Integrity of vessels was analyzed by perfusion of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) tracer. Endothelial permeability was assessed, which indicated restoration of HRP leakage by FA treatment. A total Hcy level was increased in stria vascularis (SV) and spiral ligament (SL) of CBS+/- mice which was lowered by FA. Interestingly, FA treatment lowered Col IVa Immunostaining by affecting its turnover. The levels of MMP-2, -9, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) and cystathione gamma lyase (CSE) were measured by Western blot analysis. The oxidative stress was high in SV and SL of CBS+/- compared to WT however the treatment with FA lowered oxidative stress in CBS+/- mice. These data suggested that hearing loss in CBS+/- mice was primarily due to leakage in inner ear circulation, also partly by induced collagen imbalance, increase in Hcy and oxidative stress in inner ear.

Chronic hyperhomocysteinemia causes vascular remodelling by instigating vein phenotype in artery

In the present study we tested the hypothesis whether hyperhomocysteinemia, an elevated homocysteine level, induces venous phenotype in artery. To test our hypothesis, we employed wild type (WT) and cystathionine β-synthase heterozygous (+/-) (CBS+/-) mice treatment with or without folic acid (FA). Aortic blood flow and velocity were significantly lower in CBS+/-mice compared to WT. Aortic lumen diameter was significantly decreased in CBS+/-mice, whereas FA treatment normalized it. Medial thickness and collagen were significantly increased in CBS+/-aorta, whereas elastin/collagen ratio was significantly decreased. Superoxide and gelatinase activity was significantly high in CBS+/-aorta vs WT. Western blot showed significant increase in MMP-2, -9,-12, TIMP-2 and decrease in TIMP-4 in aorta. RT-PCR revealed significant increase of vena cava marker EphB4, MMP-13 and TIMP-3 in aorta. We summarize that chronic HHcy causes vascular remodelling that transduces changes in vascular wall in a way that artery expresses vein phenotype.

Remodeling in vein expresses arterial phenotype in hyperhomocysteinemia

Accumulating evidences suggest that homocysteine, a non-protein amino acid, is involved in vessel remodeling and blood flow at elevated level, although the exact mechanism is unclear. Here we hypothesized that homocysteine affects vein in such a way that vein develops arterial phenotype. We tested our hypothesis employing wild type (WT, C57BL/6J) and CBS+/- (cystathionine β-synthase heterozygote, a genetic model of hyperhomocysteinemia) supplemented with or without folic acid (FA, a homocysteine lowering agent). Vena cava blood flow was measured by ultrasound transonic flow probe. Tissue collagen and elastin were detected by histochemistry. Super oxide was detected by dihydroethidium (DHE) staining. Expressions of MMP-2, -9, -12, TIMP -2,-4, were measured by Western blot. MMP-13, TIMP-1, -3, and vein and aortic markers, EphB4 and EphrinB2, respectively were measured by RT-PCR. The results indicated relatively low blood flow and significant increase of collagen/elastin ratio in the CBS+/- mice compared to WT. Although FA treatment did not alter blood flow in CBS+/- mice, the collagen/elastin ratio was normalized. A relatively increased content of super oxide and gelatinase activity was observed in CBS+/- vena cava vs WT and normalized by FA treatment. Western blot analyses showed significant increase in MMP-9,-12 and decrease in TIMP-2, -4 expressions. Expressions of MMP-13, TIMP-1 and -3, Ephrin B2 were increased, whereas EphB4 was decreased with reverse change in FA treatment, with no change in MMP-13 and TIMP-1. We conclude that chronic HHcy causes vascular remodeling that expresses arterial phenotype in vein.